FSC 101 PRINCIPLES OF SILVICULTURE (2+1)

Theory

Forestry – Definition, scope, intensive and multiple use forestry – Geographical

distribution and classification of world forests – History – Forest distribution in India –
The general problems of forest development in the developed and developing countries
– Reasons for diminishing forest cover in India – Deforestation, population, development
projects, conversion of forestry for non-forestry pourposes – Recent trends in forestry
development in the world – International forestry organization – Role of forests.

Silviculture – Definition, scope and objectives – Its relation with forestry –

Factors of locality – Site factors – Climatic factors – Topographic factors – Edaphic
factors – Site quality – Biotic factors – Bioclimate and micro climate – Pneumatophore –
Lignotubers – Tree form – Classification of forest – Forest types.

Practical

Visit to a forests and near by forests – Study of world forests and Indian forests
– Visit to dry deciduous forests and moist deciduous forests of the Nilgiris – Visit to
thorn forests and shola grassland ecosystem – Study of wet temperate forests – Visit to
a pure and mixed forests – Visit to tropical semi evergreen forests and wet evergreen
forests – Study of littoral and swamp forests – Visit to ICFRE / State Forest Institute –
Study of various organization in India – Visit to a range.

Lecture Schedule

1. Forestry – Definition – Scope of forestry – Intensive and multiple use forestry

2. Geographical distribution of world forests - Classification of world forests
3. History of forests and forestry in India
4. Forest distribution in India
5. The general problems of forest development in the developed and developing
countries
6. Reasons for diminishing forest cover in India – Deforestation, population,
development projects, conversion of forestry for non-forestry purposes
7. Recent trends in forestry development in the world
8. International Forestry Organization - its objectives
9. Role of forests - productive and protective roles
10. Definition and scope of Silviculture - objectives – Its relation with forestry
11. Factors of locality - Site factors - climatic factors - solar radiation – light
12. Climatic factors – temperature– frost - snow
13. Climatic factors - moisture and wind
14. Topographic factors – configuration – altitude – slope - aspect
15. Edaphic factors - soil formation - classification of soil - physical and chemical
properties of soil
16. Edaphic factors - soil structure - soil water relations - soil organic matter - soil
minerals
17. Mid Semester Examination
18. Site quality - classification of site quality
19. Biotic factors – plants – insects – wild animals – man
20. Interaction of locality factors - Bioclimate and micro-climate
21. Tree parts above the ground - crown and stem
22. Tree parts below the ground – r o o t – a dventitious roots – stilt roots –
Pneumatophore – Lignotubers – root nodules
23. Growth and development of trees – height growth
24. Diameter growth and growth in volume - Tree form - form of crown and
branching
25. Form of bole - epicormic branches - stool coppice - seedling coppice
26. Classification of Forests – Basis for classification – regeneration – a g e –
composition – objects – ownership – growing stock
27. Forest types - definition - basis of classification - system of classification of forest
types
28. Revised classification of forest types in India - Tropical wet evergreen forest -
Tropical Semi-ever green forests
29. Tropical moist deciduous forests - littoral and swamp forests
30. Tropical dry deciduous forests
31. Tropical thorn forests - Tropical dry evergreen forests – subtropical broad leaved
hill forests
32. Subtropical pine forests - subtropical dry evergreen forests
33. Montane wet temperate forests - Himalayan moist temperate forests
34. Himalayan dry temperate forests – sub-alpine forests - moist alpine scrub - dry
alpine scrub.

Practical Schedule

1. Visit to a forests – study of the beneficial role of forests productive and

environmental benefit
2. Visit to a nearby forests – Study of tree structure and form
3. Visit to a forests – study of tree components above ground characters (stem,
crown) and below ground characters (root)
4. Study of World Forests– distribution pattern of tropical and temperate forests –
forests distribution of the developed and developing countries
5. Study of Indian Forests – distribution pattern – classification of Indian Forests –
role of FSI and remote sensing agencies
6. Visit to dry deciduous forests of the Nilgiris – study of factors governing the
locality– species composition
7. Visit to moist deciduous forests of the Nilgiris – study of factors of locality –
forest sub types – species composition
8. Visit to thorn forests – study of factors of locality – species composition
9. Visit to Shola grass land ecosystem – study of succession –– types of succession
10. Study of wet temperate forests – study of factors of locality – species distribution
and composition
11. Visit to a pure and mixed forests – study of factors responsible for pure stands
formation – comparison of pure and mixed stands
12. Visit to tropical semi evergreen forests – study of species composition – factors
of locality
13. Study of littoral and swamp forests – species composition – factors of locality –
significance
14. Visit to a wet evergreen forests – study of species composition – factors of
locality
15. Visit to ICFRE / State Forest Institute – Study of various organization in India –
Their role in Indian Forestry
16. Visit to a Range – study of range activities – forest types – territorial
classifications
17. Final Practical Examination

Assignment

1. Inventory of species distribution in dry deciduous forest of western ghats

2. Inventory of species distribution in thorn forest of western ghats

References

Ahlywalia, S.K. 1992. Indian Forestry Scene. International Book Distributors, Dehra
Dun. 198 p.
Champion, H.G. Griffith, A.L. 1989. Manual of general silviculture of India. EBD
Educational Pvt. Ltd., Dehra Dun. 284 p.
Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth. 1968. A revised survey of the forest types of India.
Manager of Publication, Delhi.
Haig, I.T., M.A. Huberman and U. Aung Din. 1986. Tropical Silviculture. Periodical
Experts Book Agency, New Delhi. Vol. 1, p. 190.
Khanna, L.S. 1981. Principles and practices of silviculture. Khanan Bhandhu Publishers,
Dehra Dun. 163 p.
Rawat, A.S. 1991. History of Forestry in India. Indus Publishing Co., New Delhi. 337 p.
 INTRODUCTION

Silviculture has been defined variously authors. According to Toumey and

Korstian, ‘silviculture is that branch of forestry which deals with the establishment,

development, care and reproduction of stands of timber’. Indian Forest and Forest

Products Terminology, published by the Forest Research Institute and Colleges, Dehra

Dun, defines silviculture as, ‘the art and science of cultivating forest crops’. According to

Champion and Seth, ‘the term silviculture in English commonly refers only to certain

aspects of theory and practice of raising forest crops’.

Though from the above definitions, there appears to be some diversity in views

about the scope of silviculture, yet, in a broad sense, silviculture may be taken to

include both silvics and its practical application. According to Indian Forest and Forest

Products Terminology, silvics is ‘the study of life history and general characteristics of

forest trees and crops with particular reference to environmental factors, as the basis for

the practice of silviculture’. Thus silvics implies the study of trees and forests as

biological units, the laws of their growth and development and the effect of environment

on them. It explains the natural laws of their growth and development and their

behaviour in a given set of environmental conditions. Though a lost of information on

silvics has been collected by experiments, observations and experience of earlier

foresters, a lot more information is yet to be collected to explain the unsolved

complexities in the lives of trees and crops and the natural laws governing their

reproduction, growth and development.

The knowledge gathered in silvics is applied to the production and care of forest

crops. Thus the practice of silviculture is applied silvics. It deals with the procedure of

obtaining natural regeneration under the various silvicultural systems, artificial

regeneration of various species, and methods of tending young crops, whether natural

or artificial to help them to grow into forests of quality timbers and great economic

value.

Silviculture is not a purely biological science which has no relation with

economics. The foresters raise the forests and tend them for the service of the people,

but this is not to be done at a prohibitive cost. If forests are to be grown for the public

good, the methods of raising and tending them, developed on the basis of knowledge of

silvics, will have to be modified in practice by economic considerations.

Silviculture has been rightly described as an art and in this art intuition plays an

important part. In our own country as well as in the European countries, there have

been foresters who have advocated that, in case of doubt, the trees should be

approached for answer. Even today, the local flora is regarded to be the best guide

about the suitability of a species for a particular site. This is so because in nature there

are so many complex factors at play that it is only the vegetation that can give an

indication of the possible solution. But in order to understand the indication of the

vegetation or answer of the trees, it is necessary for the forester to be conversant with

their language and proficiency in this art comes by close continuous observation and

experience.

Objects of Study of Silviculture

The forests are as old as the universe; naturally they must have been growing

and renewing themselves. It is a well known fact that forest preceded civilization in

every part of the world. Management of the forests by the Forest Departments is a very

recent phenomenon. Even today, there are virgin forests in many parts of our country.

The question naturally arises as to what use is the study and practice of silviculture and
why should a forester take upon himself the work that the nature had been doing all

these years. The answer to this question is purely economic. The object study and

practice of silviculture is to produce more useful and valuable forests to meet our

multifarious requirements, than nature would do and that too, in a shorter time. The

objective with which nature produces vegetation are not identical with that of man. The

former produces a ‘jungle’, the latter a forest. The study of silviculture helps in:

1) Production of species of economic value – In the virgin forests, many of

the species are generally neither very valuable nor useful. Therefore, the production of

timber of species of economic value per unit area is low. If the forests have to produce

timber of industrial and economic importance, it is necessary to study and practice

silviculture so that we can produce only the desired species.

2) Production of larger volume per unit area – In the virgin forests, the

crop is generally either very dense or very open. Both these extremes are unsuitable for

quantitative production. If the crop is very dense, the growth of the individual trees is

adversely affected resulting in lesser timber volume production per unit area. On the

other hand, if the crop is very open, the number of trees, and consequently volume, per

unit area would be less. Besides this, a large number of trees die out as a result of

competition before reaching maturity. In the unmanaged forest, they are not utilized

and that volume of timber is lost. The study and practice of silviculture helps in raising

sufficient trees per units area right from the beginning to fully utilize the soil and as they

grow up, gradually reduce their number so that the requirement of light and food of the

remaining trees is met. In this way, while by raising sufficient number of trees, the

volume production per unit area is increased, the utilization of the excess trees as the

crop grows in age, prevents the loss and consequently further increases that volume.
 3) Production of quality timber – In the unmanaged forests, because of

intense competition, a large number of trees become crooked, malformed, diseased and

defective. This results in the deterioration of the quality of timber produced. If the

production of quality timber is to be ensured, knowledge of silviculture will be essential

so that the trees can be grown in disease free condition without adverse competition.

4) Reduction of rotation – In the virgin forests because of intense competition

in the dense parts, the rate of growth of the individual tree is retarded with the result

that it takes longer time to reach the size at which it can be exploited. This increases

the cost of production of timber. With the knowledge and practical application of

silviculture, the density of the crop can be properly regulated and consequently the rate

of growth increased and rotation reduced.

5) Raising forests in blank areas – In nature, a large number of areas,

potentially suitable for tree growth, occasionally remain blank due to certain adverse

factors inhibiting growth of trees. Silvicultural skills and techniques help in raising forest

in such areas.

6) Creation of manmade forests in place of natural forests – There may

be areas in natural forests which may not regenerate or reproduce themselves naturally

or where natural regeneration may be extremely slow and uncertain. In such areas, it

becomes necessary for the forester to take up the work of nature in his hand and raise

manmade forests in such areas. Success in this endeavour can be achieved only when

he has a good knowledge of the science and art of raising forest crops artificially.

7) Introduction of exotics – The indigenous species may not be able to meet

the commercial and/or industrial demands. In such areas, efforts are made to introduce

exotics which can grown in that particular locality and can supply the timber required by
industries, etc., in time. For example, the demand of paper is increasing very fast.

There is no indigenous species which may grow in a variety of sites easily and very fast

so that the demand of the paper pulp industry may be met. Therefore, a last growing

exotic, Eucalyptus hybrid, had to be introduced. This is possible only when the forester

is conversant with the silviculture of the exotics as well as climatic and soil conditions of

the localities in which they can be introduced.

Forestry, its Scope and Classification

Forestry is defined as the theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation,

conservation and scientific management of forests and the utilization of their resources.

It is an applied science which is concerned with not only the raising or cultivation of

forest crops but their protection, perpetuation, mensuration, management, valuation

and finance as well utilization of the forest products for the service of the nation. In

favourable localities, this science is applied to get maximum return and so it is called

intensive forestry which is defined as the practice of forestry with the object of obtaining

the maximum in volume and quality of products per unit are through the application of

the best techniques of silviculture and management. When forestry is practiced to

achieve more than one purpose, it is called multiple-use forestry which is defined as the

practice of forestry for the simultaneous use of a forest are for two or more purposes,

often in some measure conflicting, e.g., the production of wood with forest grazing

and/or wildlife conservation.

Based on the objectives, forestry is classified as under:

a) Protection forestry – Protection forestry is the practice of forestry with the

primary object of (1) protecting lands whether those upon which the forest is situated or

those at a distance from it, against wind and water erosion, (2) conserving water
supplies for human consumption, fish culture, etc., (3) reducing hazards from flood

damage to human life and property and (4) amelioration of adverse climatic effects.

b) Commercial forestry – Commercial forestry is the practice of forestry with

the object of producing timber and other forest products as a business enterprise. A

specialized aspect of commercial forestry is to meet the requirement of a particular

industry and in that case it is called industrial forestry which is defined as the practice of

forestry to sustain a given industrial enterprise, such as a saw mill, pulp mill, chemical

plant or a combination of these.

c) Social forestry – Social forestry is the practice of forestry on lands outside

the conventional forest area for the benefit of the rural and urban communities. Supply

of fuel wood to divert cow dung from village hearths to village fields, small timber for

rural housing and agricultural implements, fodder for the cattle of the rural population

living far away from the forest areas, protection of agriculture by creation of diverse

ecosystem and arresting wind and water erosion and creation of recreational forests for

the benefit of the rural as well as urban population are the basic economic and cultural

needs of the community without which there can be no improvement in the conditions

of their living. The application of forestry technology to achieve this social objective is

known as social forestry. This is new dimension recently added to the concept of

forestry and includes within its scope the following:

1) Farm forestry – Farm forestry is the practice of forestry on farms in the

form of raising rows of trees on bunds or boundaries of field and individual trees in

private agriculture land as well as creation of wind breaks, which are protective vegetal

screens created round a farm or an orchard by raising one at two lines of trees fairly

close with shrubs in between.

 2) Extension forestry – Extension forestry is the practice of forestry in areas

devoid of tree growth and other vegetation and situated in places away from the

conventional forest areas with the object of increasing the area under tree growth. It

includes within its scope the following:

i) Mixed forestry – Mixed forestry is practice of forestry for raising fodder grass

with scattered fodder trees, fruit trees and fuelwood trees on suitable wastelands,

panchayat land and village commons.

ii) Shelterbelts – Shelterbelt is defined as a belt of trees and/or shrubs

maintained for the purpose of shelter from wind, sun, snow drift, etc. They are

generally more extensive than the wind breaks covering areas larger than a single farm

and sometimes whole regions on a planned pattern.

iii) Linear strip plantations – These are plantations of fast growing species on

linear strips of land on the sides of public roads, canals and railway lines.

3) Reforestation of degraded forests

4) Recreational forestry – Recreational forestry is the practice of forestry with

the object of raising flowering trees and shrubs mainly to serve as recreation forests for

the urban and rural population. The main object is not to produce timber, grass or leaf

fodder but to raise ornamental trees and shrubs in some area to meet the recreational

needs of the people. This type of forestry is also known as aesthetic forestry which is

defined as the practice of forestry with the object of developing or maintaining a forest

of high scenic value.

RELATION OF SILVICULTURE WITH FORESTRY AND ITS BRANCHES

Silviculture and Forest Protection

Forest protection is defined as that branch of forestry which is concerned with

the activities directed towards the prevention and control of damage to forests by man,

animals, fire, insects, disease or other injurious and destructive agencies. A knowledge

of the injuries caused to forests by the local human and animal population, both

domestic and wild, insects, fungi and other adverse climatic factors and the preventive

and remedial measures to counteract them, is essential for effective protection of the

forests. Thus while silviculture is concerned with the raising of forest crop, forest

protection is concerned with its protection against various sources of damage.

Silviculture and Forest Mensuration

Forest mensuration is defined as that branch of forestry which deals with the

determination of dimensions, form, volume, age and increment of logs, single trees,

stands or whole woods. Thus while silviculture deals with raising of forest crop, forest

mensuration deals with measurement of diameter and heights of crop so produced,

calculation of its volume, age, etc., for sale and research to decide the best treatment to

be given to the crop while it is being raised.

Silviculture and Forest Utilization

Forest utilization is defined as the branch of forestry concerned with the

harvesting, conversion, disposal and use of the forest produce. Thus while silviculture is

concerned with the cultivation of forest crops, forest utilization is concerned with the

harvesting and disposal of crops so produced.

Silviculture and Forest Economics

Forest economics is defined as those aspects of forestry that deal with the forest

as a productive asset, subject to economic laws. Thus while silviculture is concerned

with the cultivation of forest crop, forest economics works out the cost of production

including rental of land and compound interest on capital spent in raising the crop, and

compares it with the sale proceeds to decide whether raising of the crop is economically

profitable or not. It is also the function of the forest economist to compare the cost of

production of a particular crop by different methods and then decide the most profitable

method of raising that crop.

Silviculture and Forest Management

Forest management has been defined as the practical application of the

scientific, technical and economic principles of forestry. Thus while silviculture deals

with the cultivation of forest crop, forest management manages that crop according to

the dictates of the forest policy. Silviculture deals with the techniques and operations

which result in the development of a forest. Forest management prescribes the time

and place where the silvicultural techniques and operations should be carried out so that

the objects of management are achieved.

The various branches of forestry are so closely related that the considerations of

one branch influence the techniques of the other branches. For example, silvicultural

techniques and operations are governed by the consideration of cost and modified to

suit the requirement of protection. Similarly, even the most profitable method of

exploitation or harvestings has to be given up if it is not compatible with silvicultural

techniques or the protective considerations.

Silviculture and Forestry

From the definition of forestry given earlier, it is clear that forestry has a very

wide scope and silviculture is only one of its branches. It has the same relation with

forestry as agronomy has with agriculture. While agronomy and silviculture deal with

cultivation of crops, agriculture and forestry deal not only with the cultivation of crops

but also with their protection, management, mensuration, marketing, etc. In short,

forestry is an applied science which has many branches. It may be compared to a

wheel. Silviculture is the hub of the wheel; it is neither the whole wheel nor is it the

only essential part. But, just as a cart wheel composed of several sections is supported

on its hub, similarly forestry and its other branches are supported on silviculture without

which there would be neither forestry nor its branches.

THE TREE AND THE FOREST

THE TREE

Tree is essentially a plant. Plants may be classified into the following three

categories:

i) Herb, ii) Shrub and iii) Tree

i) Herb is defined as plant whose stem is always green and tender and height is

usually not more than one metre. According to the span of life, it is called annual,

biennia or perennial.

ii) Shrub is defined as a woody perennial plant differing from a perennial herb in

its persistent and woody stem and less definitely from a tree in its low stature and its

habit of branching from the bare. A shrub is usually not more than 6 metres in height.
 Both these categories of plants supply, if at all, economic minor forest products

only. As they are very small in size, they do not produce timber but shrubs are used as

firewood.

iii) Tree is defined as a large woody perennial plant having a single well defined

stem (bole or trunk) and a more or less definite crown. A tree is usually more than 6

metres in height which can, according to species, be upto 127 metres. For example,

height of a Pseudosuga taxifolia tree in British Columbia has been measured to be 127.1

m and that of a Sequoia sempervirens tree in California has been found to be 112.1 m.

In India, the maximum height so far recorded is not more than 75 m. A scrutiny of the

record of heights of trees reveals that the conifers are taller than the broad leaved trees.

For example, while the maximum height of deodar has so far been recorded to be 73.2

m, those of teak and sal have been found to be only 58.5 m and 51.2 m respectively.

From the point of view of girth also, the Sequoia of California and the Eucalyptus of

Australia are the biggest because they have attained girths of 3574 cm and 2438 cm

respectively. In India the maximum girth so far recorded is 1646 cm, of a deodar in

kulu (Himachal Pradesh). The maximum girths of teak and sal are even less; these have

been recorded to be only 625 cm and 782 cm respectively.

Even from the point of view of age, tree has very much more longevity than the

shrubs and the herbs. For example, age of a Sequoia sempervirens of California has

been estimated to be more than 4000 years. In India, the age of a deodar tree, whose

section is preserved in the F.R.I. was found to be 704 years. Of the other Indian

species, maximum ages of teak and Dalbergia latifolia have been estimated to be 500

years and 600 years respectively. All trees provide timber from their stem and thick

branches while the thinner branches and hollow portions of stem are used a firewood.
 The tree can be divided into three parts:

TREE

Above the ground Below the ground

i) The crown iii) The root

ii) The stem

THE CROWN

The crown is defined as the upper branchy part of a tree above the bole. It is

formed by the foliage of the branches springing from the bole.

Shape and size – The shape and size of the crowns of trees vary with species

and the conditions in which they grow. Phoenix, Cocos and Borassus have crowns of

large leaves at the tops of cylindrical unbranched stems. This characteristic

distinguishes them from other forest trees which are generally much branched. In chir,

deodar and some other conifers, the lower branches are longer while the upper

branches are gradually shorter, giving the crown a conical shape. On the other hand,

the crowns of Mangifera indica, Azadirachta indica, Tamarindus indica, Madhuca indica,

etc., are spherical in shape. In Albizzia stipulata the crown is broad and flat topped

while in Abies pindrow it is more or less cylindrical. Except the palms, the crowns of

other trees are affected by the situation in which they grow. Normally, the trees

growing in the open have large branches and big crowns, while those growing in dense

forests have smaller branches and smaller crowns, because the branches on the lower

part of the bole die out gradually due to shade and the crowns are limited to the upper

part of the bole of the tree. The size of the crown depends upon crown development

which is defined as the expansion of crown measured as crown length and crown width.
 Mode of branching – The mode of branching varies with species and

sometimes, it is characteristic of the genus or the family. In most of the species, it is

absolutely unsystematic. In species with opposite leaves, the branches are also in

opposite pairs, though sometimes, this is visible only in the upper branches. Some

species, e.g., Bombax ceiba and Pinus wallichiana, with alternate leaves sometimes

develop branches in whorls.

The angle that the branches make with the stem, is also a specific character.

Though in most cases, the branches make an angle of 60o to 70o with the stem, yet in

some species, e.g., Populus nigra, Cupressus sempervirens, they make angles upto 20o

to 30 o. In quite a few species, e.g., old deodar and Dalbergia sonneratioides, the

branches are almost horizontal and form terraces of foliage, while in some other, e.g.,

Anogeissus pendula, Terminalia myriocarpa, leading shoot of young deodar and

branchlets and twigs of spruce, they are drooping downwards.

The size and the number of branches also varies with species. While in some

species branches are thin and twiggy in others they are thick. Some species have large

number of branches while others have only a few. The larger the number of branches

and thicker the branches, the more the wood is knotty; this is considered as a defect in

timber for several purposes.

Leaf colour, size and texture – Normally the mature leaves are green. The

shade of colour of the two surfaces of leaf is often different, the lower being often paler

than the upper. In addition to the difference in shade, the lower surface of the leaf is

sometimes covered with while (e.g., in Quercus incana) or rusty brown tomentum (e.g.,

in Quercus semicarpifolia). Some species have characteristic attractive colour in their

young leaves. For example, young leaves of Quercus incana are pinkish or purplish,
those of Acer caesium, Schleichera oleosa bright red, those of mango brown and those

of Cassia fistula dark red brown. In some species, leaves undergo a striking change in

colour before falling from the tree; such colours are called autumn tints and help the

forester in recognizing the species from a distance. For example, before falling the

leaves of Lannea coromandelica turn yellow, those of Anogeissus latifolia dark red or

bronze, and Sapium sebiferum beautiful red, purpose and orange. But quite a few

species, e.g., Elaeocarpus, Bischoffia are characterized by the presence of a few

conspicuous red leaves in almost all seasons.

Size of leaf depends upon rainfall and the species. As a rule, the leaves in low

rainfall areas are small while they are generally bigger in heavy rainfall areas. In some

species, e.g., teak, Dillenia, the leaves are bigger than the usual size of most leaves.

Leaves of most conifers are needle shaped and that is why they are called needles.

While the texture of leaves of some species is soft and membranous, it is hard

and coriaceous in others. The membranous and soft leaves of species, e.g., Grewia,

Ougeinia, Anogeissus, etc., on falling not only decompose rapidly and get mixed up with

the soil but hasten the decomposition of the hard and coriaceous leaves of species, e.g.,

sal and conifers which otherwise, decompose very slowly and create problem for natural

regeneration.

Leaf shedding – All trees shed their old leaves regularly and produce new

leaves. The new leaves may be produced while the old leaves are still present on the

tree or after they have fallen. On the basis of the presence or absence of old green

leaves at the time when the new leaves are produced, the trees and other plants are

classified into deciduous and evergreen. A tree is called deciduous if it normally remains

leafless for sometime during the year. In other words, it produces new flush of leaves
after all the old leaves have been shed and it has remained leafless for sometime. The

leafless period varies with species and situation. For example, sal is leafless for about a

weak or ten day while Hymenodictyon excelsum remains leafless for about six months.

Even in the same species different trees remain leafless for different periods due to their

situation. For example, in areas with abundant and well-distributed rainfall, teak

becomes nearly evergreen while in drier areas, it remains leafless for about six months.

Santalum album is exception to the above general rules; it becomes deciduous or

evergreen according to the habit of its host plant.

An evergreen is defined as perennial plant which is never entirely without green

foliage, the old leaves persisting until a new set has appeared. The persistence of the

old green leaves after the new leaves have been produced, depends upon species and in

the same species upon the environment. For example, in chir, the old leaves persist

from one year five months to two or three years but in deodar, they persist for five or

six years. On lower altitudes, due to higher temperature, chir, which is normally

evergreen, become deciduous.

The following are some examples of deciduous and evergreen trees:

Deciduous – Acacia catechu, Adina cordifolia, Ailanthus excelsa, Bombax ceiba,

Garuga pinnata, Holoptelia integrifolia, Lannea coromandelica, Melia azaderach,

Schleichera oleosa, Terminalia tomentosa.

Evergreen – Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Cupressus torulosa, Hopea

parviflora, Mallotus philippinensis, Mangifera indica, Michelia champaca, Picea smithiana,

Pinus wallichiana, Pterospermum acerifolium.

THE STEM

The stem is defined as ‘the principal axis of plant from which buds and shoots

are developed; in trees, stem, bole and trunk are synonymous’ but bole is ‘some times

used to refer to only lower part of the stem upto a point where the main branches are

given off, i.e., as a synonymous for clear or clean bole which is defined as the part of

the bole that is free of branches.

The shape and length of the stem varies with species and the situation in which

the tree grows. Some species have long and straight stem with relatively few branches,

while others have stem which are crooked and/or much branched. Normally the stem is

thicker at the base and thinner in the upper portion of the tree. The decrease in

diameter of the stem of a tree or of a log from the base upwards, is known as taper.

This is due to the pressure of wind which is centred in the lower one third of the crown

and is conveyed to the lower parts of the stem, increasing with increasing length. To

counteract this pressure, which may snap the tree at the base, the tree reinforces itself

towards the base.

The situation in which the tree grows affects the shape and length of the stem.

The trees growing in the open in plains and or ridges in hills have generally shorter and

conspicuously tapering stem as a result of wind pressure. On the other hand, the trees

growing in dense forest have relatively longer and more or less cylindrical stem. The

production of a long cylindrical bole is a desirable quality in trees because that increases

their timber volume.

In the earlier stages, thin branches generally cover almost the entire stem of a

tree but as the saplings grow into poles and trees, the lower branches fall off resulting

in a clean bole. But even in later life, sometimes, due to some adverse factors the clean
bole again develops small branches known as epicormic branches which are defined as

‘branches originating in clusters from dormant or adventitious buds on the trunk of a

tree or on older branch when exposed to adverse influence such as excessive light, fire

or suppression’. They are also caused by drought and that is why they are generally

found on stag-headed trees.

Normally trees have one stem but sometimes they are forked and have more

than one leader. From the point of view of timber production, this is not a desirable

quality because the portion below the point of forking is either wasted or produces small

sized timber and there is always a danger of one of the leaders being broken down in

wind storms.

In some species, e.g., Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Bombax ceiba, Pterocarpus

dalbergiodes, Terminalia myriocarpa, etc., buttresses are formed in the basal portion of

the stem. They are out growths formed usually vertically above the lateral roots and

thus connect the base of the stem with roots. They are generally associated with the

absence of long taproot due to either shallow soil resulting from the presence of rock a

little below the surface or badly aerated and infertile subsoil. Buttress formation,

sometimes, extends upto 5 m and therefore the lower portion of the stem becomes

useless, unless the buttresses are very small. The felling of buttressed trees present

great difficulties as the felling has to be done above buttress formation.

In some other species e.g., teak, the lower portion of the stem is characterized

by fluting which is defined as ‘irregular involutions and swellings on the bole just above

the basal swell’. As fluting decreases the basal volume considerably, it is considered to

be a serious defect. It is attributed to epicormic branches, insect attack, unsuitable site

or faulty thinnings; no definite reason is so far known.

THE ROOT

The root is that portion of the plant which develops inside the soil and away from

light. Unlike stem it does not produce leaves, flowers or fruits. The roots of trees

support them firmly to the ground, absorb soil moisture containing mineral salts and

send it to stem for onward transmission to the leaves. They, generally, comprise of two

kinds of roots, viz., the taproot and the lateral roots.

The tap roots is the primary descending root formed by direct prolongation of

the radicle of the embryo. In trees, it is the main axis of the large root system and

descends vertically below the stem. It is conical in shape, develops towards the

permanent moisture in the soil and sometimes, attains considerably length.

The lateral roots are the roots that arise from the taproot and spread laterally to

support the tree. As the taproot grows, it develops lateral roots which are branched and

re-branched and ultimately form rootlets. The ends of the rootlets are covered with fine

hairs, called the root hairs. These root hairs spread in the soil particles, and absorb soil

moisture to translocate it to stem and leaves where the food is manufactured. The

taproot and the lateral roots including their branches upto root hairs, form the root

system of the tree. The lateral roots are generally confined to the area covered by the

crowns of trees but sometimes they go far beyond. For example, the lateral roots of

trees growing on the edge of a forest go far into the cultivated fields and adversely

affect the agricultural crops. Even in the forest, they sometimes go beyond the area of

the crowns of trees and may form root grafts with the roots of other trees in dense

forest.

The roots of the seedlings develop very fast and sometimes reach one metre

depth in one season in favourable localities. As the roots develop much faster than the
shoot in early stages, it is not possible to estimate the length of the root from that of the

shoot. Early development of taproot to such a depth where the moisture in the soil is

more or less permanent protects the plants against post monsoon and summer drought.

The roots, generally, require a well aerated soil for their development.

Therefore, the roots of may species, e.g. sal, are killed by rise in the water table, though

those of some species may adjust themselves according to the changed conditions.

Similarly, when a layer of silt is deposited on top of the soil, some trees die but some

others develop roots from the covered portion of the stem and are not killed.

On the basis of the depth of the root system the trees are classified into shallow-

rooted and deep rooted trees. Shallow rooted trees are those whose root system does

not extend far enough into the soil to save them from relatively easy wind throw. The

deep rooted trees, on the other hand, are those whose roots go very deep in the soil.

The trees, which develop a long taproot and large lateral roots are not easily uprooted

by wind and are called wind firm.

Adventitious Roots

Adventitious roots are the roots produced from parts of the plants other than the

radicle or its subdivision. In bamboos, the roots are produced from the underground

stem called rhizome and are therefore adventitious. These roots are thin and usually

undivided. They do not show secondary thickening and are replaced by new roots when

the older ones die. The following kinds of adventitious roots are commonly found in

trees:

1) Prop-roots – Ficus bengalensis produces from its branches adventitious

roots which remain suspended in the air till they reach the ground. On reaching the
ground, they enter it and get fixed up in the soil. As they support thick branches of the

tree, they are called prop-roots.

2) Stilt roots – Stilt roots are adventitious roots which emerge from the butt of

a tree above ground level, so that the tree appears as if supported on flying buttresses,

e.g., mangroves of the genus Rhizophora.

3) Pneumatophore – Pneumatophore is a knee shaped or spike like projection

of the roots of swamp tree, e.g., Heretiera, Bruguiera, enabling the submerged roots to

obtain oxygen.

Mycorrhiza

In certain, species, the fine extremities of rootlets behind the root cap, instead of

being covered with root hairs are found to be invaded by specific non-pathogenic soil

fungi. The invasion results in the formation of composite structures which are neither

roots nor fungi. This composite structure or invaded rootlet is called mycorrhiza (plural

mycorrhizae). Thus mycorrhiza may be defined as a structure produced from the

combination of the modified rootlet with fungal tissue.

Types of mycorrhizae – Mycorrhizae are broadly classified as ectotrophic,

endotrophic and ectendotrophic. In the ectotrophic type, fungi usually belong to

Basidiomycetes. They form a mantle over the rootlets and the hyphae usually radiate

from the mantle. The fungi enter the cortex, thus permitting the hyphae to grow in the

intercellular space. In the endotrophic type, the fungi usually belong to Phycomycetes.

They are present in the form of individual hyphae on the root surface and penetrate the

cells of the cortex. Roots, sometimes, become beaded. In the ectendotrophic type,

both kinds of above mentioned infections are combined, i.e., a condition where typical

ectotrophic condition is accompanied by intracellular penetration of the hyphae.

 Occurrence – Mycorrhiza is found in Pinus, Picea, Abies, Cedrus, Cupressus,

Taxus, Populus, Aurocaria, Salix, Podocarpus and Eucalyptus, etc.

Importance of mycorrhiza in forestry – Though the exact role of mycorrhiza

is still not understood, it is believed to perform the following functions:

i) Absorbs soil moisture by increasing the area of absorbing surface

ii) Helps in the absorption of minerals, e.g., phosphorus, copper, iron, which are in

short supply and can not be absorbed by non-mycorrhizal roots and

iii) Fixes nitrogen from raw humus

Because of these functions, mycorrhiza is very beneficial to tree growth and is

considered essential for the growth and survival of several species, especially the

exotics. A large number of plantations in many countries have failed due to failure to

introduce mycorrhiza. With the large scale introduction of exotics in India, it is likely to

plant a dominant role in their establishment.

Introduction of Mycorrhiza – Though, sometimes, mycorrhiza develops itself

in new soils without being introduced by foresters as seen in the successful Eucalyptus

plantations in India and chir pine plantations in sal forests of M.P., yet it is advisable to

introduce it before planting any exotic. Mycorrhiza may be introduced by the following

ways:

i) Mixing soil brought from the natural good quality forests of the species. The soil

should be neither dry nor very moist but should contain adequate moisture as

well as mycorrhizal roots. It should be brought in sealed polythene bags and

applied to the site as early as possible, but not later than 10 days after collection

to ensure viability of mycorrhiza.

ii) Interplanting imported seedlings with mycorrhizae in nursery beds

Lignotubers

Lignotubers are underground swellings found on most species of Eucalyptus.

They are actually modified stems developed from double accessory buds in the axils of

cotyledons. They serve the purpose of food storage and regeneration because they

bear numerous buds, which become active and produce shoot, if the tree is injured, cut

down or burnt.

Root Nodules

The roots of a large number of plants and trees have small nodules. They

contain bacterial (Rhizobium) in large numbers. The bacteria present in the soil, enters

the root through the root hairs in the form of bacterial filament. After entering the root,

the filament branches rapidly and reaches inner cortex where it causes active cell

division resulting in the formation of nodules. These nodules vary greatly in shape and

size. The bacteria living in the root nodule (and not those in the soil) help in fixation of

free nitrogen from the air in the form of nitrates. The plants utilize the nitrates and in

return, provide the bacteria with carbohydrates. Thus a mutually beneficial relationship,

called symbiosis, is established.

Root nodules are found in about 65 species of about 8 families, the commonest

being Leguminosae in which they are found in Dalbergia, Bauhinia, Acacia, Albizzia,

Erythrina, Tephrosia, Crotolaria, Indigofera a n d Leucaena. They are, however, not

found in Cassia tora. Besides Rhizobium there are some other nitrogen fixing and root

nodule forming bacteria also.

Growth and Development of Trees

The tree starts its life as a small seedling which grows by increase in length and

diameter of its shoot and root. As the shoot grows upwards, it develops branches and
foliage. The root grows downward and develops lateral roots and its branches. Thus

the seedlings grows not only by increase in the size of its shoot and root but also by the

formation of new organs. The increase in size is commonly referred to as growth or

increment and the formation of new organs is referred to as development. Thus both

growth and development are responsible for the change that takes place in a small

seedling growing into a tree.

Various stages of growth and development of a plant are designated as follows:

i) Seedling – Seedling is a plant grown from seed till it attains a height of about

one metre, i.e., before it reaches the sapling stage.

ii) Sapling – Sapling is defined as a young tree from the time when it reaches

about one metre (3 feet) in height till the lower branches begin to fall. A sapling is

characterized by the absence of dead bark and its vigorous height growth.

iii) Pole – Pole is defined as a young tree from the time when the lower

branches begin to fall off to the time when the rate of height growth begins to slow

down and crown expansion becomes marked.

iv) Tree – Tree is the stage of growth beyond the pole stage when the rate of

height growth begins to slow down and crown expansion becomes marked.

As the plant grows, certain changes occur in its morphology. The plant sheds its

leaves and produces new leaves every year. It produces flowers and seeds after a

certain age and sheds or disperses them on ripening. These changes are important

events in the life of plant and in order to know the silviculture of a particular species, it

is necessary to study such changes in the members of that species. The science that

deals with the study of these changes in plants is known as phenology; it is defined as

the science that deals with the time of appearance of characteristic periodic events such
as leaf shedding, etc., in the life cycle of organisms in nature especially as those events

are influenced by environmental factors.

These events do not occur on the same date every year. The variation in time of

these periodic events every year can, in most cases, be correlated with changes in the

climatic factors but it also depends upon the species. For example, if the weather has

unusually warmed up a little before leaf fall or at the time of fruiting, leaf fall is hastened

and fruit ripening is quickened. But if that occurs before the normal time of leafing or

flowering, these events are delayed. Heavier rainfall in Albizzia procera and sal, but

they appear to delay new leafing and flowering. Fruit ripening in Dalbergia sissoo and

Mangifera indica does not appear to be affected by the changes in climatic factors.

In addition to these morphological changes, some anatomical changes also take

place in the plants annually and these results in the growth. The growth in trees is

confined only in certain regions, called the growing points. These consist of

meristematic cells which have the capacity to divide and give rise to new cells. The

meristematic cells found in the apices of shoot and root are called apical meristems and

they are responsible for the growth in height of shoot and length of root. Besides these

apical meristems, the trees have primary lateral meristem in the form of cylindrical

sheath which is responsible for diameter growth of shoot and root and secondary lateral

meristem responsible for the growth of bark.

As the plant grows, its physiological activity increases and this requires division

of labour; to achieve this, a growing plant develops various kinds of tissues which

perform diverse functions.

The growth in plants is not uniform throughout the year. Generally, the periods

of rapid growth are preceded and followed by periods of slow growth, thereby creating
difference between the wood formed during the two periods. This results in the

formation of distinct annual rings in some species. The number of annual rings counted

on stump, when added with the number of years the tree took to grow to stump height

gives the age of the tree at the time of felling. The width of the rings indicates the rate

of growth, fast growth being indicated by rings wider than 5 mm. Width of growth rings

has considerably effect on the strength properties of wood.

A forester is interested in height and diameter growth of trees as both these

affect the volume growth. In addition, he is interested in quality of timber. Therefore,

they need a more detailed description.

Height Growth

Height growth in trees varies with age, species and in the same species with the

quality of site on which they grow. Thus the forester has very little control over the

height growth of trees. In terms of age, three distinct stages are usually distinguished,

viz., the juvenile or the seedling stage the sapling and pole stages of young ages, and

finally the tree stage past the middle age of the tree. During the juvenile stage, the

growth varies from very slow to fast according to species. For example, height growth

of Abies pindrow seedlings is very slow. Even in nursery condition, they attain a height

of only about 30 cm in 4 years. Deodar seedlings grow slightly faster as they attain this

height in about 2½ years. Amongst the Western Himalayan conifers, kail seedlings are

faster grown. In the tropical zone sal seedlings are slow fastest grown. In the tropical

zone sal seedlings are slow grown and continue to die back for several years. Teak on

the other hand, is faster grown in juvenile stages. The rate of growth in juvenile stage

is a very important factor in the survival of the seedlings. After the juvenile stage, most

of the trees grow fast and attain maximum height for that species and site by the time
they reach the middle age; after that the rate of growth falls again and a time comes

after which there is no height growth.

Diameter Growth

Diameter growth of trees is of great importance as it affects the volume of wood

produced. It has an added importance for the forester because while he can not

influence the height growth of trees, he can influence its diameter growth by silvicultural

treatment.

The tree grows in diameter right from the juvenile stage of its life; but the

growth in diameter upto pole stage is rather slow as the tree concentrates mainly on

height growth upto this stage. It is only when the tree has reached the maximum

height that it starts increase in diameter with speed. This continues till the tree reaches

maturity, when the rate of diameter growth also starts falling.

The diameter growth in trees is affected by a variety of factors such as:

i) Size of the tree – The smaller the tree, the lesser the diameter increment.

ii) Climate – T he trees on the warmer sites put on faster diameter increment

than those of the same species on colder sites. Rainfall also affects the diameter

growth. A warmer season results in higher diameter increment only when there is

adequate moisture.

iii) Soil – The diameter growth is influenced by soil quality, soil moisture and

nutrient content.

iv) Production of seed – The growth in diameter is retarded in years of heavy

seed production because the entire food material is used up in seed production.

v) Injuries – Defoliation by insects, insect attacks and fires have an adverse

effect on diameter growth.

 vi) Density – In dense forests, the growth in diameter of individual trees is

retarded. As soon as the crop is opened up, the diameter growth becomes faster.

As already mentioned, the growth in diameter of the tree is not uniform

throughout its height; it is maximum near the base and least at the tip. In the crown

portion, the diameter growth is maximum at its base and decreases rapidly towards the

tip to give it a conical shape. In the stem portion, the decrease from the base to the top

is very gradual with the result that the diameter at the top of the stem is generally

about half the diameter at the base.

The taper of the tree is characteristic of each species and in the some species it

varies with age, density of the stand and site. It is described by the term form. The

typical form of a tree can be seen in the open on the best quality sites. Age has a great

effect on form; the taper is greatest in young age and reduces gradually towards the old

age or maturity. The denser the stand, the greater the tree bole approaches the

cylindrical form.

Growth in Volume

The growth in volume is a function of height, diameter and the form of the tree.

Therefore, greater the height and diameter and lesser the taper, the greater the volume

of the tree.

Growth of Trees in Quality

The object of silviculture is not served just by producing trees of large

dimensions; if the timber contained in them is not of good quality, it would not only

result in lesser merchantable timber but also lesser economic return. Therefore, the aim

of silviculture regarding producing trees containing large volume of timber is modified to

produce large quantity of timber of high quality. Thus the growth of tree in quality is as

great a concern of the forester as the production of larger volume.

The quality of timber in trees depends upon size, straightness, taper, knots,

other defects and strength. The larger the size of timber, the lesser the wastage and

greater the volume. If the tree is straight and not crooked, longer sized timber can be

produced with minimum of wastage. The quality of straightness should not be confined

to the bole but also to fibres inside, because if the fibres are twisted, the timber would

be useless. Taper also affects the quality of timber as it increases wastage. Knots

seriously affect the quality of timber. The greater the number of knots, the lower the

quality of timber. If the knots are loose, they usually come out on drying leaving a hole

in the wood. Similarly, insect and fungus attacks reduce the quality of timber. Fire also

affects the quality of timber. Strength of timber depends upon the rate as well as the

uniformity of growth. Very fast rate of growth impairs the strength of timber and

reduces the quality. If the rate of growth is sometimes fast and sometimes slow, the

timber will not be of uniform quality. The more uniform the growth, the better the

quality.

Reproduction

After attaining maturity or old age, tree dies. Therefore, in order to maintain

continuity of its own species and also to multiply its numbers, it has to reproduce itself.

Thus reproduction is that vital process by which tree species perpetuate themselves by

reproducing new independent members of their own species by some method.

Reproduction in nature can be sexual or asexual or vegetative but in trees, only sexual

and vegetative reproduction takes place.

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction consists in the fusion of two dissimilar sexual units called

gametes. In trees, this is achieved by the production of flowers, their pollination, and

finally by fertilization resulting in development of seeds.

Flowering

All trees produce flowers. The age at which the trees start flowering varies with

species and their situation. Generally trees produce flowers when the height growth has

nearly been completed but there are exceptions also. For example, sissu usually starts

flowering at the age of 3 or 4 years and teak occasionally flowers at the age of one or

two years. Situation also affects the age of flowering; many trees in open flower at a

much earlier age than they do in dense forest.

Flowering of trees is affected by internal and external factors. The internal

factors relate to certain conditions in the tree itself, e.g., the development of special

hormones or florigins and the presence of high concentration of carbohydrates. The

external factors relate to environmental factors, the most important of which are

temperature and light. Favourable temperature and light conditions accelerate

photosynthesis and increase carbohydrate production, resulting in increased flowering.

Observations made on teak indicate that flowering is inhibited on the shaded portion of

the crown.

In case of trees raised by vegetative methods, flowering is reported to be

stimulated by pruning the roots, planting at an angle of 45o or so, strangulation by wire

or metal hand and training of branches in horizontal position. As a general rule,

however, it may be said that treatment which inhibits growth and prevents or even

obstructs the translocation of food material downward promotes early flowering. But
this does not appear to apply to trees raised by seed. Sickly trees likely to die soon,

sometimes, produce large quantity of flowers and seeds as a last effort to perpetuate

their species.

Time of Flowering

Though most of the trees flower every year, some flower at an interval of years.

The time of flowering varies with species and climatic conditions. The time of flowering

of some of the important species mentioned below is given in brackets after them:

Acacia catechu (June to September), Ailanthus excelsa (February to March),

Azadirachta indica (March to May), Bombax ceiba (January to March), Dalbergia sissoo

(March, April), Shorea robusta (February to April), Tectona grandis (June to August or

September), Quercus dilatata (April, May).

Trees have mostly bisexual flowers but many species have unisexual flowers

also. Trees with unisexual flowers may be monoecious, i.e., the male and female

flowers may be found on the same individual, or dioecious, i.e., the male and female

flowers may be on different individuals. Some species are also polygamous, i.e., they

have both unisexual and bisexual flowers.

Examples

Monoecious – Pinus, Abies pindrow

Dioecious – Salix, Mallotus, Taxus, Diospyros, Cedrus deodara, Pistacia

Polygamous – Sterculia, Garuga, Rhus

Pollination

Pollination of flowers of trees may take place by wind, insects and birds. The

following are some examples of the different methods of pollination:

 By wind (Anemophily) – Conifers, Betula, Alnus, Juglans

By birds (Zoophily) – Bombax, Butea, Erythrina, Anthocephalus, Oroxylum (the

last two are pollinated by bats).

By insects (Entomophily) – Sal, Teak, Sissoo

Flowering of Bamboo

Flowering of bamboos varies from species to species. While some species of

bamboo flower after long periods with no flowering in between, others flower so

irregularly that some flowers can be found practically every year. The periodic flowering

occurs on practically all the clumps of the species over a considerable area. Thus,

flowering in bamboo is of the following two kinds:

i) Gregarious flowering – It is the general flowering, within one or a few

years, and over considerable areas, of all or most of the individuals of certain species

that do not flower annually; in some cases followed by the death of the plant.

ii) Sporadic flowering – It is the flowering of one or a few culms in a clump or

a few clumps in a locality.

In addition to the above two kinds of flowering, annual flowering is also met with

in certain species of bamboos, e.g., Arundinaria wightiana, Bambusa lineata, Ochlandra

stridula, etc. It is not followed by the death of bamboo.

Interval between Pollination of Flowers and Ripening of Seed

The interval between pollination of flowers and ripening of seed varies from

species to species even in the absence of any adverse factors. The following table

shows range of interval in a few species:

 Sl.No. Species Interval in Months

1. Ailanthus excelsa 2

2. Tectona grandis 3

3. Acacia catechu 4-5

4. Dalbergia sissoo 6-7

5. Cedrus deodara 12-13

6. Pinus roxburghii 24-26

SEED

After fertilization, the ovary grows and develops into a fruit, while its ovules,

after a series of changes, develop into seeds. Thus the seeds are enclosed in the fruit.

The plants in which the seeds are enclosed in the fruit, belong to a sub-division called

angiosperms. In certain other plants, however, the seeds are not enclosed in the fruit

but are directly borne on the open carpel. The plants which have such naked (i.e., not

enclosed in fruit) seeds belong to a subdivision known as gymnosperms. In the

angiosperms, the fruit as a whole, may fall to the ground on ripening but generally the

fruits open up and only the seeds fall to the ground where they may germinate and

produce the plants.

Vegetative Reproduction

In sexual reproduction, the creation of a new and independent plant is achieved

by sowing the seed in the soil. In vegetative production, on the other hand, a new plant

is created by some vegetative part of the plant e.g., a portion of the root or shoot (stem

or branch), or a combination of both, a bud or even injured roots. Sometimes, however,

after a plant has been utilized, its stump produces new plants. There are several

methods of vegetative reproduction but in forestry only coppice, root sucker, cuttings

(branch, stem or root shoot) and grafting are used.

THE FOREST

Definition

Forest is defined as an area set aside for the production of timber and other

forest produce, or maintained under woody vegetation for certain indirect benefits which

it provides, e.g., climatic or protective. This is the general definition of the term and

lays emphasis on the direct and indirect benefits that the forests provide. But in

ecology, it is defined as a plant community predominantly of trees and other woody

vegetation, usually with a closed canopy. This definition describes the forest as a kind

of vegetation in which trees constitute the predominant part, to distinguish it from

vegetation in which grasses or shrubs may be predominant, and are fairly dense so that

their crowns touch each other. In legal terminology, forest is defined as an area of land

proclaimed to be forest under a forest law. This definition describes the forest not as a

biological unit but as property having a owner and with rights or certain people. This

definition is useful only in law courts, where cases pertaining to offences committed are

tried. From the point of view of silviculture, the first two definitions are more important.

The term forest has generally been used so far in India to denote crops raised by

the practice of silviculture. But in recent years, an American term ‘stand’ is also used.

American foresters differentiate between ‘stand’ and ‘forest’. According to them, stand

is defined as an aggregation of trees occupying a specific area sufficiently uniform in

composition (species), age arrangement and condition to be distinguishable from the

forest on adjoining areas. Thus the unit of silviculture is a stand. Forest, on the other
hand, is a collection of stands administered as an integrated unit to obtain the objective

of sustained yield.

Classification of Forests

Forests can be classified on the basis of

i) Method of regeneration

ii) Age

iii) Composition

iv) Objects of management

v) Ownership and legal status and

vi) Growing stock

i) Classification based on method of regeneration – Forests can be

regenerated either from seed or from vegetative parts; those which are regenerated

from seed are called high forests and those regenerated by some vegetative method are

called coppice forests.

ii) Classification based on age – Even in plantation raised in a particular year,

all the trees are not of the same year because casualities are replaced in the second and

third years. Thus forests having all trees of the same age, are usually not found.

Therefore forests are classified on the basis of age into even-aged or regular forest and

uneven-aged or irregular forest. Even-aged or regular forest is defined as a forest

composed of even-aged woods. The term even-aged used in this definition is applied to

a stand consisting of trees of approximately the same age. Differences upto 25% of the

rotation age may be allowed in cases where a stand is not harvested for 100 years or

more. Uneven-aged or irregular forest is defined as a forest composed of trees of

markedly different ages. The term uneven-aged is applied to crops in which individual
stems vary widely in age, the range of difference being usually more than 20 years and,

in the case of long rotation crops, more than 25% of the rotation. Such a forest is

called selection forest when all or nearly all age gradations or age classes are present.

iii) Classification based on composition – A forest may have only one

species or more than one species. On the basis of the number of species present, the

forest is classified into pure or mixed forest. Pure forest is defined as a forest composed

of almost entirely of one species, usually to the extent of not less than 80%. It is also

called pure crop or pure stand. Mixed forest, on the other hand, is defined as a forest

composed of trees of two or more species intermingled in the same canopy; in practice,

and by convention, atleast 20% of the canopy must consist of species other than the

principal one. The species composing the mixture may be distinguished as principal,

accessory and auxillary. Principal species is defined as the species first in importance in

a mixed stand either by frequency, volume or silvicultural value or the species to which

the silviculture of a mixed forest is primarily directed. Accessory species is defined as a

useful species of less value than the principal species, which assists in the growth of the

latter and influence to a smaller degree the method of treatment. Auxillary species is

defined as a species of inferior quality or size, of relatively little silvicultural value or

importance, associated with the principal species. It is also referred to as secondary

species or subsidiary species.

iv) Classification based on objects of management – On the basis of

objects of management, forests are classified into production forest, protection forest,

farm forest, fuel forest, recreation forest, etc. Production forest is a forest managed

primarily for its produce. It is also sometimes referred to as national forest, i.e., a forest

which is maintained and managed to meet the needs of the defence, communications,
industry, and other general purposes of public importance. Protection forest is defined

as an area wholly or partly covered with woody growth, managed primarily to regulate

stream flow, prevent erosion, hold shifting sand or to exert any other beneficial

influence. Farm forest is a forest raised on farms and its adjoining area either as

individual scattered trees or a collection of trees to meet the requirement of fuel and

fodder of the farmers and to have a beneficial influence on agriculture. Fuel forest is a

forest raised on village wasteland to supply fuel, small timber, fodder, etc., to the village

communities living far away from government forest. Recreational forest is a forest

which is managed only to meet the recreational needs of the urban and rural population.

v) Classification based on ownership and legal status – On the basis of

ownership, forests are classified into state forest, communal forest and panchayat

forest. State forest is a forest owned by state. Communal forest is a forest owned and

generally managed by a community such as a village, town, tribal authority or local

government, the members of which share in the produce or proceeds. Panchayat forest

is any forest where management is vested in a village panchayat (i.e., a body of men

elected by the villagers from among themselves for specific administrative or other

purposes pertaining to the village).

The state forests are further classified into reserved forest, protected forest and

village forest on the basis of their legal status. A reserved forest is an area so

constituted under the Indian Forest Act or other forest law. A protected forest is an

area subject to limited degree of protection under the provisions of Chapter IV of the

Indian Forest Act. A village forest is a state forest assigned to a village community

under the provisions of the Indian Forest Act.

 vi) Classification on the basis of growing stock – On the basis of growing

stock, the forests are classified into normal and abnormal forest. Normal forest is

defined as a forest which for a given site and given objects of management, is ideally

constituted as regards growing stock, age class distribution and increment and from

which the annual or periodic removal of produce equal to the increment can be

continued indefinitely without endangering future yields. Such a forest by reason of its

normalcy in these respects serves as a standard of comparison, for sustained yield

management. Abnormal forest is a forest in which, as compared to an acceptable

standard, the quantity of material in the growing stock is in deficit or in excess or in

which the relative proportions of the age or size classes are defective.

From the point of view of silviculture, only the first three bases of classification

are important.

Growth of Forest

A forest starts its life as an aggregation of seedlings. In the beginning, the

number of seedlings over a unit of area is very large but as the forest grows, the

number of plants keeps on diminishing. Thus, the most important characteristics of

growth of forest is the gradual reduction with age and size, of the number of plants per

unit area. The growth of one forest differs from that of the other due to species, age,

quality of site and biotic factor, etc.

Growth in Even-Aged Forests

Even-aged forest start their life as aggregation of seedlings of nearly the same

age as a result of natural or artificial regeneration. While in the seedling crop resulting

from natural regeneration, the seedlings are scattered all over the area without any
regular spacing, the seedlings of artificially raised crops are generally in lines or rows.

In the beginning, the seedlings have ample growing space and in case of conifers, the

crowns extend right upto the ground. Before long, due to increase in size, the crowns

touch each other. This results in a social struggle or competition for growing space.

Crown differentiation – As a result of competition for light and moisture, the

inherently stronger trees grow rapidly and their crowns form the uppermost canopy.

The less vigorous remain in the intermediate position while the weakest occupy the

lowest position. As the trees grow further, competition becomes more intense and

crown differentiation becomes more prominent. Due to difference in vigour of trees, all

the trees in the upper canopy do not attain the same height and thus some trees are

found to be ahead of the others. Thus even the top canopy consists of crowns reaching

the highest level and those slightly below them. The trees in the middle position may

continue to be there or get relegated to the lowest class due to being overtopped by the

neighbours. Some of the trees, in the lowest position may die for want of light and

food. Thus the following crown classes are generally met with in an even-aged forest.

i) Dominant trees – All trees which form the upper most leaf canopy and have

their leading shoots free. These may be subdivided according to the position and

relative freedom of their crowns into predominants, i.e., the tallest trees determining the

general top level of the canopy and the codominants, i.e., the slightly shorter dominants

or to be more precise, 5/6 of the predominants.

ii) Dominated – Trees which do not form part of the upper most leaf canopy

but the leading shoots of which are not definitely overtopped by the neighbouring trees.

Their height is about ¾ of the tallest trees.

 iii) Suppressed – Trees which reach only about ½ to 5/8 of the height of

predominants, with their leading shoots definitely over-topped by their neighbours or at

least shaded on all sides by them.

Crown development – In addition to developing crown classes as a result of

varying heights of trees, the social struggle also affects the shape and size of crown of

individual trees. In the earlier stages crowns of seedlings cover a greater part of their

stem and in conifers, they start from the ground level. As the seedlings grow, their

crowns touch each other and the portion below the point of contact gradually dies for

want of light. In other words, gradually the length of crown is reduced and it is

confined to the upper portion of the tree, making the greater portion of the bole clear of

branches. The competition also affects width of the crowns. While the crowns of the

vigorous individuals are large, those of the dominated and suppressed trees are

relatively smaller and constricted. As the length and width of crowns of individual trees

are affected, their crown development is affected. The shape and size of the crown

gives a good indication about the growth of the trees, in the past and present as well as

the possibilities of the future.

Reduction of number of trees with age – The increasing space required by

the trees as they grow in age can only be obtained by reduction in number of trees in

the forest per unit area. Thus in nature, as the forest grows, there is a gradual

reduction in number of trees so that the rest of the trees may have enough space inside

and outside the ground for their optimum and healthy growth. As natural reduction in

number affects the growth of the survivors in the social struggle, the foresters reduce

the number of trees as the forest grows in age so that the growth of the crop is not

adversely affected by excessive competition for food and light.

 Crop height and top height – With the increase in height of individual trees

with age, the height of the forest also increases. The terms, crop height and top height,

are used to describe it. Crop height is the average height of a regular crop as

determined by Lorey’s formula. The crop height is not of great significance as it varies

for the same age and site quality with the intensity of thinning.

Top height, on the other hand, is the average height of the dominant trees in a

stand. As used in sample plot work and yield tables in India, it refers to the height

corresponding to the mean diameter (calculated from basal area) of the 250 biggest

diameters per hectare as read from height/diameter curve. The top height at it varies

with age is generally the basis for determining the site quality of any area.

Crop diameter – With the increase in diameter of the individual trees

constituting a forest crop, the diameter of the crop also increases. The diameter of the

forest crop is described by the term, crop diameter which is defined as the diameter

corresponding to the mean basal area of a uniform, generally pure crop.

Crop volume – The sum of the volumes of the individual trees forming a forest

crop is the volume of that crop. Yield tables for various species given data for volume

per acre of a fully-stocked, regularly thinned, even-aged crops at different ages for

different site qualities. The crop volume is given for the main crop (i.e., the crop left

after thinning), final yield (i.e., the main crop and the volume of thinning at that age)

and the total yield (i.e., the final yield plus the accumulated yield of thinning at the

previous age).

Crop density – The volume per unit area of a forest has to be compared with

the volume given in the yield table for that site quality and age to determine whether

the volume in the forest question, is equal to, more or less than the volume given in the
yield table. This is described by the term crop density which is defined as the relative

completeness of the stocking expressed as a decimal coefficient, taking normal number

of trees, basal area or volume as unity. The terms over-stocked, full or complete, and

incomplete are used to describe crop density, according as it exceeds, equals or is less

than 1.0.

FACTORS OF LOCALITY

Definition

Even a causal observation reveals that the forests occurring in various localities

differ from each other in composition and density. The forests found in the Himalayan

region are not similar to those found in South India. Even in the former, different types

of forests are found in different places. The difference is not confined to species of the

dominant trees, their size, and their mixture with other species but it is also found in the

composition of the middle storey, undergrowth and ground flora. This, is due to the fact

that the trees and other vegetation constituting a forest, are a living entity. They grow

in the soil and derive food from it. Local temperature and wind affect their growth.

Rain water provides them with moisture and, therefore, its quantity affects their

luxuriance. All living beings, i.e., man, animals, birds, insects, etc., living in or around

the forest, have greater influence on its development. Thus, from the time of

germination to the time of felling or death, the trees and other vegetation forming the

forest, are influenced by the climate, soil, topography and living beings of that place. In

other words, the type of forest occurring naturally in a place is not an accidental

aggregation of various plants out is the result of the complex influence of the climatic,

edaphic, topographic and biotic factors of the locality. Thus the factors of locality may
be defined as the effective climatic, edaphic, topographic and biotic conditions of a site,

which influence the vegetation of the locality.

These factors are also referred to as environment which is defined as all the

biotic and abiotic factors of a site. As environment of forest is also referred to as site by

foresters or habitat by ecologists, the factors of locality are also sometimes, referred to

as site or habitat factors.

Classification

Factors of locality are classified into following four broad categories:

1) Climatic factors, 2) Topographic factors, 3) Edaphic factors and 4) Biotic

factors

CLIMATIC FACTORS

The seeds require moisture, temperature, and air definitely and light to some

extent for germination. These elements, which form part of climate of a place, are also

required by plants for their growth. Thus climate exerts a great influence on the

vegetation of a locality. In our large country, just as there is a great diversity in

languages, customs, dresses, similarly there is a great diversity in climate as well. This

is reflected in the large number of species and multiplicity of forest types found in our

country. Our forests range from the dry thorn scrub of Rajasthan in the west to the wet

evergreen forests of Assam and Meghalaya in the east, and from the tropical dry

deciduous forests of the south to the alpine forests and scrub of Himalayas in the north.

Climate is defined as the average weather conditions prevalent in any locality.

Though it is dependent on various meteorological and weather conditions, the most

important are solar radiation which gives light and heat both, moisture and wind.
Therefore, climatic factors are defined as light, atmospheric temperature, pressure, and

humidity, wind and other features of climate – regional, local and seasonal – that

influence vegetation. Thus the climatic factors may be classified as under:

1) Solar radiation – a) Light, b) Heat and Temperature, 2) Moisture and 3) Wind

SOLAR RADIATION

The energy which is responsible for the growth of vegetation and all life

depending on it, on this earth comes directly or indirectly from the sun. Thus, the

nature and amount of solar radiation received on the surface of the earth is a factor of

great importance. The energy radiated by sun reaches the earth in the form of

electromagnetic waves of varying length, ranging nearly from 290 m m to 5300 m m

(millimicrons) but the portion of the radiant energy by which objects are made visible

due to stimulation of the retina of the eye and therefore, in common parlance, called

light, ranges in wavelength from 400 mm to 720 mm. Energy composed of wavelengths

shorter than 400 mm is known as ultra violet and that longer than 720 mm is known as

infrared.

The total energy received from the sun may be classified on percentage basis as

under:

Ultra violet - about 1%

Visible spectrum - about 39%

Infrared - about 60%

The maximum energy of solar radiation occurs in the green and yellow regions of

the visible spectrum (400 mm to 720 mm). Since the heat produced by the radiation is

independent, in its effect, of the wavelength, the intensity of the radiation is generally

measured by the heat generated by it.

 The full solar radiation that should reach the earth, does not actually reach it.

The atmosphere surrounding the earth partly reflects it back and partly absorbs it also.

Similarly the clouds, other solid particles in the atmosphere, and the vegetation absorb

as well as reflect back part of it. Even on reaching the earth part of it is absorbed while

some part of it is reflected back. It has been estimated that 42% of the incoming

radiation is reflected, and this is known as albedo. The solar radiation reaching the

earth is further affected by latitude, altitude, season of the year and time of the day. As

latitude increases, the intensity of solar radiation decreases. With increase in altitude,

the turbid layer of the atmosphere, through which the radiation has to pass, decreases

and, therefore, the radiation increases.

The most important effect of solar radiation is that it provides both light and heat

(temperature); as both are very important, they are being described separately.

LIGHT

Importance of Light

Light is a very important factor of locality because of its following effects on

plants and other vegetation:

1. Chlorophyll formation – Light is one of the important and essential factors

responsible for chlorophyll formation in plants. Though lower plants, such as, algae,

mosses and ferns and some coniferous seedlings can develop it even in darkness, yet

the quantity of chlorophyll so formed is less than that formed in light. In the

angiosperms, however, light is essential. Light of any wavelength or low intensity is

sufficient to form chlorophyll. Without light, plants become pale yellow and have long

thin internodes, a condition known as etiolation. Chlorophyll decomposes in bright

sunlight, thus formation and decomposition both go on simultaneously when the plant is

exposed to light.

2. Functioning of stomata – Light is an important factor influencing the daily

opening and closing of stomata which, in turn, affects respiration and photosynthesis.

3. Photosynthesis – Light is the most important factor of locality for

photosynthesis as it can not take place in darkness. Out of the seven colours in the

visible part of the spectrum, only red and blue are effective in photosynthesis.

The light actually used in photosynthesis is a small fraction of the total light that

falls on a leaf. There are two main factors responsible for it. The thickness of the leaf

and its chlorophyll content allow only a portion of the light to be absorbed. The rest is

either reflected back or transmitted through it. Most of the light energy absorbed is

used up in raising the temperature of the leaf and is lost as heat or consumed in

transpiration. It has been estimated that light used in photosynthesis is less than 2% of

the light energy incident on well-illuminated leaves. As the light actually required for

photosynthesis is so low, there is usually sufficient light even in dense forest for this

important physiological activity. In very dense forests, however, light intensity may be

so low that the photosynthetic gains may not be able to balance the loss due to

respiration.

4. Growth – Light influences the growth of plants and trees through its effect

on photosynthesis. The influence of light varies with its quality, duration and intensity.

Quality of light refers to the wavelength of the light spectrum or, in other words,

refers to colors. Plants grown in blue light are small but otherwise show normal growth.

Red light, on the other hand, results in elongation of cells, giving the appearance of

etiolated plants. Violet and ultra violet light bring about dwarfing effect. For example,
preponderance of ultra-violet radiation combined with slow absorption of water due to

low temperature and desiccating winds is responsible for limiting the heights of plants in

alpine region.

Duration of light or the length of exposure to day light also affects the growth of

plants. The duration of light or, more correctly, the relative length of day and night to

which the plant is exposed is called photoperiod and the response of the plants to

photoperiod is called photoperiodism which is defined as reponse in the ontogeny of an

organism to relative duration of day and night. Photoperiod varies with altitude and

latidue. In higher latitudes, where seasonal differences are marked, photoperiod is

particularly important. It affects the growth, breaking of dormancy, germination, leaf

fall and flowering. In many species, the duration of growth is related to the length of

the day; quite a few species can be grown continuously throughout the year in

artificially created conditions of long days. Dormancy of trees can be broken by

lengthening the day artificially under favourable temperature conditions. Photo

periodism varies with species, e.g., short days may cause dormancy in Populus but not

in Juniperus.

5. Form and quality of trees – The elongation of the growing axes of trees in

the forest occurs mainly between sunset and sunrise because the low intensities of light

and infrared radiation tend to stimulate height growth. Height growth is retarded in

intense light conditions. Trees growing in shade are usually taller than those of the

same age growing in open provided other factors of growth are not restricted.

Even the form of trees growing in shade is very dissimilar to that of trees

growing in the open. Deficiency of light due to shading effect of upper branches is

responsible for the death of lower branches on the stem of trees growing in congested
crops, resulting in their having long clear boles. The continued restriction of the crown

in the upper part of the tree results in formation of much more cylindrical stem than

would otherwise be formed. Thus regulation of light gives forester a powerful weapon

to regulate the form of trees and quality of timber produced in the forest.

6. Species stratification and size and structure of leaves – The intensity

of light in the forest varies from place to place and from time to time between wide

limits. While the top canopy has full light, the canopies lower down receive only that

much light which escapes the top canopy. Thus the light reaching the forest floor is

considerably less. It also depends upon the locality and the density of crop. This results

in the stratification of species in different canopies according to the requirement of light.

In natural undisturbed conditions, the vegetation itself gives an indication of light

conditions in the forest. For example, Ardesia solanacea is indicative of damp shady

places in sal forest.

TEMPERATURE

Factors Affecting Temperature

As already mentioned, the source of all heat is solar radiation. While the energy

received is constant, the temperature of various places on the earth is different because

it is affected by the following factors:

i) Latitude – Latitude is defined as the distance of a place, north or south of

equator, measured as an angle whose apex is at the center of the earth. The ray of the

sun strike the earth vertically at the equator and therefore the temperature is highest at

equator. As we move to the north or south from the equator, the temperature

decreases because the sun’s rays become oblique. Thus as the latitude increases, the

temperature decreases. In the Indogangetic plain, the normal fall in the mean
temperature is estimated to be roughly 0.55oC for increase of each degree in latitude.

The effect of latitude on temperature is, however, modified by other factors, e.g.,

altitude, distance from the sea, wind, etc.

ii) Altitude – The altitude of place also affects the temperature. It has been

observed that there is a fall of 1oC in mean temperature in the hills for every 270 m rise

in altitude upto about 1500 m, after which the fall is more rapid. The marked difference

in the mean temperatures of Nainital and Muzaffarnagar in U.P. and Simla (H.P.) and

Jullundur (Punjab) situated on the same latitudes, is only due to their varying altitudes.

iii) Distance from the sea – Sea has a moderating effect on temperature; the

farther a place is from the sea, the greater are the diurnal and seasonal ranges of

temperatures.

iv) Winds – The winds affect the temperature, and if they are from the sea

side, their effect is still more marked. In our country, south west monsoon brings rain

and reduces the temperature to a great extent.

v) Mountains – The direction of the mountain ranges affects temperature

through its effect on winds and rainfall. As the windward slopes bear the brunt of the

winds and rainfall from monsoonic winds, they have lower temperature than that on the

leeward side. The slopes of the mountain on which sun’s rays strike vertically are

warmer than those on which they strike obliquely. That is why southern slopes of

mountains in northern hemisphere are hotter than the northern slopes.

vi) Cloudiness – As clouds screen off the sun, their presence of affects

temperature.

vii) Presence or absence of forest vegetation – The rays of the sun strike

bare sites directly; such place are, therefore, hotter than the places covered with forest
vegetation. The crowns of trees obstruct the rays of the sun before they can reach the

ground and thus reduce the temperature of the place.

Importance of Temperature

The solar radiation warms up the atmosphere and the soil, thereby raising their

temperatures. The temperature of the atmosphere affects the activities of shoots of

plants while soil temperature influences those of their roots. Through its effect on

plants, temperature has a profound influence on forest vegetation.

Air temperature – Air temperature influences the plants in the following ways:

i) The solar radiation directly as well as through its influence on air temperature,

provides heat to the plant body and helps in satisfactory initiation and continuation of

various physiological activities, e.g., transpiration, photosynthesis and respiration. High

temperature increases transpiration while low temperature decreases it. Though

photosynthesis takes place under a wide range of temperatures varying with species and

locality, increases in temperature upto 25oC increases photosynthesis, after which it

deceases sharply. The rate of respiration increases as temperature rises from 0oC to

40oC but it decreases in temperature lower than 0oC and higher than 40oC. Thus

temperature exerts a greater influence on the vital physiological activities of trees.

ii) Air temperature increases microbiological activity on soil surface resulting in

decomposition of organic matter and release of nutrients to be available to trees.

iii) Air temperature affects activities of enzymes, which are practically stopped at

temperatures above 50oC or below 1oC.

iv) Air temperature increases cambial activity in the shoot portion.

v) Through its effect on the vital physiological activities and cambial activity, air

temperature affects growth of trees.

 vi) Temperature is essential for germination of seeds.

Soil temperature – Soil temperature influences trees in the following ways:

i) Soil temperature has a profound influence on absorption of soil moisture which

increases markedly with the rise in temperature upto a certain limit. When soil

temperature rises above 35oC, there is a decrease in absorption as the permeability of

plasma membrane is adversely affected. On the other hand, if there is a fall in soil

temperature below 27oC, water absorption is greatly reduced till at 0oC it becomes

insignificant. Cold soils are, therefore, physiologically dry.

ii) Soil temperature also affects cambial activity, particularly in temperate

climate. Cambial activity in trees starts earlier in warmer soils than in colder soils. Thus

growth starts earlier in warmer soils than in colder soils.

In short, increase in temperature creates conditions in which trees and other

vegetation grow well. This means higher temperature is indicate of multiplicity of

vegetation while low temperature that of limited vegetation.

FROST

Frost means chilling of air below the freezing point. Depending on the mode of

occurrence, it is classified into:

i) Radiation frost

ii) Pool frost and

iii) Advective frost

i) Radiation frost is defined as the frost occurring on nights with a clear sky,

produced by loss of heat by radiation. It is defined as freezing confined to ground level,

ice crystals forming on the surface objects, soil or ground vegetation.

 ii) Pool frost is defined as the accumulation to a considerable depth of heavy cold

air flowing down into natural depressions from adjoining areas. This has more

deleterious effect on vegetation than ground frost as the freezing effect extends to a

considerable height.

iii) Advective frost is defined as a frost produced by cold air brought from

elsewhere. Frost pocket, frost hole or frost locality which is defined as an area in which

frosts are more frequent and more intense than in the district generally. Frost free

season which is defined as the period between the last injurious frost in spring and the

first injurious frost in the autumn.

Frost Injuries

The injuries inflicted by frost may be of the following kinds:

i) Killing of young plants or their parts

ii) Death of plants due to damage to cells

iii) Injuries to the crowns of poles and saplings

iv) Frost cracks

v) Formation of canker

Frost Hardy and Frost Tender Species

The species which posses power to withstand frost without being damaged are

called frost hardy. Frost hardiness varies from species to species and in the same

species with age, because some species are affected by frost in earlier stages but can

withstand it later. The species which are killed back by frost are called frost tender. A

list of some frost hardy and frost tender species is given below:

Frost hardy – Acacia catechu, Hardwickia binata, Madhuca indica, Toona ciliata,

Pinus roxburghii.
 Moderately frost-hardy – Adina cordiforlia, Bombax ceiba, Dalbergia latifolia,

Gmelina arborea

Frost tender – Acacia arabica, Azadirachta indica, Tectona grandis, Terminalia

arjuna

Factors Affecting Frost Resistance

Frost resistance in trees depends on internal (i.e., those relating to the cells in

plant body) and external (i.e., those relating to environment) factors described below:

A) Internal Factors

i) Size of cell – Plants with smaller cells are usually more frost hardy than those

with larger cells.

ii) Water content – The greater the amount of water, the greater the danger of

inter-cellular or intracellular ice formation.

iii) Osmotic concentration – The greater the osmotic concentration within the

cells, the greater the resistance to frost because, as freezing point of the cell sap would

be lower, there would be lesser likelihood of internal ice formation.

iv) Permeability to water – The higher the permeability of the protoplasm to

water, the greater is the frost resistance.

v) Water binding colloids – The greater the water binding colloids in cells, the

greater the frost resistance because their presence results in (a) reducing the amount of

free water that can be frozen, (b) making internal ice formation less likely and (c)

reducing the amount of water that can be removed on external ice formation.
B) External Factors

i) Temperature – A rapid fall in temperature is much more injurious than its

gradual fall even for partially hardy plants because rapid fall increases danger of internal

ice formation. Continued freezing for many days causes greater damage with the result

that even plants resistant to start with are affected. Frost resistance varies with

seasons; plants which can withstand extremely cold conditions during winter, may be

killed by slight frost during spring. Increase in temperature even for a short period

during winter, decreases frost hardiness. On the other hand, frost hardiness increases if

the plants are gradually exposed to increasingly low temperature before the advent of

winter.

ii) Light – The lesser the duration of light, the greater the frost hardiness as

reduced photoperiod and low temperature result in cessation of growth. Consequently

the reserve carbohydrate are converted into sugar resulting in increased frost resistance.

iii) Mineral nutrition – Nitrogen stimulates vegetative growth and therefore

reduces frost hardiness. On the other hand, application of potassium and phosphorus

generally increases it.

Hardening Off

Hardening off is the natural process by which plants become adapted to drought,

cold or heat. For preparing seedlings in a nursery for planting out by gradually reducing

watering, shade and/or shelter resulting in hardening of plant.

SNOW

At higher altitudes, the decrease in temperature results in precipitation taking the

form of snow. The amount of snowfall and the period during which it remains on the
round depends upon temperature and the amount of winter precipitation. Snow

occasionally falls down to 1200 m in north western and central Himalayas but it stays

only above 2000 m. In the eastern Himalayas and the south, the altitude to which snow

falls, is higher.

Beneficial Effects of Snow

i) Snow influences the distribution of deodar, fir and spruce and their best forests

are found in places of heavy snowfall. Heavy water snowfall is essential for satisfactory

natural regeneration of deodar.

ii) Snow is the source of water in streams and rivers. All perennial rivers and

streams have their origin from snow glaciers.

iii) Snow acts as a blanket, prevents further drop in temperature and thus

protects seedlings and other vegetation from the damaging effect of excessive cold and

frost.

Injurious Effects of Snow

i) Snowfall results in the mechanical bending of stems of trees. Snow gets

accumulated on the uphill side of the young saplings and poles and causes them to bend

outward at the base. This curve is maintained even when the poles develop into trees

and can be seen on all mature trees. The bend makes this portion of the tree unfit for

utilization. As this portion of the stem has maximum diameter, there is a great loss in

volume.

ii) Accumulation of snow on the crowns of trees results in breaking of branches

and tops of trees. Kail is most susceptible to snow break and deodar comes next.
 iii) Sliding snow not only causes erosion but also uproots trees. Often snow

slides wipe out strips of forests along their course. The folds of the hills, in which snow

slides regularly, are devoid of vegetation and thus a fair amount of area is without tree

growth.

iv) Snow shortens the period of vegetative growth

v) Snow is reported to favour the growth of certain fungi, e.g. Fomes, Trametes

Effect of Excessively High Temperature

i) Excessively high temperature is injurious to plant life. There is an optimum

and maximum temperature for growth and other physiological activities. Above this

optimum temperature, growth is adversely affected but after the maximum is crossed,

the life processes may cease and the plant may die. The highest temperature that can

be withstood by plants varies from species to species but for most higher plants, the

range of lethal temperature lies between 45oC to 55oC, though they may also be killed

by continuous exposure to temperatures above 40oC. The death resulting from

excessively high temperature usually occurs due to coagulation of protoplasmic proteins.

ii) Even if temperature between 35oC to 40oC may not kill the plant, it disturbs

the balance between respiration and photosynthesis. The optimum temperature for

photosynthesis is lower than that for respiration. When the optimum temperature for

photosynthesis is exceeded, the synthesis of food deceases but its breakdown in

respiration continues at a high rate. This causes depletion of food resulting in greater

susceptibility to attacks of fungi and bacteria.

iii) Excessively high temperature results in deficiency of moisture. Silver fir

seedlings are reported to start wilting as soon as temperature reaches 38oC.

Sometimes, seedlings die due to heating of soil surface, resulting from excessively high
temperature. The sandy soils get heated excessively and this is a common cause of

death of seedlings in such soil.

iv) Excessively high temperature results in excessive transpiration and this may

result in desiccation of plant tissues. Increased transpiration combined with deficiency

of moisture in the soil results in death of plants.

v) Excessive heat, sometimes, results in developing cracks in stem due to

excessive shrinking of the outer tissues. This happens particularly in species having thin

bark.

MOISTURE

Moisture is one of the most important factors influencing vegetation, because

water is essential for various physiological activities of plants as well as for soil formation

processes.

A) Importance in Physiological Activities

1. Water forms about 90 to 95% constituent part of the cell wall and 80% part of

the protoplasm which is the physical basis of all life.

2. Water occurs in all the cell vacuoles as cell sap and on it depends the turgidity of

the cells, which in turn, governs the growth of plants.

3. It is the only medium for absorption of soil minerals and gases in the plants

4. It is one of the raw materials required for photosynthesis

5. It is required for translocation of manufactured food as well as for all chemical

reactions taking place in plant body

6. It is essential for respiration which cannot take place in its absence

7. It is also necessary for transpiration which prevents excessive heating of the

plant

8. It is responsible for various movements of plants

9. It is essential for germination and viability of seeds

B) Importance in Soil Formation Processes

Water is required for physical as well as chemical weathering, which are the

most important soil forming processes. It is also required for translocation of the

products of weathering and is, thus, an important factor in soil formation.

C) Influence on Vegetation

Because of its great importance in the vital processes of plant life as well as in

soil formation, water exerts a profound influence on vegetation. It determines the

nature of vegetation that would survive in a particular area. In other words, it

determines the species that would grow, their number per unit area, height, diameter

and volume growth of trees and other vegetation. It is therefore used as basis for

classifying vegetation in broad temperature zones.

HUMIDITY

Presence of water vapour makes air humid; humidity refers to that state of air of

the atmosphere in which water vapour is present. The amount of water vapour actually

present in the atmosphere at a given time at a given temperature is a measure of

atmospheric humidity. It is described by the terms absolute humidity, relative humidity

and saturation deficit.

Humidity affects evaporation and transpiration and consequently the vegetation.

Lower the relative humidity, the greater the evaporation from the soil and higher the
transpiration from the plants. As humidity affects the availability of moisture to plants, it

is a factor of importance particularly in dry and arid areas where only those species can

survive, which have well developed contrivances to resist transpiration.

WIND

Wind has a great influence not only on the form of trees but also on their

distribution. It has favourable as well as harmful effects on trees.

Harmful effects – These may be caused both by direct and indirect action of

wind.

Direct Harmful Effect

1. Because of the pressure of the wind, the tree in the open in the plains and on

the ridges on the hills are short-statured and have pronounced taper in their

boles.

2. Trees often get bent if wind blows only in one direction

3. Trees are often uprooted or their stem or branches get damaged. The trees

which withstand strong winds without being over thrown or broken are called

wind firm. But the trees which are uprooted are referred to as wind fall or wind

throw. In case only the stem is snapped from some place or the branches are

damaged, it is referred to as wind break

4. The branches on the windward side get, often killed and they remain only on the

leeward side. This adversely affects the growth on one side

5. The bole of the tree, often, becomes elliptic with larger diameter in the direction

of the prevailing wind

6. As a result of strong winds, timber often gets ruptured

Indirect Harmful Effects

1. Wind fans up forest fire thereby increasing fire damage

2. Wind affects the trees through its influence on humidity. Dry winds lower the

amount of atmospheric water vapour by mixing it with dry air and thereby

increase transpiration

3. Winds also increase evaporation from the soil

4. In dry areas, wind causes wind erosion. It removes the top fertile soil or deposit

sand on fertile fields, thereby deteriorating the soil in both cases

5. Along sea coast wind-brone salt spray, often results in considerable injurious

effect on sensitive plants

6. Strong cyclonic winds to immense damage not only to trees but also to other

property and agricultural crops

Favourable Effects

1. Wind brings fresh supplies of carbon dioxide to the foliage of trees and thus

helps in photosynthesis

2. Wind helps in pollination of anemophilous flowers

3. Wind helps in dispersal of seed of many forest trees, e.g., Holoptelia, Bombax,

Hymenodictyon, Toona, etc.

BIOCLIMATE

The various climatic factors influence the vegetation collectively but not

individually and separately. Thus the vegetation of a place is the result of various

climatic factors acting together. While affecting vegetation collectively, these factors

modify the influence of each other to certain extent. Therefore, each climatic factor has
to be modified or adjusted in such a way that it may describe the influence of the

collective complex climatic factors on plant life. The climate defined by these modified

or adjusted climatic factors is called bioclimate. For example, total rainfall of a place will

have a certain effect on vegetation. But the effect of total rainfall is modified by the

number of rainy days. A certain amount of total rainfall with larger number of rainy

days will result in a different vegetation than the same total rainfall and small number of

rainy days is further modified by the amount of evaporation taking place in that locality.

Therefore, in order to describe the correct effect of rainfall as a climatic factor, the total

rainfall will have to be modified by the number of rainy days and evaporation.

Topographic Factors

Topography is the description of the physical features of a place. It describes

configuration of the ground, its altitude, slope, aspects, etc. These physical features

affect the local climate, soil formation processes, soil moisture, soil nutrients, etc., and

since all these have a profound influence on vegetation, topography affects the

vegetation indirectly. Thus topographic factors may be defined as factors pertaining to

the configuration of land surface viz., altitude, slope, aspect and exposure. These

factors have a great influence on vegetation through their influence on climatic and

edaphic factors which have a direct bearing on vegetation of a place.

Topographic factors may be classified into:

i) Configuration of land surface, ii) Altitude, iii) Slope and iv) Aspect and

exposure.
MICROCLIMATE

Eventhough the climatic factors such as light, temperature, rainfall, humidity and

wind define the general climate of a region, certain variations are often met with in

localized places due to the effect of the topography, soil climate, or the vegetation itself.

The difference in the growing conditions in that particular place affects vegetation locally

although the general vegetation type may change or not. Thus, microclimate is defined

as the climate of small areas, which for some reason, differs significantly from the

general climate of the area, more particularly, the climate outside that cover.

The effect of topography on solar radiation, temperature, rainfall, humidity and

wind has already been described. The effect of forest cover on these important factors

is described below:

Solar radiation – Forest cover reduces the intensity of solar radiation reaching

the forest floor in an inverse proportion with its density, i.e., the denser the cover, the

lower the intensity of solar radiation reaching the forest floor. As the amount of light

affects temperature, atmospheric humidity, soil moisture regime, it has a great influence

on the nature and density of vegetation and regeneration of various species. As the

requirement of light of seedlings of various species is different, canopy has to be

manipulated to admit sufficient quantity of light to induce regeneration to come up.

Chaturvedi found a direct relationship between incident light and the density of bamboo

clumps. He found that when over wood was clear felled and maximum light admitted

on the forest floor, largest number of new clumps were obtained.

Temperature – Forest cover makes the temperature, both of the air and soil,

more equable than it is in the open. This is due to the fact that forest cover acts as a

screen and prevents sunrays from heating the air and the soil inside the forest to the
same extent as it does in the open. During the night, this screen prevents the loss of

heat by radiation. The result is that mean maximum temperature of the air inside the

forest is lower and the mean minimum temperature higher. The effect on temperature

inside the forest varies with species. For instance, studies in new forest revealed that

the temperature under a cover of Casuarina equisetifolia was the lowest during the

summer and highest during winter. On the other hand, temperature under cover of

Pinus roxburghii was highest during summer and lowest during winter.

Rainfall – Though influence of forest in increasing the total rainfall of a place

has been disputed, there is no doubt that forests exercise considerable influence in

increasing the number of rainy days over limited regions. Studies made in Nilgiris before

and after afforestation have indicated that the presence of forest increases the number

of rainy days during that period of the year when monsoon is not active.

Dew – Observations made at new forest have revealed that there is no dewfall

immediately below the crowns of trees in a forest, though there is some dewfall in the

openings in the canopy.

Humidity – It has been estimated by Seth that a sal forest of 37 years age and

containing 778 trees per hectare transpires about 1200 mm of water annually. Thus,

forests have a favourable effect of humidity. Warren observed that while humidity of

treeless Ranchi plateau dropped to 5 in hot dry summer, humidity of Chaibassa in the

neighbourhood of Singhbhum forests never dropped below 50. Forests increase

humidity not only of the adjoining areas but also inside themselves.

Evaporation – A s forests reduce solar radiation reaching the forest floor and

consequently temperature and wind velocity inside, they reduce evaporation of moisture

from the forest floor. Reduction in evaporation depends upon the type of forest, its age,
density as well as the moisture regime of the soil. However, it has been estimated that

evaporation from forest floor may be 10 to 80% of that in the open.

Wind – A strip of trees and shrubs reduces wind velocity considerably. The

reduction in wind velocity, the height and distance to which it is affected, is dependent

on the height of trees and their density. That is why wind breaks are established

around orchards and shelterbelts are raised in areas experiencing wind erosion or

desiccating effect of cold winds. In case of a forest, the influence of height of trees and

their density on wind velocity is further affected by the length and breadth of the forest.

It has been estimated that inside the forest, the reduction of wind velocity may be from

20 to 60% of that in the open. However, the efficiency of forest in decreasing wind

velocity on the leeward side of the forest is considerably less as compared to that of a

shelterbelt.

Importance of Microclimate

Microclimate is of great importance in the practice of silviculture. If proper

attention is not given to this important factor, silvicultural operations, such as natural or

artificial regeneration, may fail completely due to the local adverse or limiting factors

responsible for the microclimate. The following examples will illustrate the importance

of microclimate:

1) As already stated, microclimate of different aspects of hills in the temperate

zone of Himalayas is different and that is why on the two sides of a ridge two different

species occur towards the upper limit of deodar altitudinal zone. This is due to the fact

that northern aspect at that altitude is too cold for deodar. If deodar is planted on the

northern aspect at that altitude in utter disregard of the microclimate, the attempt is

bound to fail. Even in deodar zone, warmer aspects are occupied largely by kail.
Attempts to replace kail by deodar in such places are never successful as the

microclimate of these aspects is not suited to deodar.

2) In the upper reaches of subtropical zone, northern aspects become too cold

for chir which is replaced by kail in nature. Sowings of chir in such places are not likely

to be successful.

3) In Dehra Dun valley, pool frost is a common occurrence. If, in utter disregard

of this factor, clear felling followed by sowing or planting may be done to raise a new

crop, it is bound to fail.

4) If, in the introduction of an exotic, climate and microclimate of its natural

habitat are not taken into consideration and it is introduced in areas with different

climate, it is not likely to succeed.

EDAPHIC FACTORS

Edaphic factors are defined as ecological influences characteristic of the soil

brought about by its physical and chemical characteristics. Thus, edaphic factors are

factors which relate to the soil in which the trees grow and which, therefore, forms

environment of roots.

Definition of Soil

Soil has been defined variously by geologists and pedalogists. The Indian Forest

and Forest Products Terminology following pedalogist’s view, defined soil as the upper

most weathered layer of the earth’s crust and recognized the following two sub-

divisions:

i) Surface soil - The more or less completely weathered surface layer, rich in

soluble material and containing a relatively higher proportion of organic matter and fine
earth; also called top soil. The zone of aeration and intense root and micro-biological

activity.

ii) Sub-soil – The layer immediately below the surface soil which is incompletely

weathered and contains much less of soluble ingredients, organic matter and fine earth.

This definition, though correct, is not comprehensive because forests,

sometimes, grow on rocks. The following two definitions are suitable from the point of

view of foresters:

i) Forest soil is defined as a portion of earth’s surface which serves as a medium

for the sustenance of forest vegetation; it consists of minerals and organic matter,

permeated by varying amounts of water and air and inhabited by organism; it exhibits

peculiar characteristics impressed by the physical and chemical action of tree roots and

forest debris – Wilde.

ii) Soil is defined as a dynamic layer of surface material which is constantly

changing and developing under processes of adjustment to conditions of climate, parent

material, topography and vegetation – Champion and Seth.

SOIL FORMATION

The factors responsible for soil formation and development are climate, biological

agencies including vegetation and animals, parent rock, topography and time. The first

two of these factors are referred to as active factors because it is through their action

that soil formation takes place. As the last three do not take any active part in soil

formation, they are referred to as passive factors. Actually, it is only when the active

factors, having been modified by topography, act on the parent material for

considerable length of time that the soil is formed.

 The active factors results in the formation of soil through their effect on a

geological process known as weathering which is defined as all physical and chemical

changes produced in rocks, at or near the earths surface, by atmospheric agents and

which result in more or less complete disintegration and decomposition. The weathering

process is of two kinds, viz., physical and chemical weathering.

Physical weathering – Physical weathering is the physical disintegration or

breaking up of rocks resulting in exposure of their larger surface for other forces to act.

It is mainly the result of climatic factors. Temperature changes result in unequal

expansion and contraction and, therefore, in breaking up the rock. As there is a great

diurnal variation in temperature in most parts of India, this is a very important factor.

In higher hills, water, lying in the crevices of rocks, is frozen at night and therefore

expands in volume resulting in disintegration of rocks. Moving water erodes them and

ultimately breaks them. Moving glaciers also result in fragmentation of rocks. Strong

winds with sand particles in them, keep on sculpturing the rocks.

Physical Properties of Soil

Physical properties of soil have a profound influence on tree growth because of

their effect on the supply of moisture, nutrients and air. They affect the supply of

moisture directly by affecting its movement, storage and availability and nutrient supply

and air through their effect on water. The physical properties of soil relate to its

texture, structure, porosity, etc.

1. Soil Texture

Soil texture is defined as the relative proportion of the various size groups of

individual soil particles; the individual size groups are referred to as soil separates. The

following soil groups are recognized:

 Clay – particles smaller than 0.002 mm

Silt – particles between 0.002 mm and 0.02 mm

Find sand – particles between 0.02 mm and 0.2 mm

Coarse sand – particles between 0.2 mm and 2.0 mm

Depending on the proportion of soil separates, soils are classified into different

soil classes. A soil class is defined as a group of soils having same range in particle size

and physical properties based on texture. For practical purposes, soil classes can be

grouped as follows:

Coarse–textured soils, viz., sand and sandy loams

Medium–textured soils, viz., loams and silt loams and

Fine–textured soils, viz., clays and clayed loams

Coarse-textured soil is also called light soil. Similarly, the fine-textured soil is

called heavy soil.

Importance of Soil Texture

i) Moisture relations – The percentage of finer particles governs the quantity

of moisture that can be held by the soil and the amount that would be available to

plants. Coarse-textured soil are easily drained and apt to be dry while, on the other

hand, fine-textured soils are poorly drained and hold much water on the large surface

area.

ii) Nutrient supplies – The percentage of finder particles governs nutrient

status of the soil. The fine-textured soils are high in nutrient status, sandy soils, on the

other hand, are low in fertility. The sandy soils support either pioneers or hardy species

with low moisture and nutrient requirement, examples being sissoo and chir

respectively.
 iii) Aeration – Texture of the soil regulates pore space and consequently the

aeration of the soil. Coarse-textured soils are better aerated than clayey soils.

iv) Root development – Texture of the soil affects root development.

2) Soil Structure

Soil structure is defined as the arrangement of individual soil particles into

aggregates of definite size and shape. Thus, while texture refers to the actual size of

soil particles, structure refers to the mode of grouping of these particles into aggregates.

Soil aggregate is defined as a single mass or cluster of many soil particles held together,

such as clod, prism, crumb or granule.

On the basis of structure, the soils are described as follows:

i) Single-grained – It is a structureless condition of the soil, each grain being

independent, as in dune sand.

ii) Massive – It is a structureless compacted condition of the soil, showing no

distinct arrangement of soil particles. It is common in podsols and ill-drained soils. It is

often the result of overgrazing or agricultural misuse of land.

iii) Crumby – A soil is called crumby when it has crumbs. A crumb is a small

aggregate of irregular shape and 3 mm or less in diameter, formed by the cohesion of a

number of soil particles. The condition in which the soil particles form water stable

crumbs largely by the physical and physico-chemical action of soil organic matter is

called crumb structure.

iv) Granular –It is a type of soil structure in which the soil aggregates are more

or less sub-angular or rounded in shape and of size upto 6 mm in diameter. It is

commonly found in mull humus layers in brown earths.

 v) Blocky or nutty – A soil is called blocky or nutty when it has a nut structure

which is defined as a soil structure in which soil aggregates are compact, more or less

rounded in shape and 6 mm to 25 mm in diameter.

vi) Cloddy – A soil is called cloddy when it has irregularly shaped aggregated of

medium to hard consistency and more than 25 mm in diameter.

Importance of Soil Structure

i) Structure is the most important physical property of soil as it affects soil moisture

and soil air relations

ii) It is an indication of nutrient status and activity of microorganisms in the soil

iii) If affects soil erosion. Crumb is least liable to erosion while single-grained

structure is most liable to erosion

3) Soil Porosity

Soil porosity is defined as the extent to which the gross volume of the soil is

unoccupied by solid particles. The space unoccupied by soil particles is also known as

pore space. Soil porosity is of two kinds:

i) Capillary porosity – It is the portion in a soil which is not filled by water

when the soil is wet but well drained.

ii) Non-capillary porosity – It is the air space in a soil at field moisture

capacity.

Importance of Soil Porosity

Soil porosity is an important physical property of the soil as it determines the

moisture and air relations of the soil. If affects internal drainage and diffusion of soil air.

Clayey soil has very small pore spaces which get choked up on wetting. Thus, these
soils may have too much water and too little air. Sandy soil, on the other hand, are

well-aerated but are not retentive of moisture. The best condition is that in which

capillary and non-capillary pore space occupy about half the soil volume and it is equally

divided between the two categories.

PLANT SUCCESSION

From the effect of factors of locality on vegetation and that of the forest

community on factors of locality, it is clear that the interaction of the vegetation and the

locality allow the growth and development of a plant community whose continued

presence in that site changes the factors of locality so much that the conditions become

unsuitable for the original plant community and the site is gradually invaded by the

members of other plant community which gradually replaces the former. For example,

take the case of a new sandy soil along the bank of a river. After the flood water

recedes, the bare sandy soil is gradually colonized by some grass. As the grass covers

most of the area, it gradually obstructs the flow of flood water and arrests silt in the

area. The decay of leaves of grass improves the soil conditions to some extent. The

soil, which was originally absolutely sandy and therefore, unretentive of moisture,

becomes slightly retentive due to annual addition of soil and organic matter. Its fertility

also improves. These slightly improved conditions make it suitable for the colonization

by a few hardy tree species, because the conditions are still very difficult due to

compete overhead sun and therefore full insulation, wider diurnal range of temperature,

strong winds, poor retentivity of moisture and low fertility of the soil. The species which

can grow in such difficult conditions is called pioneer. It is tolerant of the extremely

adverse climatic and soil conditions and can grow there. The individual members of this

species appear one by one in the area and gradually take the shape of a forest
community. The presence of this plant community makes further changes in the locality

factors. By the annual addition of organic matter and arrest of more and more silt, the

moisture retentivity and the fertility of the soil improves. The tree canopy affects not

only the atmospheric temperature inside the forest but also the soil temperature,

making it more equable. These changed conditions make the place suitable for some

other less hardy species which appear gradually and, in course of time, replace the

original plant community. The new plant community, further in course of time,

improves the soil and the climatic factors and thus makes the place suitable for some

other exacting species which comes in gradually and replaces the previous plant

community. Thus, there is a gradual replacement of one plant community by another

because of the interaction of vegetation and the locality factors and consequent

improvement in the conditions of both. This is called plant succession, which is defined

as the gradual replacement of one community by another in the development of

vegetation towards a climax which is the culmination stage in plant succession for a

given environment. The plant communities involved in the succession before the climax

is reached are called seres. Sere is defined as the series of plant communities resulting

from processes of succession or any recognizable stage in plant succession.

Evolution of the Concept of Plant Succession

The concept of plant succession has been developed during the last century by

observation of changes in isolated cases. Starting with Richard Peters who in 1806

described the departure of southern pine timber as a proof of the tendency in the nature

to a change in products on the same soil. Dawson (1847) and Thoreau (1863)

described the changes in localized places. It was Thoreau who, first, used the term

forest succession. Later Cawles (1899) described the change in vegetation on sand
dunes. It was, however, Clements (1916) who developed the idea and elaborated the

theory of plant succession. While the American foresters were working on this concept,

foresters of England and the continent were also working on the idea. However, it is

the Clements theory of plant succession that is widely accepted. The basic features of

the concept of plant succession are:

i) There is a continual change in the vegetation as a result of interaction of plant

community and the habitat factors

ii) The succession is inherently and inevitably progressive and the end product is

the climax and

iii) The succession is the progressive development of vegetation on the same site in

course of time

Kinds of Succession

Succession can be classified mainly in two ways:

i) On the basis of moisture conditions of the place and

ii) On the basis of presence or absence of vegetation in the place

i) On the basis of moisture conditions of the place

On the basis of the moisture conditions, succession is classified into:

a) Xerarch succession which is defined as the succession initiated in extremely

dry situations such as bare rock, wind blown sand, rocky talus slopes, etc. The

successional stages of this succession are called Xeroseres, which are defined as the

different stages in a xerarch succession. Xerosere may further be subdivided into

Lithosere which is defined as Xerosere which originates on rock surface and

Psammosere which is defined as the Xerosere which originates on sand.

 b) Hydrarch succession which is defined as the succession beginning in water, or

very wetland as in ponds, lakes, marshes, etc. The various stages of this succession are

called Hydrosere.

ii) On the basis of the presence or absence of vegetation in the place

On the basis of the presence or absence of vegetation in the place, succession is

classified into:

a) Primary succession which is defined as the succession which takes place on

sites which have previously not borne vegetation. Primary succession is, sometimes,

termed as autogenic succession because it takes place as a result of autogenic factors

which are due only to the individuals in a plant community. In other words, autogenic

succession is that in which vegetation affects the ecosystem to bring about

consequential change in itself.

b) Secondary succession which is defined as the succession which takes place on

site after the destruction of the whole or part of the original vegetation. This succession

is, sometimes, termed as allogenic succession as it takes place due to allogenic factors

which are defined as the factors which operate, independently of the plant themselves,

to alter the habitat gradually and thus cause changes in vegetation. For example,

clearing, burning, grazing, storm, erosion, deposition, landslide, etc., are various

allogenic factors.

Causes of Succession

The causes of succession may be classified as under:

i) Initial cases and

ii) Continuing causes

 i) Initial causes are the causes which provide the basis for succession to take

place. Thus, in case of primary succession they are responsible for creation of a new

soil, while, in case of secondary succession, they are responsible for making the soil

bare. The initial causes of primary and secondary succession are listed below:

Initial causes of Primary Succession

a) Erosion – Wind and water erode the soil and deposit it elsewhere. Thus,

new soils are created in the form of alluvial deposits, coastal sands, estuarian deposits,

sand dunes, landslips and scree.

b) Physiography – The configuration of the land surface is an initial cause to

the extent it helps the agents of erosion, i.e., wind, water and gravity, to create new

soils.

c) Elevation and subsidence – Seismic disturbances result in elevation and

subsidence of the soil resulting in the formation of new soils. Due to these

disturbances, river beds are silted up or the rivers change their courses leaving their

original beds for starting primary succession. Similarly, geological disturbances in the

Himalayas result in the formation of new soil for primary succession.

Initial causes of Secondary Succession

a) Climate – Climate is the initial cause when the vegetation is destroyed by the

action of drought, wind, snow or frost. For instance, a fair portion of a forest may be

killed by drought. It left to self, secondary succession will start on this bare area. Wind

may lay bare an area by uprooting the original crop. Snow may, similarly, destroy forest

by sliding.
 b) Physiography – Physiography is the initial cause when configuration of the

land surface is responsible for the destruction of vegetation in combination with some

other factors. For instance, landslide may take place on a steep slope, destroying the

forest.

c) Biotic factor – Biotic factor is the initial cause where a forest is destroyed as

result of the activity of man, his animals, or even wild animals. For instance, a forest

may be destroyed by reckless cutting, clearing, burning, indiscriminate heavy grazing,

etc.

Continuing causes – Continuing causes are those causes of succession which

help the development of plant communities and their replacement by other plant

communities. Thus, while the initial causes create suitable conditions for starting

succession, the continuing causes help in the formation of plant communities and their

gradual replacement by other communities leading to a climax. They consist of the

following:

a) Migration, b) Ecesis or establishment, c) Grouping and aggregation, d)

Competition and e) Reaction.

a) Migration – Migration is defined as the mass movement of plants from one

place to another. It begins when the germule (spore, seed, fruit, offshoot, or plant)

leaves the parent area and ends when it reaches the final resting place.

b) Ecesis or establishment – Ecesis is defined as the whole process whereby

a plant establishes itself in a new area from germination or its equivalent to

reproductions whether sexual or asexual.

c) Grouping and aggregation – Aggregation is defined as grouping, following

establishment of scattered colonizing invaders as a result of propagation.

 d) Competition – Competition is defined as the struggle for available food, light

and moisture, which takes place among species and individuals in an assemblage of

plants.

e) Reaction – Reaction is defined as the effect of vegetation on the site and is

the most important factor responsible for succession. The effect of the vegetation on

the site can be grouped into following two classes, viz., i) Effect on climatic factors and

ii) Effect on soil.

i) Effect on climatic factors – The vegetation affects the climatic factors by:

a) Altering the light conditions

b) Decreasing the day air temperature and reducing the diurnal

range

c) Reducing the wind velocity

d) Reducing the danger of radiation frost

e) Increasing relative humidity

ii) Effect on soil – The vegetation affects the soil by:

a) Addition of organic matter

b) Improving the structure of the soil

c) Improving moisture retentivity of the soil

d) Improving nutrient status of the soil

e) Improvement of the stability of the soil

f) Development of maturity of the soil

Primary Succession

As already defined, primary succession is the succession that takes place in areas

which did not bear vegetation before. In our country such soils could be new alluvial
deposits, new coastal sand, new estuarine deposits, sand dunes, land slips and screes.

The first two of these have practically no soil and are completely devoid of humus. The

estuarine deposits are rich in humus but are badly drained and usually contain high

percentage of sea salts. The land slips are better sites because of the presence of

original top soil mixed up in the rock pieces and good drainage. The screes have also

no soil and are very dry and therefore rarely good for vegetation.

Secondary Succession

In nature, primary succession does not proceed as smoothly as appears from its

description given earlier. Several unfavourable factors may delay or interrupt the

progress of succession towards the climax. These factors may be natural or biotic. On

account of these factors the primary succession may be held up at any stage or there

may be some retrogression or regression which is defined as the reversion to some

earlier stage of succession consequent on the introduction of an adverse factor. It is not

possible to revert exactly to any earlier forest and soil. Generally retrogression stages

are lower in height and more xerophytic in character. In extreme cases, e.g., fire,

clearing, etc., the entire vegetation may be destroyed.

When the causes of retrogression are removed or when the area from where

vegetation has been completely destroyed is left to itself, the nature starts its work

again, i.e., the vegetation starts progress. This progress, which is called secondary

succession, does not follow the same course as the primary succession. In other words,

a n e ntirely different series of successional stages of plant communities, which are

normally not seen in primary succession, appear in the secondary succession.

The colonizing species of the bare areas in primary succession and secondary

succession may sometimes be the same. For instance, Pinus wallichiana, Trema and
Anthocephalus cadamba not only colonize landslips and new gravel in primary

succession but also invade clearings to start secondary succession. But certain species

are characteristic of the secondary succession only. For instance, Macaranga is typical

of secondary succession in moist forests. Thus, in tropical evergreen forests, secondary

succession starts with the arrival of Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Callicarpa, Trema and

Macaranga. In the hills, secondary succession is often initiated by shrub growth. For

instance, where vegetation has been destroyed by burning or clear felling in the hills,

secondary succession starts with Woodfordia fruticosa, Indigofera pulchella and Berberis

lycium depending on aspect and altitude.

Secondary succession is very important so far as the forests of this country are

concerned because most of them have been subjected to fire, grazing and other

maltreatments before they were taken over by government for scientific management.

The stability of the three most important species of this country, viz., sal, teak and

deodar, in the moister parts of their habitat, is result of these regressive factors and,

therefore, they are just stable subclimaxes. When the factors of regression are

withdrawn, further progression takes place and these species are replaced by more

mesophytic vegetation. For instance, in the sal forests, continued fire protection results

in the development of vegetation towards wet evergreen mixed forest.

Climax

If the succession is allowed to progress without disturbance, a stage is reached

when no more improvement is possible in the soil and the vegetation. At that stage the

vegetation is in equilibrium with the environment and stays unchanged indefinitely by

reproducing itself. Thus, climax is the culmination stage in plant succession for a given

environment. Clements believed that the most dominant community forming factor was
climate and therefore, he called it climatic climax, which is defined as a climax which

owes its distinctive characters to climatic factors in conjunction with only such biotic

influences as plants and animals naturally occurring in the area, bring about. This is

also, sometimes, referred to as formation which is defined as the major unit of

vegetation comprising the climax communities of an area uniform in its major

physiognomic features.

Proclimax, which is defined as a term applied to all communities that suggest

something of a permanence or extent of a climax but are not typical of the existing

climate.

FOREST TYPES

Definition

Forest type is a category of forest defined with reference to its geographical

location, climatic and edaphic features, composition and condition. Champion and Seth

define it as a unit of vegetation which possesses (broad) characteristics in physiognomy

and structure sufficiently pronounced to permit of its differentiation from other such

units. This is irrespective of physiographic, edaphic or biotic factors. It is selected in

the first place subjectively from the ever-varying cover of vegetation, with boundaries

arbitrarily imposed on what are in fact gradual changes.

Object of Classification

The main object of classification of forests into forest types is to find out correct

silvicultural techniques and management practices for the development of forests.

These techniques and practices cannot have universal application because forests vary

from place to place. Therefore it becomes necessary to classify the forests into forest
types, so that suitable silvicultural techniques and management practices may be

evolved for each type to be applied to similar types in the field. This avoids waste of

money and effort as well as disappointment from the failure resulting from the

application of wrong techniques.

Bases of Classification

The forests can be classified into forest types on the basis of:

i) Physiognomy – Physiognomy means the general appearance of a forest

community and therefore, forms an easy basis for rough differentiation of very broad

classes. It is described by dominant growth-form (e.g., trees, shrubs, grasses, etc.), the

seasonal changes (e.g., evergreen and deciduous habit) and such other features as may

be associated with very dry or very wet sites.

ii) Structure – Structure of a forest is described by stratification (i.e., the way

in which different species are aligned in different layers of the forest) and dimensions of

trees including height and spacing. It is generally observed that more favourable the

site to tree growth the greater is the number of strata and the less favourable the site,

the lesser is the number of strata in which the forest is divided. Therefore, structural

stratification gives good basis for classifying forest types.

iii) Function – Function refers to the most common morphological characters of

the species such as leaf characters, leaf size, stem and root characters, e.g., buttress

formation, development of stilt roots, etc., which form the basis of classification.

iv) Floristics – Floristics refers to the species present in a particular forest.

While this forms an important basis for delimiting a forest type, there is a great

difference of opinions as to whether the frequency of the species should be used as a

basis or not. However, this can be used to distinguish subtypes.

 v) Dynamics – As a result of interaction between vegetation and the site, there

is continual change between the two. This results in succession and development of

climax communities. Though the general view favours Whittaker’s theory of vegetational

gradients, it is convenient for the time being to classify the relatively stable types as

climax, those still developing as seral, the stable community resulting from the special

soil peculiarities as edaphic climax and that resulting from the biotic interference as

biotic climax.

vi) Habitat – Habitat refers to the effective environmental conditions in which a

forest community exists. Thus, climate and edaphic factors often form the basis of

classifying forest vegetation.

vii) Physiography – Physiography refers to the natural features of the earth

surface. As it modifies the microclimate and results in different vegetation occurring in

the same climate on different aspects of the hill slope, it forms a good basis for

classifying vegetation.

viii) History – History refers to past biotic influences on a site and its

vegetation. Though these are very important in determining the present condition and

future potentialities in vegetational communities, it is often difficult to assess these

factors correctly.

Systems of Classification of Forest Types

Environment has the profoundest influence on vegetation which not only grows

and develops in its environment but remains in equilibrium with it. Therefore, the

system of classification of vegetation can be either:

i) Botanical, i.e., based mainly on vegetation

ii) Climatic, i.e., based mainly on climate or

 iii) Ecological, i.e., based mainly ecosystem consisting of vegetation

environment complex

i) Classification based mainly on vegetation – The classification based

mainly on vegetation is made on the basis of study of plant communities. The data

collected as a result of the study is grouped on the basis of physiognomy, structure,

composition and dynamics. There are two ways of arranging the data. In the one case,

the primary unit is plant association and a number of such associations are grouped

together on the basis of similarities to form a forest type. In the other method, a

vegetation type is broken into successively smaller units on the basis of differences. The

classifications put forward by Braun-Blanquet, Beard, Fosberg and Webb are examples

of classification based mainly on vegetation.

ii) Classification based mainly on climate – This system has been followed

by many workers. The method of their classification is briefly described below:

a) Schimper (1898) classified vegetation first according to temperature zones

and with in each temperature zone he made further classifications on the basis of

moisture conditions. He considered mountains separately as they had their own climatic

peculiarities.

b) Mayr (1909) adopted temperature zones combined with latitude and altitude

as the basis for primary classification. The other factor to which he attached importance

next was the mean temperature during the growing season from May to August. He

differentiated between coastal and continental climates also.

c) Koppen (1931) adopted temperature of the hottest and coldest months and

the relative rainfall of the wettest and driest months and season of rainfall as a basis for

classification.
 d) Thornthwaite (1933) adopted temperature efficiency (T.E.) as the basis for

classification. Later in 1948, he used potential evapotranspiration as the basis.

e) Shanbhag (1958) adopted thermodynamic principles, especially the relation

between the rise in temperature and the speed of chemical reaction, as the basis for

differentiating humid and arid climates. He also made a supposition that 30oC marks

critical boundary below which growth stimulating factors are dominant and above which

inhibiting factors become dominant.

iii) Classification based mainly on ecosystem – This systems gives

sufficient weightage to both vegetation and climate. The most important classification

of this system have been proposed by Burtt-Davy, Swain, Gaussen and by Champion

and Seth in the revised classification of forest types of India.

Revised Classification of Forest Types of India

On the basis of additional information available Champion and Seth revised the

preliminary classification of forest types of India prepared in 1935. In this classification,

the forests of India have first been divided into the following five major groups:

i) Tropical forests

ii) Montane subtropical forests

iii) Montane temperate forests

iv) Sub-alpine forests and

v) Alpine scrub

The major groups have, as described below, been further divided into type

groups or, simply, groups on the basis climatic data and vegetation. The tropical forests

have been differentiated into seven groups, the montane subtropical forests into three

groups, montane temperate forests into three groups, sub-alpine forests into one group
and alpine scrub into two groups. Most of these groups or type groups have been

further differentiated into two subgroups describing southern and northern forms.

Each subgroup is again divided into types in which climax formations have been

designated by letter C, edaphic climax formation by letter E, primary sere by IS and

secondary sere by 2S, the tropical swamps by letter TS and fresh water swamps by FS.

Within each subgroup, the types are given in serial number as C1, C2, E1, E2 and so on.

These types are differentiated into subtypes by suffixing letter a, b, c and so on for each

subtype. Subtypes are sometimes further classified into varieties by suffixing number,

e.g., i, ii, iii. Thus a variety of type C1 is designated as C1a(i).