SPPC 109

POSTGRADUATE COURSE
M.Sc., - COUNSELLING PSYCHOLOGY
FIRST YEAR
SECOND SEMESTER

CORE PAPER - VIII

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS
M.Sc., PSYCHOLOGY FIRST YEAR CORE PAPER - VIII
SECOND SEMESTER PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

WELCOME
Warm Greetings.

It is with a great pleasure to welcome you as a student of Institute of Distance Education,

University of Madras. It is a proud moment for the Institute of Distance education as you are
entering into a cafeteria system of learning process as envisaged by the University Grants
Commission. Yes, we have framed and introduced Choice Based Credit System(CBCS) in
Semester pattern from the academic year 2018-19. You are free to choose courses, as per the
Regulations, to attain the target of total number of credits set for each course and also each
degree programme. What is a credit? To earn one credit in a semester you have to spend 30
hours of learning process. Each course has a weightage in terms of credits. Credits are assigned
by taking into account of its level of subject content. For instance, if one particular course or
paper has 4 credits then you have to spend 120 hours of self-learning in a semester. You are
advised to plan the strategy to devote hours of self-study in the learning process. You will be
assessed periodically by means of tests, assignments and quizzes either in class room or
laboratory or field work. In the case of PG (UG), Continuous Internal Assessment for 20(25)
percentage and End Semester University Examination for 80 (75) percentage of the maximum
score for a course / paper. The theory paper in the end semester examination will bring out your
various skills: namely basic knowledge about subject, memory recall, application, analysis,
comprehension and descriptive writing. We will always have in mind while training you in
conducting experiments, analyzing the performance during laboratory work, and observing the
outcomes to bring out the truth from the experiment, and we measure these skills in the end
semester examination. You will be guided by well experienced faculty.

I invite you to join the CBCS in Semester System to gain rich knowledge leisurely at
your will and wish. Choose the right courses at right times so as to erect your flag of success.
We always encourage and enlighten to excel and empower. We are the cross bearers to make
you a torch bearer to have a bright future.

With best wishes from mind and heart,

DIRECTOR

(i)
M.Sc., PSYCHOLOGY FIRST YEAR CORE PAPER - VIII
SECOND SEMESTER PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

COURSE WRITER

Ms. Shruti Rao

Guest Lecturer
Department of Counselling Psychology
University of Madras
Chennai

COORDINATION & EDITING

Dr. S. Thenmozhi
Professor of Psychology
Department of Psychology
Institute of Distance Education
University of Madras
Chepauk Chennnai - 600 005.

© UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS, CHENNAI 600 005.

(ii)
 M.Sc., DEGREE COURSE

FIRST YEAR

SECOND SEMESTER

Core Paper - VIII

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

SYLLABUS
Objective: This course is mean to provide students with an understanding of the principles on
which frameworks of assessments in Counselling psychology practice is built. Students will

explore various types of assessment models and their administration and develop competence

to identify appropriate assessment tools for various client concerns.

1. Developmental Screening Test

2. Bender Visual Motor Gestalt test

3. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

4. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

5. Ravens Intelligence - S.P.M., C.P.M., A.P.M

6. Seguin Form Board

7. Interest, Career and Value Test

8. Sentence completion test

9. Thematic apperception test (TAT)

10. Children apperception test (CAT)

11. Draw a person

(iii)
12. Rorschach ink blot test

13. Personality Inventory for Adolescent

14. FIRO – B

15. Minnesota multiple personality inventory test

16. NIMHANS Neuropsychological Battery

Out of sixteen assessments the students have to select any ten assessments

(iv)
 M.Sc., DEGREE COURSE

FIRST YEAR

SECOND SEMESTER

Core Paper - VIII

PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING
SCHEME OF LESSONS

Sl.No. Title Page

1. Introduction to Psychological Testing 001

2. History of Psychological Testing 023

3. Types of Psychological Tests 034

4. Format of the Report 043

5. Model Test 046

6. Developmental Screening Test 051

7. Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test 059

8. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 070

9. Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices 086

10. Seguin Form Board Test 092

11. Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation - Behavior

(FIRO-B) 096

12. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) 110

13. Children’s Apperception Test (CAT) 137

14. Draw A Person Test 142

15. NIMHANS Neuropsychological Battery 151

 1

CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

1.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the meaning and definition of Psychological test, the characteristics
of psychological tests, the need for the psychological testing or experiments and finally the
application of Psychological tests.

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:

1. Understand what is psychological testing

Plan of Study
1.1 Introduction

1.2 Psychological Testing and Assessment

1.3 Features of a good psychological measure

1.4 Summary

1.2 Psychological Testing and Assessment

The roots of contemporary psychological testing and assessment can be found in early
twentieth-century France. In 1905, Alfred Binet and a colleague published a test designed to
help place Paris schoolchildren in appropriate classes. Binet’s test would have consequences
well beyond the Paris school district. Within a decade, an English language version of Binet’s
test was prepared for use in schools in the United States. When the United States declared war
on Germany and entered World War I in 1917, the military needed a way to screen large
numbers of recruits quickly for intellectual and emotional problems. Psychological testing
provided this methodology. During World War II, the military would depend even more on
psychological tests to screen recruits for service. Following the war, more and more tests
2

purporting to measure an ever-widening array of psychological variables were developed and

used. There were tests to measure not only intelligence but also personality, aspects of brain
functioning, performance at work, and many other aspects of psychological and social
functioning.

The world’s receptivity to Binet’s test in the early twentieth century spawned not only
more tests but more test developers , more test publishers, more test users, and the emergence
of what, logically enough, has become known as a testing enterprise. Testing was the term
used to refer to everything from the administration of a test (as in “Testing in progress”) to the
interpretation of a test score (“The testing indicated that . . .”). The semantic distinction between
psychological testing and psychological assessment is blurred in everyday conversation.
Somewhat surprisingly, the distinction between the two terms remains blurred even in edition
after edition of some published “psychological testing” textbooks. Yet the distinction is important.
Society at large is best served by a clear definition of and differentiation between these two
terms as well as related terms such as psychological test user and psychological assessor. We
define psychological assessment as the gathering and integration of psychology - related data
for the purpose of making a psychological evaluation that is accomplished through the use of
tools such as tests, interviews, case studies, behavioral observation, and specially designed
apparatuses and measurement procedures. We define psychological testing as the process of
measuring psychology-related variables by means of devices or procedures designed to obtain
a sample of behavior.

1.3 Features of Good Psychological Measures

Whether you looking for an existing measure, or needing to make a new one, the measure
must display important features. Look out for the following features and if you are developing
a measure yourself, use this as a check list of features to include:

 a statement of what the scale measures;

 justification for the scale – its uses, and advantages over existing measures;

 a description of how the preliminary pool of items was drawn up;

 description of the sample used for testing;

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 descriptive statistics (norms): means, standard deviations, ranges, different subscales

(if any);

 reliability statistics;

 validity statistics;

 the scale itself (instructions, items or examples of items)

 the construction and use of the scale must follow appropriate ethical guidelines.

A statement of what the scale measures

This would not normally be very long. However it is often difficult to produce. The reason
for the difficulty is that one is required to formulate and define the obvious! Try to formulate this
statement very early in the development of any scale. Preferably it should be the first thing you
do, if and when you are producing a scale.

Justification for the scale

The scale’s background and history, including underlying theory, its uses, and advantages
over existing measures should be explained. You may need to include a rationale for having a
scale at all, rather than a single-item measure. For example, explaining why you need twenty
or thirty questions looking at different facets of belief about prayer, or different symptoms of
depressive illness, rather than just one question asking for an indication of favourability to
prayer, or extent of depression. Typically, a multi-item measure is needed where there is an
underlying central conceptual entity, with a number of facets, which may not be tapped by a
single question. In the case of depression for example, depressed mood, suicide plans, sleep
disturbance and so forth could not be tapped with single question.

How the preliminary pool of items is drawn up

Give details of the sources used, how if at all they were sampled, and any special steps
taken to check the wording of the items. For example you might describe how you asked, say,
five people to read the items to check for meaning, clarity, ambiguity and double-barrelled-
ness, and then report that you made amendments in the light of their comments.
4

Description of the sample used for testing

Any psychological test or measure should be presented with a description of the group or
groups of people who did the test and contributed to the mean score(s). If the test is given to
different types of people, we would not necessarily expect their performances to be similar.
Thus anyone using your test needs to know whether their testee came from the same population
as your norming sample, in order to interpret their score(s) in the light of your norms. Any
special local or historical circumstances should be noted. Mean age and age range should be
given where possible, and any details of cultural background that cannot be inferred from
knowing the country in which the test was carried out. Ideally, performance of males and
females (and any other subgroups) should be examined separately, and if performances differ,
means should be presented separately.

Means, standard deviations and ranges (Norms)

The mean (average) is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. It is the
total of everyone’s total scores on the test, divided by the number of people who did the test.
Some would prefer to quote an item mean, which is the mean score for one item (the scale
mean is divided by the number of items). This has the advantage that if the number of items in
the scale is varied, comparisons can still be made between people doing different versions of
the scale, with different numbers of items in each version. The standard deviation is a measure
of how much spread there is in the scores. The range is simply the highest and the lowest
score. It is a good idea to show the range actually obtained, and the theoretically possible
range if this is different from the range actually obtained.

Reliability

Reliability is consistency. Do different bits of your measure give similar results? If you
gave your measure again to the same people would they score similarly? If you gave your
measure to similar people, would they score similarly? Field (2013) states that reliability means
that a measure “consistently reflects the construct it is measuring” and Coaley (2010) confirms
that a reliable measure gives similar results on different occasions. Gravetter & Wallnau (2014)
confirm that reliability is consistency. Of course if something happened to affect test results,
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then one would expect a change; this does not mean the test is unreliable. If I was afraid of
cats and did some therapy to reduce that fear, then my score on a cat phobia test ought to be
reduced.

There are different measures of reliability, and more is said about these different measures
below. An unreliable measure is of limited value. If different questions or items on your test
give inconsistent results, then you are not assessing anything. This may seem trivial, but a
crucial hallmark of a professional test is that you do the work necessary to establish its reliability.
Wording. A test cannot be reliable unless the items are clear and unambiguous. Correlation, it
is important to produce a numerical (statistical) measure of reliability, that is objectively defined,
so as to allow comparison between tests. Measures of reliability are usually correlation
coefficients. A correlation coefficient can range from 1.0 through 0 down to -1.0, and it is a
measure of the strength of association or similarity between two sets of scores obtained by the
same people. A correlation coefficient of 1.0 or nearly 1.0 means that the two sets of scores are
strongly associated or very similar. A person who got a high score on one test or on one
occasion got a high score the second time; low scorers on the first set of scores were low
scorers on the second set. A high negative correlation of -1.0 or nearly -1.0, means that the two
sets of scores are also strongly associated but the association is negative and high scores in
one set of scores go along with low scores in the other set, and vice versa. A correlation
coefficient of 0 or nearly 0 means that the two sets of scores are not related at all: a high score
in one set of scores may be associated with a high score in the other set, or a medium score,
or a low score - we just cannot predict anything about scores in the second set from scores in
the first set. In evaluating reliability coefficients we are usually looking for high positive values.
The statistical significance of a coefficient depends on the size of the coefficient and on the
size of sample (of people).

The statistical significance of the correlation is the probability of getting that coefficient
by chance, that is, as a result of “sampling error”. Sampling error is said to have occurred
when your population is not truly representative of the population it is supposed to represent. A
very low probability indicates that it was very unlikely that you obtained that coefficient by
chance, as a result of sampling error. A very low probability indicates acceptable statistical
significance. Normally, probabilities of less than .05 are acceptable, at least for exploratory
6

research and small samples; ideally they should be less than .01, especially where sample
size is large. Statistical software packages will work out probabilities for you. If you are working
without such a package, then statistical tables will have to be consulted. In our example, the
probability of getting a correlation of .76 with a sample of 50 is much less than .01, so the result
would be considered statistically significant. However nowadays, the most popular reliability
coefficient, alpha, is judged somewhat differently from other correlation coefficients. The section
later in this chapter, on reliability statistics, says more about this. Note that the statistical
significance of the correlation coefficient tells you nothing about the direction and strength of
the association. This information is given by the coefficient itself. So you must examine the
direction and size of the coefficient to make sensible interpretations of its meaning.

Forms of reliability

All forms of reliability assessment involve two or more sets of scores from the same
group of people, where the scores are supposed to measure the same thing. The investigator
then calculates a measure of association between the sets of scores - usually a correlation
coefficient - while praying hard that the measure of association indicates a good level of
agreement between the scores. There are several different ways of indicating reliability, and
the investigator chooses the one(s) that suits his or her needs the best. Normally, Cronbach’s
coefficient alpha is regarded as the most desirable. This coefficient takes into account all the
inter-associations between all items in the scale. You will hopefully use one of the coefficients
generated automatically by a computer package, and the following notes should help you to
understand something of what the computer is doing for you.

Item-total correlations: the investigator calculates the correlation (or other measure of
association) between scores on each item of the test, and the total score on the test. This is
done for each item in the test. Ideally the total should be the total score on the test minus the
score on the item under consideration. This will yield as many correlations as there are items
in the test. It tells you, for each item, how well answers to that item relate to answers to all the
other items. It sounds a bit long-winded, but you probably have to do it, as it is the best way to
home in on items which are not assessing the same thing as the others. Cronbach’s alpha (see
below), an important measure of internal consistency, is based on item-total correlations; when
 7

calculating Cronbach’s alpha, there should be an option which will yield all the individual item-
total correlations.

Test-retest reliability: the same test is given to the same people on two different occasions
(this is what happened in the imaginary example of a test assessing trust in clinical psychologists).
The correlation between scores on the two occasions is calculated. This form of reliability
assessment is not much use if you are assessing transitory states of mind that are easily and
rapidly changed (such as mood, and many beliefs, attitudes and intentions).

Split-half reliability: the investigator selects half the items in the test at random, and
calculates a total score for that half of the test, and a total score for the other half of the test.
The correlation between scores on the two half-tests are then calculated. A variation on split-
half reliability is alternate-forms reliability, in which two different versions of a test measuring
the same thing are given to the same people.

Inter-rater reliability: This is a special form of reliability which needs to be calculated

when ratings of observed behaviour or speech are made by an observer. Reliability is assessed
by calculating the extent to which another observer makes the same ratings of the same
behaviour or speech. This form of inter-judge agreement can also be used to confirm whether
judges think that items are about what they are supposed to be about (see the sections on
content and face validity later in this chapter).

Validity

A valid test is one that measures what it is supposed to measure. Field (2013) adds
sternly “what it set out to measure conceptually”. The British Psychological Society’s (BPS)
1999 Guide to Psychological Testing says that “validity is concerned with what the test score
actually measures”. Coaley (2010) points out that only a valid test will enable one to make
inferences about people on the basis of their scores. Unless a test is reliable it is unlikely to be
valid. There are several different ways of showing evidence of validity, and you do not have to
use them all. You should select one or more methods, depending on your resources and
needs.
8

Content and face validity. Content validity is present when the items are about what
you are measuring, and face validity is present when the items appear to be about what you
are measuring. Content validity is assessed by asking judges who are experts on the topic
being assessed, whether they agree that each item is about what it is supposed to be about.
Face validity is assessed by asking the same thing of judges who are members of the target
population(s) who will be completing the measure. For example “Ice-cream is delicious” is a
content- and face-valid measure of favourability to ice-cream, whereas “Ice-lollies are delicious”
is not (because ice-lollies are not ice-cream). Some researchers think that face validity is not
necessary. There are two reasons for this view. One is that you might see a need to be a bit
secretive about what you are assessing, to avoid the possibility of testees “faking-good”
(appearing better than they are). It raises some serious ethical issues. Another reason for
doing without face-validity is that if a test is reliable, and valid by other criteria - it may not
matter about face validity. The eminent H.J.Eysenck is reported to have said regarding his
measures of neuroticism, “An item can ask whether the moon is made of green cheese, as
long as neurotics generally answer one way, and non-neurotics the other”. Kline (1986) however
suggested that participants may not cooperate unless items appear to have face validity. Kline
says that if test instructions are clear and all test items reflect all aspects of the subject being
tested, then the test is valid per se.

Criterion validity is present when measures on the test differ as predicted according to
some criterion. For example two groups of participants differing by some criterion such as
gender, or occupation, might be expected to respond differently on some tests.

Concurrent validity is shown when your test relates concurrently to some other measure
of the same thing. There is always a danger that you can be accused of redundancy, because
if you select another test or rating as a criterion against which to validate your test, then you
might be asked why your test is necessary at all. You should be able to justify your new
measure by showing that it is simpler, quicker, more user-friendly, or more useful or cost-
effective than the measure against which you have validated your test. For example,
psychometric scales may be more reliable than some traditional methods of assessment, such
as interviews, where a great deal of training and experience is required to interpret and score
the results.
 9

Predictive validity is achieved if your test predicts subsequent performance on some

criterion. Occupational psychologists and personnel managers, for example, would normally
wish that a selection test would predict future work performance.

Construct validity is achieved if you have formulated your test in the context of a theory
which makes predictions about behaviour in relation to the test. These predictions would be
considerably more elaborate than those expected when looking at criterion or predictive validity.
An example would be the predictions made by Eysenck about conditionability and other aspects
of behaviour and cognitive functioning according to combinations of scores on the Eysenck
personality questionnaire (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975).

There are other facets to test validity, but the ones I have just described are the methods
most commonly used. For the novice, and for many ordinary common-or-garden test
constructors, it is usually a good idea to try to achieve face and content validity, and usually
possible to aim for criterion and/or concurrent validation against some suitable criterion or
standard. Predictive validity sounds straightforward on paper, but it involves a prospective
research design - research in which the people tested have to be followed-up at a later time.
This can be quite difficult in practice - expensive, time-consuming, and often very difficult to
track down all the people you tested the first time round - to state the main torments in a
nutshell. However it may have to be aimed for when developing a test that will be used for
selection and therefore must be shown to predict something (Johnson & Blinkhorn, 1994). As
for construct validity, you need a good theory, a lot of courage, and plenty of time and, ideally,
research funding. These are things that do not come easily.

Two more features of most psychological measures: additivity and interval

measurement.

Any measure of the type you might want to construct using this book will involve two
important assumptions, namely additivity and interval measurement:

 Additivity: the construct measured (for example, depression, or liking for psychologists)
will be assessed by asking people to carry out your instructions with regard to a number
of test items. You might ask people, for example, whether certain mood-adjectives were
10

generally applicable to them, or whether they agreed with certain statements about
psychologists. You then add up the answers, to give an overall measure of depression,
or liking for psychologists. It is up to you to decide whether additivity seems to be justified.
It would not make sense to add the answers to depression items to the answers to items
about liking for psychologists, for example.

 Interval measurement: once a total score has been obtained by addition, you have to
think about whether the “intervals” in your scale are roughly equal. For instance, consider
three people scoring say 0, 5 and 10 on a depression measure. To qualify as an interval
scale, you have to be fairly confident that the person who scored 10 is more depressed
than the person who scored 5, to the same extent that the 5-scorer is more depressed
than the 0-scorer. If this is difficult to decide, you could comfort yourself with the thought
that you may be using Likert’s solution, described very shortly. The question of interval
scaling is a point dealt with much more fully in statistics textbooks. It is mentioned here
because most of the statistics that are needed for scale development assume that scores
are on an interval scale. Likert (1932) developed a method for scaling using what he
called “equal-appearing intervals”. This involved asking people to say how much they
agreed or disagreed with test items, or how much the items were applicable to them. For
example, how much do you agree with the following? (Underline one of the five alternative
answers).

Scales of Measurement

We may formally define measurement as the act of assigning numbers or symbols to

characteristics of things (people, events, whatever) according to rules. The rules used in
assigning numbers are guidelines for representing the magnitude (or some other characteristic)
of the object being measured. A scale is a set of numbers (or other symbols) whose properties
model empirical properties of the objects to which the numbers are assigned. There are various
ways of categorizing scales.

One way of categorizing a scale is according to the type of variable being measured.
Thus, a scale used to measure a continuous variable might be referred to as a continuous
scale, whereas a scale used to measure a discrete variable might be referred to as a discrete
 11

scale. If, for example, research subjects were to be categorized as either female or male, the
categorization scale would be said to be discrete because it would not be meaningful to
categorize a subject as anything other than female or male. In contrast, a continuous scale
exists when it is theoretically possible to divide any of the values of the scale. A distinction must
be made, however, between what is theoretically possible and what is practically desirable.
The units into which a continuous scale will actually be divided may depend on such factors as
the purpose of the measurement and practicality. In measurement to install venetian blinds, for
example, it is theoretically possible to measure by the millimeter or even by the micrometer.
But is such precision necessary? Most installers do just fine with measurement by the inch.
Measurement always involves error. In the language of assessment, error refers to the collective
influence of all of the factors on a test score or measurement beyond those specifically measured
by the test or measurement. As we will see, there are many different sources of error in
measurement. Consider, for example, the score someone received on a test in American history.
We might conceive of part of the score as reflecting the testtaker’s knowledge of American
history and part of the score as reflecting error. The error part of the test score may be due to
many different factors. One source of error might have been a distracting thunderstorm going
on outside at the time the test was administered. Another source of error was the particular
selection of test items the instructor chose to use for the test. Had a different item or two been
used in the test, the testtaker’s score on the test might have been higher or lower. Error is very
much an element of all measurement, and it is an element for which any theory of measurement
must surely account. Measurement using continuous scales always involves error. The number
or score used to characterize the trait being measured on a continuous scale should be thought
of as an approximation of the “real” number.

It is generally agreed that there are four different levels or scales of measurement. Within
these different levels or scales of measurement, assigned numbers convey different kinds of
information. Accordingly, certain statistical manipulations may or may not be appropriate,
depending upon the level or scale of measurement.

Nominal Scales

Nominal scales are the simplest form of measurement. These scales involve classification
or categorization based on one or more distinguishing characteristics, where all things measured
must be placed into mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories.
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Ordinal Scales

Like nominal scales, ordinal scales permit classification. However, in addition to

classification, rank ordering on some characteristic is also permissible with ordinal scales. In
business and organizational settings, job applicants may be rank-ordered according to their
desirability for a position. In clinical settings, people on a waiting list for psychotherapy may be
rank-ordered according to their need for treatment.

Even though ordinal scales may employ numbers or “scores” to represent the rank
ordering, the numbers do not indicate units of measurement. So, for example, the performance
difference between the first-ranked job applicant and the second-ranked applicant may be
small while the difference between the second- and third-ranked applicants may be large.

Ordinal scales have no absolute zero point. In the case of a test of job performance
ability, every testtaker, regardless of standing on the test, is presumed to have some ability. No
testtaker is presumed to have zero ability. Zero is without meaning in such a test because the
number of units that separate one testtaker’s score from another’s is simply not known. The
scores are ranked, but the actual number of units separating one score from the next may be
many, just a few, or practically none. Because there is no zero point on an ordinal scale, the
ways in which data from such scales can be analyzed statistically are limited. One cannot
average the qualifications of the first- and third ranked job applicants, for example, and expect
to come out with the qualifications of the second-ranked applicant.

Interval Scales

In addition to the features of nominal and ordinal scales, interval scales contain equal
intervals between numbers. Each unit on the scale is exactly equal to any other unit on the
scale. But like ordinal scales, interval scales contain no absolute zero point. With interval
scales, we have reached a level of measurement at which it is possible to average a set of
measurements and obtain a meaningful result. Scores on many tests, such as tests of
intelligence, are analyzed statistically in ways appropriate for data at the interval level of
measurement. The difference in intellectual ability represented by IQs of 80 and 100, for example,
is thought to be similar to that existing between IQs of 100 and 120. However, if an individual
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were to achieve an IQ of 0 (something that is not even possible, given the way most intelligence
tests are structured), that would not be an indication of zero (the total absence of) intelligence.
Because interval scales contain no absolute zero point, a presumption inherent in their use is
that no testtaker possesses none of the ability or trait (or whatever) being measured.

Ratio Scales

In addition to all the properties of nominal, ordinal, and interval measurement, a ratio
scale has a true zero point. All mathematical operations can meaningfully be performed because
there exist equal intervals between the numbers on the scale as well as a true or absolute zero
point. In psychology, ratio-level measurement is employed in some types of tests and test
items, perhaps most notably those involving assessment of neurological functioning.

Describing Data

Suppose you have magically changed places with the professor teaching this course
and that you have just administered an examination that consists of 100 multiple-choice items
(where 1 point is awarded for each correct answer). The distribution of scores for the 25 students
enrolled in your class could theoretically range from 0 (none correct) to 100 (all correct). A
distribution may be defined as a set of test scores arrayed for recording or study. The 25
scores in this distribution are referred to as raw scores. As its name implies, a raw score is a
straightforward, unmodified accounting of performance that is usually numerical. A raw score
may reflect a simple tally, as in number of items responded to correctly on an achievement
test.

Frequency Distributions

The data from the test could be organized into a distribution of the raw scores. One way
the scores could be distributed is by the frequency with which they occur. In a frequency
distribution, all scores are listed alongside the number of times each score occurred. The
scores might be listed in tabular or graphic form. Table 3–2 lists the frequency of occurrence of
each score in one column and the score itself in the other column. Often, a frequency distribution
is referred to as a simple frequency distribution to indicate that individual scores have been
14

used and the data have not been grouped. Another kind of frequency distribution used to
summarize data is a grouped frequency distribution. In a grouped frequency distribution, test-
score intervals, also called class intervals, replace the actual test scores. The number of class
intervals used and the size or width of each class interval (i.e., the range of test scores contained
in each class interval) is for the test user to decide. In most instances, a decision about the
size of a class interval in a grouped frequency distribution is made on the basis of convenience.
Of course, virtually any decision will represent a trade-off of sorts. A convenient, easy-to-read
summary of the data is the trade-off for the loss of detail.

Three kinds of graphs used to illustrate frequency distributions are the histogram, the
bar graph, and the frequency polygon. A histogram is a graph with vertical lines drawn at the
true limits of each test score (or class interval), forming a series of contiguous rectangles. It is
customary for the test scores (either the single scores or the midpoints of the class intervals) to
be placed along the graph’s horizontal axis (also referred to as the abscissa or X -axis) and for
numbers indicative of the frequency of occurrence to be placed along the graph’s vertical axis
(also referred to as the ordinate or Y -axis). In a bar graph, numbers indicative of frequency
also appear on the Y -axis, and reference to some categorization (e.g., yes/no/maybe, male/
female) appears on the X -axis. Here the rectangular bars typically are not contiguous. Data
illustrated in a frequency polygon are expressed by a continuous line connecting the points
where test scores or class intervals (as indicated on the X -axis) meet frequencies (as indicated
on the Y -axis). Graphic representations of frequency distributions may assume any of a number
of different shapes ( Figure 3–3 ). Regardless of the shape of graphed data, it is a good idea
for the consumer of the information contained in the graph to examine it carefully—and, if need
be, critically.

Measures of Central Tendency

A measure of central tendency is a statistic that indicates the average or midmost score
between the extreme scores in a distribution. The center of a distribution can be defined in
different ways. Perhaps the most commonly used measure of central tendency is the arithmetic
mean (or, more simply, mean ), which is referred to in everyday language as the “average.”
The mean takes into account the actual numerical value of every score. In special instances,
 15

such as when there are only a few scores and one or two of the scores are extreme in relation
to the remaining ones, a measure of central tendency other than the mean may be desirable.
Other measures of central tendency we review include the median and the mode. Note that, in
the formulas to follow, the standard statistical shorthand called “summation notation” ( summation
meaning “the sum of”) is used. The Greek uppercase letter sigma, _, is the symbol used to
signify “sum”; if X represents a test score, then the expression _ X means “add all the test
scores.”

The arithmetic mean

The arithmetic mean, denoted by the symbol X (pronounced “X bar”), is equal to the sum
of the observations (or test scores in this case) divided by the number of observations.
Symbolically written, the formula for the arithmetic mean is X_Σ(X/n), where n equals the
number of observations or test scores. The arithmetic mean is typically the most appropriate
measure of central tendency for interval or ratio data when the distributions are believed to be
approximately normal. An arithmetic mean can also be computed from a frequency distribution.

The median

The median, defined as the middle score in a distribution, is another commonly used
measure of central tendency. We determine the median of a distribution of scores by ordering
the scores in a list by magnitude, in either ascending or descending order. If the total number
of scores ordered is an odd number, then the median will be the score that is exactly in the
middle, with one-half of the remaining scores lying above it and the other half of the remaining
scores lying below it. When the total number of scores ordered is an even number, then the
median can be calculated by determining the arithmetic mean of the two middle scores. For
example, suppose that ten people took a pre-employment word processing test at The Rochester
Wrenchworks (TRW) Corporation. They obtained the following scores, presented here in
descending order:

66

65
16

61

59

53

52

41

36

35

32

The median of these data would be calculated by obtaining the average (that is, the
arithmetic mean) of the two middle scores, 53 and 52 (which would be equal to 52.5). The
median is an appropriate measure of central tendency for ordinal, interval, and ratio data. The
median may be a particularly useful measure of central tendency in cases where relatively few
scores fall at the high end of the distribution or relatively few scores fall at the low end of the
distribution.

The mode

The most frequently occurring score in a distribution of scores is the mode. As an example,
determine the mode for the following scores obtained by another TRW job applicant, Bruce.
The scores reflect the number of words Bruce word-processed in seven one-minute trials:

43 34 45 51 42 31 51

It is TRW policy that new hires must be able to word-process at least 50 words per
minute. Now, place yourself in the role of the corporate personnel officer. Would you hire
Bruce? The most frequently occurring score in this distribution of scores is 51. If hiring guidelines
gave you the freedom to use any measure of central tendency in your personnel decision
making, then it would be your choice as to whether or not Bruce is hired. You could hire him
and justify this decision on the basis of his modal score (51). You also could not hire him and
justify this decision on the basis of his mean score (below the required 50 words per minute).
 17

Ultimately, whether Rochester Wrenchworks will be Bruce’s new home away from home will
depend on other job related factors, such as the nature of the job market in Rochester and the
qualifications of competing applicants. Of course, if company guidelines dictate that only the
mean score be used in hiring decisions, then a career at TRW is not in Bruce’s immediate
future. The mode can convey a wealth of information in addition to the mean. The median is a
statistic that takes into account the order of scores and is itself ordinal in nature. The mean, an
interval-level statistic, is generally the most stable and useful measure of central tendency.

Measures of Variability

Variability is an indication of how scores in a distribution are scattered or dispersed. In

both distributions A and B, test scores could range from 0 to 100. In distribution A, we see that
the mean score was 50 and the remaining scores were widely distributed around the mean. In
distribution B, the mean was also 50 but few people scored higher than 60 or lower than 40.
Statistics that describe the amount of variation in a distribution are referred to as measures of
variability. Some measures of variability include the range, the interquartile range, the semi-
interquartile range, the average deviation, the standard deviation, and the variance.

The range

The range of a distribution is equal to the difference between the highest and the lowest
scores. The range is the simplest measure of variability to calculate, but its potential use is
limited. Because the range is based entirely on the values of the lowest and highest scores,
one extreme score (if it happens to be the lowest or the highest) can radically alter the value of
the range. For example, suppose distribution B included a score of 90. The range of this
distribution would now be equal to 90 _ 40, or 50. Yet, in looking at the data in the graph for
distribution B, it is clear that the vast majority of scores tend to be between 40 and 60. As a
descriptive statistic of variation, the range provides a quick but gross description of the spread
of scores. When its value is based on extreme scores in a distribution, the resulting description
of variation may be understated or overstated. Better measures of variation include the
interquartile range and the semi-interquartile range.
18

The interquartile and semi-interquartile ranges

A distribution of test scores (or any other data, for that matter) can be divided into four
parts such that 25% of the test scores occur in each quarter. As illustrated in Figure 3–5 , the
dividing points between the four quarters in the distribution are the quartiles. There are three of
them, respectively labeled Q 1, Q 2, and Q 3. Note that quartile refers to a specifi c point
whereas quarter refers to an interval. An individual score may, for example, fall at the third
quartile or in the third quarter (but not “in” the third quartile or “at” the third quarter). It should
come as no surprise to you that Q 2 and the median are exactly the same. And just as the
median is the midpoint in a distribution of scores, so are quartiles Q 1 and Q 3 the quarter-
points in a distribution of scores. Formulas may be employed to determine the exact value of
these points.

The interquartile range is a measure of variability equal to the difference between Q3

and Q1. Like the median, it is an ordinal statistic. A related measure of variability is the semi-
interquartile range, which is equal to the interquartile range divided by 2. Knowledge of the
relative distances of Q 1 and Q 3 from Q 2 (the median) provides the seasoned test interpreter
with immediate information as to the shape of the distribution of scores. In a perfectly symmetrical
distribution, Q 1 and Q 3 will be exactly the same distance from the median. If these distances
are unequal then there is a lack of symmetry. This lack of symmetry is referred to as skewness,
and we will have more to say about that shortly.

The average deviation

Another tool that could be used to describe the amount of variability in a distribution is
the average deviation, or AD for short. The lowercase italic x in the formula signifies a score’s
deviation from the mean. The value of x is obtained by subtracting the mean from the score (X
_ mean _ x ). The bars on each side of x indicate that it is the absolute value of the deviation
score (ignoring the positive or negative sign and treating all deviation scores as positive). All
the deviation scores are then summed and divided by the total number of scores ( n ) to arrive
at the average deviation.
 19

The standard deviation

Recall that, when we calculated the average deviation, the problem of the sum of all
deviation scores around the mean equalling zero was solved by employing only the absolute
value of the deviation scores. In calculating the standard deviation, the same problem must be
dealt with, but we do so in a different way. Instead of using the absolute value of each deviation
score, we use the square of each score. With each score squared, the sign of any negative
deviation becomes positive. Because all the deviation scores are squared, we know that our
calculations won’t be complete until we go back and obtain the square root of whatever value
we reach. We may define the standard deviation as a measure of variability equal to the
square root of the average squared deviations about the mean. More succinctly, it is equal to
the square root of the variance. The variance is equal to the arithmetic mean of the squares of
the differences between the scores in a distribution and their mean. The formula used to calculate
the variance ( s 2 ) using deviation scores is, the variance is calculated by squaring and summing
all the deviation scores and then dividing by the total number of scores. The variance can also
be calculated in other ways. For example: From raw scores, fi rst calculate the summation of
the raw scores squared, divide by the number of scores, and then subtract the mean squared.

Skewness

Distributions can be characterized by their skewness, or the nature and extent to which
symmetry is absent. Skewness is an indication of how the measurements in a distribution are
distributed. A distribution has a positive skew when relatively few of the scores fall at the high
end of the distribution. Positively skewed examination results may indicate that the test was
too difficult. More items that were easier would have been desirable in order to better discriminate
at the lower end of the distribution of test scores. A distribution has a negative skew when
relatively few of the scores fall at the low end of the distribution. Negatively skewed examination
results may indicate that the test was too easy. In this case, more items of a higher level of
difficulty would make it possible to better discriminate between scores at the upper end of the
distribution. The term skewed carries with it negative implications for many students. We suspect
that skewed is associated with abnormal, perhaps because the skewed distribution deviates
from the symmetrical or so-called normal distribution. However, the presence or absence of
symmetry in a distribution (skewness) is simply one characteristic by which a distribution can
be described.
20

Kurtosis

The term testing professionals use to refer to the steepness of a distribution in its center
is kurtosis. To the root kurtic is added to one of the prefixes platy -, lepto -, or meso- to describe
the peakedness/flatness of three general types of curves. Distributions are generally described
as platykurtic (relatively flat), leptokurtic (relatively peaked), or—somewhere in the middle—
mesokurtic. Many methods exist for measuring kurtosis. Some computer programs feature an
index of skewness that ranges from _3 to _ 3. In many ways, however, technical matters
related to the measurement and interpretations of kurtosis are controversial among
measurement specialists. So given that this can quickly become an advanced-level topic and
that this book is of a more introductory nature, let’s move on. It’s time to focus on a type of
distribution that happens to be the standard against which all other distributions (including all
of the kurtic ones) are compared: the normal distribution.

The Normal Curve

Theoretically, the normal curve is a bell-shaped, smooth, mathematically defined curve

that is highest at its center. From the center it tapers on both sides approaching the X -axis
asymptotically (meaning that it approaches, but never touches, the axis). In theory, the distribution
of the normal curve ranges from negative infinity to positive infinity. The curve is perfectly
symmetrical, with no skewness. If you folded it in half at the mean, one side would lie exactly
on top of the other. Because it is symmetrical, the mean, the median, and the mode all have
the same exact value. Why is the normal curve important in understanding the characteristics
of psychological tests?

Standard Scores

Simply stated, a standard score is a raw score that has been converted from one scale to
another scale, where the latter scale has some arbitrarily set mean and standard deviation.

Why convert raw scores to standard scores? Raw scores may be converted to standard
scores because standard scores are more easily interpretable than raw scores. With a standard
score, the position of a testtaker’s performance relative to other testtakers is readily apparent.
Different systems for standard scores exist, each unique in terms of its respective mean and
 21

standard deviations. We will briefl y describe z scores, T scores, stanines, and some other
standard scores. First for consideration is the type of standard score scales that may be thought
of as the zero plus or minus one scale. This is so because it has a mean set at 0 and a standard
deviation set at 1. Raw scores converted into standard scores on this scale are more popularly
referred to as z scores.

z Scores

A z score results from the conversion of a raw score into a number indicating how many
standard deviation units the raw score is below or above the mean of the distribution. In addition
to providing a convenient context for comparing scores on the same test, standard scores
provide a convenient context for comparing scores on different tests.

T Scores

If the scale used in the computation of z scores is called a zero plus or minus one scale,
then the scale used in the computation of T scores can be called a fifty plus or minus ten scale;
that is, a scale with a mean set at 50 and a standard deviation set at 10. Devised by W. A.
McCall (1922, 1939) and named a T score in honor of his professor E. L. Thorndike, this
standard score system is composed of a scale that ranges from 5 standard deviations below
the mean to 5 standard deviations above the mean.

Other Standard Scores

Numerous other standard scoring systems exist. Researchers during World War II
developed a standard score with a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of approximately 2.
Divided into nine units, the scale was christened a stanine, a term that was a contraction of the
words standard and nine. Stanine scoring may be familiar to many students from achievement
tests administered in elementary and secondary school, where test scores are often represented
as stanines. Stanines are different from other standard scores in that they take on whole values
from 1 to 9, which represent a range of performance that is half of a standard deviation in
width. The 5th stanine indicates performance in the average range, from 1/4 standard deviation
below the mean to 1/4 standard deviation above the mean, and captures the middle 20% of the
scores in a normal distribution. The 4th and 6th stanines are also 1/2 standard deviation wide
and capture the 17% of cases below and above (respectively) the 5th stanine.
22

1.3 Summary

 This chapter explains how to construct a reliable, valid measure of reported states of
mind or behaviour.

 The criteria of “good” psychometric measures were set out, with particular emphasis on
reliability and validity.
 23

CHAPTER - 2
HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

2.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the history of Psychological testing and the development of
psychological testing.

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:

1. Understand the history behind psychological testing

Plan of Study
2.1 Introduction

2.2 History of Psychological Testing

2.3 Summary

2.2 History of Psychological Testing

The history of psychological testing has been well documented by DuBois (1970), O’Neil
(1987), Keats and Keats (1988) and Ord (1977) have provided accounts of relevant
developments in Australia. The following section draws freely on these sources

Timeline of major developments in the history of psychological testing

 1890 The term ‘mental test’ is first used by James McKeen Cattell

 1905 Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon devise the first test of intelligence for use with
children

 1916 Lewis Terman publishes the Stanford-Binet test, based on the pioneering work of
Binet and Simon
24

 1917 Robert Yerkes leads the development of the Army Alpha and Beta tests for selection
for military service in the USA Setting the scene

 The Chairperson of Air New Zealand was reported as insisting members of his board
were to undergo psychological testing as part of the selection process. (New Zealand
Herald, 22 January 2002)

 The Medical Board of Australia released new guidelines that require children who want
to undergo cosmetic surgery, but who don’t have a medical justification, to undergo
mandatory psychological assessment. (Sunday Mail, 1 April 2012)

 A leading psychologist called for mandatory psychological testing of young drivers to

ensure that their brains are ‘mature’ enough to be granted driving licences. (Herald Sun,
14 February 2010)

 Staff in Australian Football League (AFL) clubs used results of neuropsychological tests
to determine when players who had suffered concussion should play for the team again.
(Herald Sun, 22 July 2003)

 1917 Robert Woodworth devises the first self-report test of personality

 1921 Hermann Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, publishes

Psychodiagnostics on the use of inkblots in evaluating personality

 1927 The first version of the Strong Vocational Interest Blank is published

 1938 Oscar Buros publishes the first compendium of psychological tests, the Mental
Measurements Yearbook

 1939 David Wechsler reports an individual test of adult intelligence

 1942 The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is published to assist the
differential diagnosis of psychiatric disorder

 1948 Henry Murray and colleagues publish Assessment of Men and the term ‘assessment’
comes to replace mental testing as a description of work with psychological tests
 25

 1957 Raymond Cattell publishes on performance tests of motivation 1962 Computer

interpretation of the MMPI is introduced

 1968 Walter Mischel publishes his widely cited critique of personality assessment

 1970 Computers are used for testing clients; computerised adaptive testing follows

 1971 The Federal Court in the USA challenges testing for personnel selection

 1985 Publication in the USA of the first edition of the Standards for Educational and
Psychological Testing

 1988 Jay Ziskin and David Faust challenge the use of psychological test results in court

 1993 The American Psychological Association publishes guidelines for computer-based

testing and interpretation

 1993 John Carroll publishes Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies,
in which he proposes his three-stratum theory of intelligence

 1999 Publication of the second edition of the Standards for Educational and Psychological
Testing

 2001 Gregory Meyer and colleagues publish the results of a review of 125 earlier literature
reviews indicating the value of psychological tests.

The origins of psychological testing can be found in the public service examinations
used by Chinese dynasties to select those who would work for them. These were large-scale
exercises involving many applicants and several days of testing, and from the era of the Han
dynasty involved written examinations (Bowman, 1989). Programs of testing were conducted
from about 2000 BCE to the early years of the twentieth century when they were discontinued,
at about the time the modern era of psychological testing was being introduced in the USA. A
major impetus to this modern development of testing was the need to select men for military
service when the USA entered the First World War without a standing army. There were,
however, a number of precursors to this development, the most significant being the work of
26

Alfred Binet (1857–1911) and his colleagues in France in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries. Binet was asked by the Office of Public Instruction in Paris to provide a method for
objectively determining which children would benefit from special education. In responding to
this request, Binet devised the first of the modern intelligence tests, using problems not unlike
those covered in a normal school program. In the process, he proposed a method for quantifying
intelligence in terms of the concept of mental age; that is, the child’s standing among children
of different chronological ages in terms of his or her cognitive capacity. For example, a child
whose knowledge and problem solving ability was similar to that of the average 10 year old
was described as having a mental age of 10 years. The child’s chronological age may be in
advance or behind that. Binet showed how a test of intelligence might be validated by comparing
the test performance of older with younger children, or the performance of those considered
bright by their teachers with those considered dull. Given our understanding of ability, older
children should do better than younger children on a test purporting to be a test of intelligence,
and bright children should perform better than dull children. Determining the appropriate content,
finding a unit of measurement and specifying methods for validating tests of this sort were all
significant achievements, with the result that Binet is often thought of as the originator of
psychological testing. Binet himself may not have been entirely pleased with this honour, because
he was more concerned with the remediation of difficulties than with the classification process
that has preoccupied many who adopted his procedures.

The assumption implicit in Binet’s work—that performance on a range of apparently

different problems can be aggregated to yield an overall estimate of, in his terms, mental
age—was examined by Charles Spearman (1863–1945) in the UK in a series of investigations
that yielded the first theory of intelligence. This theory proposed that there was something
common to all tests of cognitive abilities: g in Spearman’s terms. This proposal was to be
sharply criticised by a number of American researchers, chief among them Thurstone. The
theoretical arguments did not deter a number of researchers from adapting Binet’s test to the
cultural milieu in which they worked.

Henry Goddard (1866–1957) in the USA, Cyril Burt (1883–1971) in the UK and Gilbert
Phillips (1900–1975) in Australia all developed versions of Binet’s test, but it was Lewis Terman
(1877–1956) at Stanford University who published the most ambitious version for use with
 27

English speakers. His test was appropriate for children aged from 3 years to 16 years. It was
Terman’s version, which he termed the Stanford-Binet, which was to dominate as a test of
intelligence for individuals until David Wechsler (1896–1981) published a test for the individual
assessment of adult intelligence in 1948. Binet’s test and the adaptations of it depended heavily
on tapping skills that were taught in school, which importantly included verbal skills. A number
of researchers saw the need for practical or performance tests of ability that did not depend on
verbal skills or exposure to mainstream formal schooling.

One of the earliest of these researchers was Stanley Porteus (1883–1972), who in 1915
reported the use of mazes for assessing comprehension and foresight. Porteus was born and
educated in Australia, but spent most of his working life in the USA, first at the Vineland Institute
in New Jersey and then at the University of Hawaii. He returned to Australia from time to time
to study the abilities of Aboriginal Australians. His test required the test taker to trace with a
pencil increasingly complex mazes while avoiding dead ends and not lifting the pencil from the
paper. The test is still used by neuropsychologists in assessing executive functions. Porteus’s
work was the forerunner of the development in Australia of a number of tests of ability that are
not dependent on access to English for their administration, the most notable of which was the
Queensland Test by Donald McElwain (1915–2000) and George Kearney (1939–). The
administrator of this test used mime to indicate task requirements. In New Zealand, tests of
cognitive ability for Maori children were undertaken by St George (see Ord, 1977). Binet’s test
and its adaptations, and the early performance tests were individual tests of ability in that they
required administration to one person at a time. An individual test of intelligence was of little
use when thousands of individuals had to be tested in a short space of time-the situation in the
First World War.

Arthur Otis (1886–1964) in the USA and Cyril Burt in England trialled a variety of group
tests of intelligence, but the most convincing demonstration of their usefulness was to come
from Clarence Yoakum (1879–1945) and Robert Yerkes (1876–1956) and their colleagues,
who developed two group tests of general mental ability for use with recruits to the US armed
services during the Group testing of American army recruits during the First World War. The
Army Alpha test was developed for assessing the ability levels of those who could read and
write, and the Army Beta test for those who were not literate. Although there is some dispute
28

about how valuable the Army Alpha and Beta tests were to the war effort, they gave considerable
impetus to psychological testing in the postwar period and their basic structure was used
subsequently by Wechsler when developing the Verbal and Performance subscales for his
test of adult intelligence. Wechsler developed his test for use in an adult inpatient psychiatric
setting as an aid in differential diagnosis. A patient in this setting might present with symptoms
of schizophrenia or alcoholism, or be of low general intelligence. Wechsler sought a test that
would provide not just an overall assessment of intellectual level, but would also assist in
identifying which possible diagnosis was the most likely. The success of the test for this purpose
has been criticised, but it is clear that, as an individual test of general ability for adults, Wechsler’s
test was superior to the Stanford-Binet. Not only was the content more age appropriate, but
Wechsler also replaced the mental age scoring method with the Deviation IQ method, which
was based on earlier work by Godfrey and his team in Edinburgh (Vernon, 1979). The Deviation
IQ method compared the performance of the individual with that of his or her age peers by
dividing the difference between the individual’s score and the mean for the peer group by the
standard deviation of scores for the peer group. The idea was used in a subsequent revision of
the Stanford-Binet (the LM revision) and continues to this day in both the Wechsler and the
Binet tests. During the First World War, Robert Woodworth (1869–1962) developed the first
self-report personality test. This was a screening test for psychological adjustment to the military
situation and comprised short questions identified from textbooks of psychiatry and other expert
sources. It was used as a screening test, in that endorsement of a certain number of items in
a direction suggestive of psychopathology led to further evaluation by a military psychiatrist. It
was the forerunner of a number of self-report tests, the most notable being the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) developed by Starke Hathaway (1903–1984) and
John McKinley (1891–1950) at Minnesota in 1942. This test was designed to discriminate
between those without symptoms of mental illness (‘normals’) and patient groups with particular
diagnoses. Items were sought that would yield two clear patterns of response: one characteristic
of normals and the other characteristic of a particular patient group (e.g. patients diagnosed
with schizophrenia). The same strategy (‘empirical keying’, as it came to be called) had been
used by Edward Strong (1884–1963) in his development of a test of vocational interest in
1928, which provided a basis for occupational and vocational guidance. The MMPI was long
(566 items), heterogeneous in content, and sophisticated to the extent that it included four
 29

validity scales for the purpose of identifying various forms of responding by the test taker that
could invalidate inferences drawn from the content scales.

These various tests of cognitive and personality functioning provided a modest but
important adjunct to clinical judgment, the principal method of evaluation practised until that
time. Just as physical medicine relied on various tests of physiological functioning (e.g. the X-
ray or blood test) to aid the process of judgment, so the mental test became a supplement to
the unaided diagnostic ability of the doctor or psychiatrist. The various tests mentioned to this
point are sometimes described as objective, meaning that the method of scoring is sufficiently
straightforward for two or more scorers of the same test performance to agree closely on the
final score. There is another category of tests (or techniques, as advocates prefer to call them)
that involves a good deal of judgment in their scoring. These ‘techniques’ had their genesis in
psychodynamic theorising. Freud’s fundamental assumption of psychic determinism, that all
mental events have a cause, was taken to mean that no behaviour is accidental but that it
betrays the operation of unconscious motivational effects.

With such a premise, Hermann Rorschach (1884–1922), a Swiss psychiatrist and follower
of Jung’s theory, developed a test that purported to identify the psychological types that Jung
postulated. The test involved a series of blots created by pouring ink on a page and folding the
page in half. Such a random process gave rise to meaningless designs that the patient was
asked to make sense of. In so doing, as Henry Murray (1893–1988) was later to formulate in
the projective hypothesis, test takers are obliged to draw on their own psychic resources and
thus demonstrate something of the workings of their mind. Expertise was essential for
interpretation and required careful study of the interpretative strategies of psychodynamic theory.
With the acceptance of projective techniques, the task of testing was raised from a technical
routine activity to one requiring the exercise of considerable judgment. A new title was required
for this, and Henry Murray provided it. Working at the Psychological Clinic at Harvard University
in the 1930s, he and his colleagues set about an intensive study of forty-nine undergraduate
students. The project ran for several years and gave rise to Murray’s theory of personality and
to a number of techniques and procedures for studying personality. One was a projective test
called the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which he developed with Christiana Morgan
(1897–1967), and which became the second most widely used projective technique after the
30

Rorschach. The other was the diagnostic council, a case conference at which all staff involved
with a particular participant in the project would provide information and interpretation. From
discussion, a consensus view would emerge about the personality structure and dynamics of
the individual. When the USA entered the Second World War, Murray (with a number of other
psychologists) joined the war effort. In Murray’s case, it was in the Office of Strategic Services,
the forerunner of the CIA that was charged with the task of selecting and preparing volunteers
for espionage activities. Murray used many of the techniques from his Harvard days, added
situational tests to them, and relied on a form of the diagnostic council. This work was one of
the forerunners of the Assessment Centre, which was to be used successfully by AT&T after
the war for the selection and promotion of senior executives. This technique is still used widely
today in organisational psychology. Murray reported this wartime work in a book titled
Assessment of Men (Office of Strategic Services Assessment Staff, 1948).

‘Assessment’ was the term required for the high-level reasoning process involved in the
application of psychological procedures to the individual case, and henceforth almost completely
replaced the term ‘mental testing’. The late 1940s and 1950s represented the heyday of
psychological testing and assessment, particularly in the USA. One estimate by Goslin in 1963
was that by that date more than 200 million tests of intelligence alone were being administered
annually in the USA (Vernon, 1979). A public reaction to this was brewing, however, and hard
questions were being asked about the evidence base of the projective techniques, with the
theorising of Freud and other psychodynamic theorists being questioned. In the public arena,
there were several challenges to psychological testing. One was that it involved a serious
invasion of privacy; for example, by the questions asked on the self-report tests of personality.
A second was the concern about the homogenising effects on the workforce by using
psychological tests for selection, with only a limited set of personality characteristics and abilities
being acceptable to an organisation. Most damaging to the testing enterprise was the charge
that psychological tests were discriminatory. Because black and Hispanic Americans were
found to score, on average, lower on ability tests than white Americans, and because test
scores were used for selection in a number of workplace and academic settings, psychological
tests of this sort were considered to be denying access to many members of minority groups.
The criticisms began in magazine articles and popular books, but were given forceful expression
 31

in state and federal courts and legislatures. The criticism and legal intervention were more
muted outside of the USA, but the critique was by no means limited to that country. One of the
benefits of this critique of psychological testing and assessment was the recognition that
psychological testing may be a value-neutral technology in itself, but its application is always in
a social context in which outcomes are valued differently by different observers. The most
dramatic demonstration of this was the use of testing to enforce immigration policies that most
of us today would recognise as manifestly unfair and unjust. The moral of the story is clear:
test users need to appreciate the social context in which tests are used.

The Wechsler–Bellevue Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale: by
the 1930s, thousands of psychological tests were available, and psychologists and others
were debating the nature of intelligence (what intelligence was all about). This dispute over
defining intelligence prompted the development in 1939 of the original Wechsler–Bellevue
Intelligence Scale (WBIS) for adults, which provided an index of general mental ability (as did
the Binet–Simon Scale) and revealed patterns of a person’s intellectual strengths and
weaknesses. David Wechsler, the chief psychologist at Bellevue Hospital in New York City,
constructed the WBIS believing that intelligence is demonstrated based on an individual’s
ability to act purposefully, think logically, and interact/cope successfully with the environment
(Hess, 2001; Rogers, 2001; Thorne & Henley, 2001). Wechsler published the second edition,
the WBIS-II, in 1946. In 1955, Wechsler revised the WBIS-II and renamed it the Wechsler
Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). In 1981 and 1991 the WAIS was updated and published as
the WAIS-R and WAIS-III, respectively. In a continuing effort to improve the measurement of
intelligence, as well as the clinical utility and user friendliness of the test, the fourth edition was
published in 2008 (Pearson Education, 2009).

By the 1950s, the major forms of psychological test had been developed for measurement
of behavioural differences, and researchers such as Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) and Raymond
Cattell (1905–1998) had begun work on developing performance measures of the personality
and motivation domains similar to those developed in the cognitive domain. There were new
tests published after that date, but they were refinements of the basic methods developed in
the first half of the twentieth century. From the 1960s on, however, there were important
developments in the use of computer technology to assist in psychological testing and
32

assessment. The earliest use of computers was to reduce labour and the likelihood of error
when manually scoring tests by allowing machine scoring of answer forms. Later, desktop
computers were used to administer and score tests, and to store large amounts of data on test
performance. It was a short step from here to computer interpretation of test results, and
programs were written to provide descriptions of individual characteristics based on scores
obtained using the tests. Not all psychologists (e.g. Matarazzo, 1986) considered this to be a
positive development because of the danger of invalid interpretation in the hands of the novice.
The real power of the computer for psychological testing awaited developments in the theory
of tests, and in particular the formulation of item-response theory (IRT; see Hulin, Drasgow &
Parsons, 1983). Test developers had recognised from the earliest stages that single items
were poor candidates for capturing psychologically interesting constructs, because variation
among individuals in responding to them could be determined by a host of factors aside from
the one of interest. By aggregating many items, however, the ‘noise’ associated with individual
items could be submerged in the signal that each of them provided. Test theory developed to
show why this was so and the implications of it. One implication was that a large number of
items were usually required to determine any particular psychological characteristic. This
implication was challenged by IRT, which showed how—by specifying in advance a particular
statistical model for the test—more precise estimates could be obtained. When this method
was linked to the processing speed of the computer, much shorter tests could be produced.
Computerised adaptive testing (Weiss, 1983), as it came to be called, provided not only a
considerable saving in time and effort for the test administrator but also, importantly, for the
client. As a practical example of the value of this development, consider the case of a young
person in the 1950s who wishes to join the armed services. After completing the necessary
paperwork,

Testing Today

In the 21st century, psychological testing is a big business. There are thousands of
commercially available, standardized psychological tests as well as thousands of unpublished
tests. Tests are published by hundreds of test publishing companies that market their tests
very proactively—on the web and in catalogs. Before the turn of this century, these publishers
were earning close to $200 million per year (Educational Testing Service, 1996), and
 33

approximately 20 million Americans per year were taking psychological tests (Hunt, 1993).
Publishing and marketing companies are capitalizing on the testing trend, creating and marketing
a bonanza of new products and study aids.

2.3 Summary

The history of psychological testing is a long and varied one, which began for the purposes
of mental testing and then intelligence testing for children, used on soldiers during the world
war and now it is also being used by companies for recruiting their employees.
34

CHAPTER - 3
TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING

3.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the types of Psychological testing and what types of tests can be
used for which type of population.

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:

1. Understand the history behind psychological testing

Plan of Study
3.1 Introduction

3.2 Types of Psychological Testing

3.3 Summary

3.2 Types of Psychological Testing

What are the Different Types?

Psychological tests can be various types; designed to measure different elements of

human brain development.

1. Individual and Group Tests

Individual Tests: A test can be said individual test in the sense that they can be administered
to only one person at a time. Many of the tests in these scales require oral responses from the
examinee or necessitate the manipulation of the materials. Individual tests enable the examiner
or experimenter to observe the individual’s work-method and his emotional reactions. This
type of test can also give the examiner a better opportunity to establish rapport, obtain
cooperation and maintain the interests of the individual in the test.
 35

Individual intelligence tests are preferred by psychologist in clinics, hospitals and other
settings where clinical diagnosis are made, and where they serve not only as measures of
general intelligence but also as means of observing behavior in a standard situation.

Group Test:

Group test was developed to meet a pressing practical need. Group test can be
administered to a group of persons at a time.

Group tests were designed as mass testing instruments; they not only permit the
simultaneous examination of large groups but they also use simplified instruction and
administration procedures. There by requiring a minimum of training on the part of examiner.

Advantages and Disadvantages of individual tests:

Advantages:
1. Examiner can pay more attention to the examinee.

2. Examiner can easily encourage the examinee and observe his behavior during the test
more closely.

3. Scores on individual tests are not as dependent on reading ability as scores in group
tests.

Disadvantages:
1. It is very time consuming

2. This type of tests requires a highly-trained examiner.

3. It costs more than the group test.

Advantages and Disadvantages of group tests:

Advantages:
1. can be administered to very large numbers simultaneously

2. simplified examiner role

36

3. scoring typically more objective

4. large, representative samples often used leading to better established norms

5. A highly verbal group test can have a higher validity co-efficient than an individual test.

Disadvantages:
1. Scores on the group test are generally dependent on the reading ability.

2. Information obtained by the group test generally less accurate than the individual tests

3. examiner has less opportunity to establish rapport, obtain cooperation, and maintain interest

4. not readily detected if examinee tired, anxious, unwell

5. evidence that emotionally disturbed children do better on individual than group tests

6. examinee’s responses more restricted

7. normally an individual is tested on all items in a group test and may become boredom
over easy items and frustrated or anxious over difficult items

8. Individual tests typically provide for the examiner to choose items based on the test takers
prior responses – moving onto quite difficult items or back to easier items. So individual
tests offer more flexibility.

2. Paper-pencil and Performance Tests

Paper-and-pencil instruments refer to a general group of assessment tools in which

candidates read questions and respond in writing. This includes tests, such as knowledge and
ability tests, and inventories, such as personality and interest inventories.

Paper-and-pencil tests can be used to assess job-related knowledge and ability or skill
qualifications. The possible range of qualifications which can be assessed using paper-and-
pencil tests is quite broad. For example, such tests can assess anything from knowledge of
office procedures to knowledge of federal legislation, and from the ability to follow directions to
the ability to solve numerical problems.

Because many candidates can be assessed at the same time with a paper-and-pencil
test, such tests are an efficient method of assessment.
 37

3. Intelligence Tests

These of course measure the level of intelligence present in the individual. It also assesses
the person’s ability to relate to its foreign environment. IQ tests purport to be measures
of intelligence, while achievement tests are measures of the use and level of development of
use of the ability. IQ (or cognitive) tests and achievement tests are common norm-referenced
tests. In these types of tests, a series of tasks is presented to the person being evaluated, and
the person’s responses are graded according to carefully prescribed guidelines. After the test
is completed, the results can be compiled and compared to the responses of a norm group,
usually composed of people at the same age or grade level as the person being evaluated. IQ
tests which contain a series of tasks typically divide the tasks into verbal (relying on the use of
language) and performance, or non-verbal (relying on eye–hand types of tasks, or use of
symbols or objects). Examples of verbal IQ test tasks are vocabulary and information (answering
general knowledge questions). Non-verbal examples are timed completion of puzzles (object
assembly) and identifying images which fit a pattern (matrix reasoning).

IQ tests (e.g., WAIS-IV, WISC-V, Cattell Culture Fair III, Woodcock-Johnson Tests of
Cognitive Abilities-IV, Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales V) and academic achievement tests
(e.g. WIAT, WRAT, Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-III) are designed to be
administered to either an individual (by a trained evaluator) or to a group of people (paper and
pencil tests). The individually administered tests tend to be more comprehensive, more reliable,
more valid and generally to have better psychometric characteristics than group-administered
tests. However, individually administered tests are more expensive to administer because of
the need for a trained administrator (psychologist, school psychologist, or psychometrician).

Some of the well known and widely used tests of this category are,

 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

 Wechsler Pre-School and Primary Scale of Intelligence

 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

38

4. Personality Tests

These tests measure the type and traits of the individual’s personality. These tests are
used for clinical purposes. Psychological measures of personality are often described as
either objective tests or projective tests. The terms “objective test” and “projective test” have
recently come under criticism in the Journal of Personality Assessment. The more descriptive
“rating scale or self-report measures” and “free response measures” are suggested, rather
than the terms “objective tests” and “projective tests,” respectively.

a. Objective tests (Rating scale or self-report measure)

Objective tests have a restricted response format, such as allowing for true or false
answers or rating using an ordinal scale. Prominent examples of objective personality tests
include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-
IV, Child Behavior Checklist, Symptom Checklist 90 and the Beck Depression
Inventory. Objective personality tests can be designed for use in business for potential
employees, such as the NEO-PI, the 16PF, and the OPQ (Occupational Personality
Questionnaire), all of which are based on the Big Five taxonomy. The Big Five, or Five Factor
Model of normal personality, has gained acceptance since the early 1990s when some influential
meta-analyses (e.g., Barrick & Mount 1991) found consistent relationships between the Big
Five personality factors and important criterion variables.

Another personality test based upon the Five Factor Model is the Five Factor Personality
Inventory – Children (FFPI-C.).

b. Projective tests (Free response measures)

Projective tests allow for a freer type of response. An example of this would be
the Rorschach test, in which a person states what each of ten ink blots might be.

Projective testing became a growth industry in the first half of the 1900s, with doubts
about the theoretical assumptions behind projective testing arising in the second half of the
1900s. Some projective tests are used less often today because they are more time consuming
to administer and because the reliability and validity are controversial.
 39

As improved sampling and statistical methods developed, much controversy regarding

the utility and validity of projective testing has occurred. The use of clinical judgement rather
than norms and statistics to evaluate people’s characteristics has raised criticism that projectives
are deficient and unreliable (results are too dissimilar each time a test is given to the same
person). However, as more objective scoring and interpretive systems supported by more
rigorous scientific research have emerged, many practitioners continue to rely on projective
testing. Projective tests may be useful in creating inferences to follow up with other methods.
The most widely used scoring system for the Rorschach is the Exner system of scoring. Another
common projective test is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which is often scored with
Westen’s Social Cognition and Object Relations Scales and Phebe Cramer’s Defense
Mechanisms Manual. Both “rating scale” and “free response” measures are used in
contemporary clinical practice, with a trend toward the former.

Other projective tests include the House-Tree-Person test, the Animal Metaphor Test.

Examples of some commonly known attitude tests are as follows,

 Rorschach or Inkblot test

 Thematic Apperception Test

 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory or MMPI

5. Attitude Tests

Attitude test assess an individual’s feelings about an event, person, or object. Attitude
scales are used in marketing to determine individual (and group) preferences for brands, or
items. The individual’s attitude towards the environment, other people or places is judged in
this kind of test. Some common examples are,

 Likert Scale

 Thurstone Scale
40

6. Neuropsychology Tests

The Neuro-psychological tests are usually conducted when an individual has suffered a
traumatic stress or injury. These tests consist of specifically designed tasks used to measure a
psychological function known to be linked to a particular brain structure or pathway.
Neuropsychological tests can be used in a clinical context to assess impairment after an injury or
illness known to affect neurocognitive functioning. When used in research, these tests can be
used to contrast neuropsychological abilities across experimental groups.

7. Infant and Preschool Assessment

Due to the fact that infants and preschool aged children have limited capacities of
communication, psychologists are unable to use traditional tests to assess them. Therefore,
many tests have been designed just for children ages birth to around six years of age. These
tests usually vary with age respectively from assessments of reflexes and developmental
milestones, to sensory and motor skills, language skills, and simple cognitive skills.

Common tests for this age group are split into categories: Infant Ability, Preschool
Intelligence, and School Readiness. Common infant ability tests include: Gesell Developmental
Schedules (GDS) which measures the developmental progress of infants, Neonatal Behavioral
Assessment Scale (NBAS) which tests newborn behavior, reflexes, and responses, Ordinal
Scales of Psychological Development (OSPD) which assesses infant intellectual abilities, and
Bayley-III which tests mental ability and motor skills.

Common preschool intelligence tests include: McCarthy Scales of Children’s

Abilities (MSCA) which is similar to an infant IQ test, Differential Ability Scales (DAS) which can
be used to test for learning disability, Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-III
(WPPSI-III) and Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales for Early Childhood which could be seen as
infant versions of IQ tests, and Fagan Test of Infant Intelligence (FTII) which tests recognition
memory.

Finally, some common school readiness tests are: Developmental Indicators for the
Assessment of Learning-III (DIAL-III) which assesses motor, cognitive, and language skills,
Denver II which tests motor, social, and language skills, and Home Observation for Measurement
 41

of Environment (HOME) which is a measure of the extent to which a child’s home environment
facilitates school readiness.

Infant and preschool assessments, since they do not predict later childhood nor adult
abilities, are mainly useful for testing if a child is experiencing developmental delay or disabilities.
They are also useful for testing individual intelligence and ability, and, as aforementioned,
there are some specifically designed to test school readiness and determine which children
may struggle more in school.

To check the proper cognitive functioning of the brain, these kinds of tests are conducted.
Some typical examples of these tests include,

 Benton Visual Retention Test

 Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

 Halstead Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery

8. Achievement Tests

Achievement tests are also a type of psychological tests that measure your ability to
comprehend a specific topic; for example, mathematics. You can read through the following
cases:

 Peabody Individual Achievement Test

 Wechsler Individual Achievement Test

9. Aptitude Tests

Psychological tests measure specific abilities, such as clerical, perceptual, numerical, or

spatial aptitude. Sometimes these tests must be specially designed for a particular job, but
there are also tests available that measure general clerical and mechanical aptitudes, or even
general learning ability. An example of an occupational aptitude test is the Minnesota Clerical
Test, which measures the perceptual speed and accuracy required to perform various clerical
duties. Other widely used aptitude tests include Careerscope, the Differential Aptitude
42

Tests (DAT), which assess verbal reasoning, numerical ability, abstract Reasoning, clerical
speed and accuracy, mechanical reasoning, space relations, spelling and language usage.
Another widely used test of aptitudes is the Wonderlic Test. These aptitudes are believed to be
related to specific occupations and are used for career guidance as well as selection and
recruitment. The aptitude tests measure the potential of performance in a person. Examples
are,

 Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery

 Bloomberg Aptitude Test

10. Interest tests

Psychological tests to assess a person’s interests and preferences. These tests are
used primarily for career counselling. Interest tests include items about daily activities from
among which applicants select their preferences. The rationale is that if a person exhibits the
same pattern of interests and preferences as people who are successful in a given occupation,
then the chances are high that the person taking the test will find satisfaction in that occupation.
A widely used interest test is the Strong Interest Inventory, which is used in career assessment,
career counselling, and educational guidance.

3.3 Summary

 Psychological tests play an important role in the development of psychological theories

and facts.

 Psychological tests are objective and standardised instruments and took for measuring
human behaviour scientifically.
 43

CHAPTER: 4
FORMAT OF THE REPORT

4.1 Introduction

This chapter tells you how to format a report after experiments have been conducted.
This will help students to understand the procedures to be followed in writing the record note
book.

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:

1. Describe the requirements of an acceptable standard report format, draw conclusion

after having completed every experiment and write the record note book.

4.2 Procedure

To conduct experiments using psychological tests, there is a need for standard procedures
and standard format in reporting. Training in the experimental procedures should include some
training in the mechanics of presenting the data of experiments in a standard format. The
report of an experiment must be recorded in a record note book.

4.3 Report Format

The report consists of the Title, Aim, Materials required, Description of the materials,
Procedure, Precautions, Results, Introspection report, Discussion, Conclusion and Reference.

1. Title: It gives the meaning or indicates the nature of the experiment. The title chosen
should express in the clearest manner, the nature of his experiment. Before writing the
title, we can ask ourselves one question-”By what name can this experiment best be
known?”

2. Aim: Purpose of the experiment or aim of the experiment is to be tested by the experimenter
with the help of subject and psychological test material. The statement of the “aim” should
be brief and to the point. The purpose should be ascertained before the experiment is
undertaken or the demonstration is carried out.
44

3. Materials required: It may be necessary in some cases to only name the materials used
in the experiment but, in some cases we have to describe the apparatus or material.

4. Description of the material: The test material used in the experiment must be discussed
in detail. This will help the experimenter to carry out the experimental procedures.

5. Procedure: The procedure is very essential to conduct the experiment using a test. A
precise description of the procedure followed in collecting the data is always indispensable.
The procedure includes a verbatim copy of the instructions of the subject as well as the
record of the conditions under which the experiment was carried out.

6. Precautions: The experimenter has to take precautions in conducting the experiment.

He has to follow the precautions very carefully and strictly to obtain effective and useful
data.

7. Tables: The data collected must be given in the tables one for individual and one for
group data.

8. Results: After collecting the data, it should be recorded in the tables 1 for individual data
and Table 2 for group data. The results are to be analysed.

9. Introspection report: The experimenter may ask the subject, his feelings and ideas
about the experiment, after having completed it and they can be recorded.

10. Discussion: In the first part of the discussion, theoretical part of the experiment should
be written, taking points from the introduction and other relevant materials such as journals,
books. In the second part of the experiment, the tabulated data must be analyzed using
the statistical approach and the detailed discussion must be recorded.

11. Conclusion: This is an important part of the report. It verifies the aim of the experiment.
The conclusion is drawn from the results and discussion. It is brief summary statements
which answered the questions raised in the statement of the purpose or problem or aim.

12. Reference: Write a detailed referenced section that they have referred to while writing
the experimental report.
 45

4.4 Record Note Book

Instructional booklets will be supplied to the students. The teachers concerned in the
practical classes will provide necessary instructions for conducting the experiment and recording
it in the record note book. The record notebook will be given to the students. After completing
the experiments, the students must write in the record note book. The students should bring
the filled in record notebook for the practical examination, and submit the record notebook to
the examiner for evaluation.
46

CHAPTER - 5
MODEL TEST

5.1 Introduction

This chapter tells you how to write the experiment in the record notebook based on the
model test explained here.

Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you will be able to:

1. Conduct the experiment, record the results, make tables for the individual and group
data, and how to write the conclusion of the psychological testing.

5.2 Job Satisfaction

Individual experiment

Aim

To determine the extent of job satisfaction of employees

Materials Required
1. Job satisfaction scale developed by Dubey.B.L., Uppal,K.K. and Verma, S.K. (1989)

2. Manual

3. Key

Description of the Material

The job satisfaction scale consists of 25 statements. It is measures on a 5 point scale

ranging from 0 to 4. The subjects can evaluate each statement on the basis of their
judgement on the following 5 point scale.

 Strongly agree

 Agree
 47

 Undecided

 Disagree

 Strongly disagree

This questionnaire is independent of age, education and salary. It has reliability of 0.64
(test-retest) and 0.72 (split-half reliability co-efficient)

Procedure

The questionnaire consists of 25 items and can be administered in an individual or group

setting. The subject has seated comfortably and is given the following instructions. “Go through
the statement given in the questionnaire carefully. If you find the statements suitable to you,
you put a tick mark in the column adjacent to each statement. There is no right or wrong of the
statements.” The questionnaire must be completed in 20 to 25 minutes.

Precautions
1. The subject is instructed to work fast as they can.

2. The subject is instructed not to omit any statement

3. The subject is instructed to put only one tick mark against each statement.

Table I-Individual data on Job satisfaction

Name Total Scores Interpretation

LM 19 High Job Satisfaction

Table II- Group data on Job satisfaction

S. No Name Total Scores Interpretation

1 SK 40 Moderate

2 PK 7 High

3 VB 25 Moderate
48

4 JK 27 Moderate

5 LM 19 High

6 RX 13 High

7 QP 11 High

8 OZ 22 High

9 LNR 44 Moderate

10 LS 37 Moderate

TotalAverage 245

24.5

Mean of Group

Introspective Report: “The experiment of job Satisfaction was very interesting and the
25 items administered on me motivated me to know my level, and finally I found myself in
the high satisfaction level” in the appropriate column.

Scoring

The items are scored on a 5 point scale from 0 to 4 as given below:

Response Score

Strongly agree 0

Agree 1

Undecided 2

Disagree 3

Strongly disagree 4
 49

The scores can be summed up for all the 25 statements in order to arrive at a single total
score for an individual (a subject)

Low scores indicate satisfaction and high scores indicate dissatisfaction

Results

The scores are to be tabulated for the individual and the group separately as given
below:

Table I shows the individual data on job satisfaction

Table II shows the group data on job satisfaction

General Discussion

Job satisfaction is the result of various attitudes possessed by an employee. This job
satisfaction scale was developed to find out the extent of job satisfaction and the factor leading
to it. The attitude possessed by an employee are related to the job and are concerned with
such specific factors like wages, supervision, etc. Inadequate job satisfaction may well be the
result of lack of vocational guidance. A person whether good or not good for a job in terms of
his abilities and interests is not likely to get satisfied with his job. Adjustment on the job is
dependent upon the individual’s abilities, interest and personality certain specific factors are
needed for it. But when they clash, there is job dissatisfaction. According to Snow (1927) duller
individuals show least dissatisfaction in highly repetitive work, but when the work was fairly
complex, considerable dissatisfaction was manifested. So intelligence, personality together
with emotional stability and security will lead to satisfaction whereas insecurity and unfavourable
family condition or background leads insecurity in job.

Individual Discussion

The subject LM has a total score of 19 in job satisfaction. She falls under the highly
satisfied categories. The subject stands 4th in the group when compared to the scores of PK,
QP and RX. So this indicates that the working conditions, wages, condition of work and the
ability must have been favourable for LM so the level of satisfaction is high. The subjects score
50

that is the eve of satisfaction is pretty satisfactory than compared with the average of the group
as a whole which is 24.5

Group Discussion

Job satisfaction is the result of the various attitudes possessed by an employee. In this
group LNR has a score of 44 which is high compared to the others in the group, but the level
of satisfaction is moderate, where as PK has a score of 7 which is the lowest of the group
and the level of satisfaction is high. The higher the scores the lower the level of satisfaction
and the lower their scores the higher the level of satisfaction. This shows that they have a
favourable condition in their work spot. But when the average of the group is taken as a
whole there is moderate level of satisfaction. And nobody in the group has low level of
satisfaction. Over all interest in work contributes to job satisfaction along with intelligence,
ability and personality.

Conclusion
1. The subject LM’s level of job satisfaction is high

2. The subject can perform well in her job, well due to favourable factors.

3. The group as a whole falls under moderate level of job satisfaction

4. Individuals differ in job satisfaction level

Reference
1. Job satisfaction scale developed by Dubey, BL., Uppal, KK., and Verma, SK (1989)
 51

EXERCISES

CHAPTER - 6
DEVELOPMENTAL SCREENING TEST

6.1 Introduction

Intelligence is defines as the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act

purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment.

Theories of Intelligence

Charles Spearman: General Intelligence

British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to

as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to
examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were
remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on
other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He
concluded that intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically
expressed.

Louis L. Thurstone: Primary Mental Abilities

Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence.

Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone’s theory focused on seven
different primary mental abilities. The abilities that he described include:

 Verbal comprehension

 Reasoning

 Perceptual speed

 Numerical ability
52

 Word fluency

 Associative memory

 Spatial visualization

Howard Gardner: Multiple Intelligences

One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple
intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical
expressions of human intelligence, such as in the IQ test, are not a full and accurate depiction
of people’s abilities. His theory describes eight distinct types of intelligence based on skills and
abilities that are valued in different cultures.

The eight kinds of intelligence Gardner described are:

 Visual-spatial intelligence

 Verbal-linguistic intelligence

 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

 Logical-mathematical intelligence

 Interpersonal intelligence

 Musical intelligence

 Intrapersonal intelligence

 Naturalistic intelligence

Robert Sternberg: Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as “mental activity directed toward

purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one’s
life.” While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general
ability, he instead suggested that some of Gardner’s types of intelligence are better viewed as
individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he referred to as “successful intelligence,” which
involves three different factors:
 53

 Analytical intelligence: Your problem-solving abilities.

 Creative intelligence: Your capacity to deal with new situations using past experiences
and current skills.

 Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing environment.

Intelligence Tests

Intelligence testing began to take a concrete form when Sir Francis Galton, an English
psychologist considered to be the father of mental tests, demonstrated in the late 19th century
that individuals systematically differ across then-known key components of intelligence (sensory,
perceptual, and motor processes). Although the tests he designed resulted to very few significant
findings, they nevertheless brought forth important questions about intelligence - questions
that remain tantamount to the refinement of intelligence testing even to this day. These questions
revolve around the methods of measurement, components, and heritability of intelligence.

Stanford-Binet Test

This test is given to individuals even as young as 2 years old and up to adulthood. The
test consists of various items requiring verbal and nonverbal response. For example, a 6-year
old child may be asked to define a list of words and also to trace a maze path. The test
attempts to measure cognitive processes, such as memory, imagery, comprehension and
judgment. The test also emphasizes the importance of considering age when administering
and interpreting results. After collecting results from a large number of testees through the
years, findings were found to approximate a normal distribution, or a bell curve, in which most
testees fall in the middle scores (84-116) and about 2% scores greater than 132 and less than
68. The Stanford-Binet test started in 1904 when Alfred Binet was asked to devise a method to
separate students who benefit from regular classroom instruction and those who need to be
placed in special schools. Through the help of his student, Theophile Simon, Binet came up
with 30 items and administered the test to 50 nonretarded children aged 3 to 11 years old.
Based on the results of the test, Binet was able to identify the norm for mental age. For example,
6-year old Simon scored 20, which is the average score of 9-year old children; thus, his mental
age is 9. In 1912, William Stern formulated the notion of intelligence quotient (IQ) in which he
54

divided the mental age by the chronological age and multiplied it by 100. Based on this formula,
he classified testees as “average”, “above average”, and “below average”. Lastly, in 1985,
Lewis Terman revised the original test in Stanford University, hence the name. His revisions
include detailing and classifying insructions, adding other content areas (such as evaluating
short-term memory, and verbal, quantitative and abstract reasoning), applying the concept of
IQ in intepreting results, extensively calculating the norms, and identifying a general score for
intelligence.

Weschler Scales

David Weschler developed different scales to measure intelligence. The first scale was
developed in 1939. Today, it is known as the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale - III (WAIS-III).
Other scales he developed are the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children - III (WISC-III),
which is for children and adolescents aged 6 to 16 years old, and the Weschler Preschool and
Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI), which is for children aged 4 to 6.5 years old. All of
Weschler’s scales are divided into 6 verbal subscales and 5 nonverbal subscales. Norms
developed from nonverbal subscales are astonishingly more representative than the abstract
content of the Stanford-Binet test. Weschler scores his scales in two ways: there are specific
IQ scores for all subscales and a general IQ score for the entire scale. Scoring is therefore
more rigorous and possibly more accurate than the Stanford-Binet test.

Army Alpha Test and Army Beta Test (1917)

The Army tests are the first intelligence tests that were administered in a group. The
Army Alpha test is a written exam, whereas the Army Beta test is a performance exam given
orally or verbally to illiterate recruits.

How do you measure intelligence?

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Measure of intelligence that takes into account a child’s mental and chronological age
IQ Score = MA / CA x 100
 55

Mental age (MA): the typical intelligence level found for people at a given chronological
age Chronological age (CA): the actual age of the child taking the intelligence test

6.2 Title: Developmental Screening Test (DST)

Experiment No: Experimenter:

Date: Subject:

Individual/Group Experiment:

6.3 Aim
1. To assess the intelligence and mental development of children

6.4 Materials Required

1. Developmental Screening Test by Dr. Bharath Raj (1983)

2. Answer sheet

3. Manual and scoring key

4. Pencil and eraser

6.5 Description of the Material

Developmental Screening Test (DST) which was designed by Dr.Bharath Raj (1983) is a
reliable and valid test to screen the mental development of children in the Indian context. The
test items included in the schedule are those of motor development, speech, language
development and personal- social development. The behaviour items have been chosen from
the earlier schedules. Assessment is simply a matter of determining how well a child’s behaviour
fits at one age level constellation rather than another by direct comparison .The Developmental
Screening Test measures mental development of children from birth to 15yrs of age. Larger
number of items at the early age levels permits assessment of very young children. Other
(Italicized) items on the schedule included Speech and Language development. The test provides
a brief and fairly dependable assessment without requiring the use of performance tests.
Appraisal was done in a semi structured interview with the child and parent or any significant
56

person well acquainted with the child. In its present form the DST can be repeatedly used for
assessment. Final version of DST consist of 88 items.

Developmental schedule consists of a simple chart with items on it. These items are
descriptions of behavior that may be observed in an infant or elicited in a child. The items are
arranged age wise from 3months to 15yrs. 1st group of items describe the type of behavior
that a baby from birth to 3months may show for example, birth cry present, rolling over. Items
are arranged at 3, 6, 9, months; 1,1½, 38 2yrs. And then onwards at every one year level till
15yrs. The items progressively depict grater level of physical and social maturity and
independence. The tester starts with the item closest to chronological age of the child to establish
a ‘Basal Age’. This is the age at which all items are likely to be passed or the behavior described
is likely to be present. Gradually tester moves through upper age levels. It correlates to the
extent of +85 with Seguin form board. It has a correlation of +.75 with Columbia Mental Maturity
Scale. Verma, Pershad and Menon cross validated this test in 1979 on 170 children, 108 male
and 62 female children in the range of 1 to 15yrs showed very high positive correlation with
other scales. DST showed very high positive correlations +.72 to +.99 with other intelligence or
developmental test, which shows that it is a valid test for all the age groups (6-12years). Inter
scorer reliability (+.928) and test retest reliability (.98) were also found to be high and satisfactory.

6.6 Procedure

The Developmental Screening Test is distributed to the caregivers of the subject or the
subject. The following directions are provided “A number of statements are given below.
Read each statement and answer appropriately. Each item could be evaluated either by
observing the child (eg. Steadiness of head) or by asking the parent (eg., combing hair by
self) or by asking the child (eg. repeat 3 digits). Remember that there are no right or wrong
answers. Do not spend a lot of time on the questions, but give the most appropriate
answers”

6.7 Scoring

The I.Q was calculated by the concepts of M.A. and C.A and as given in the manual.
 57

6.8 Results

The individual and group data are tabulated in the following table

Table 1-Individual data on the Developmental Screening Test

S. No Initial Raw Score Interpretation

Table II-Group data on the Developmental Screening Test

S. No Initial Raw Score Interpretation

10

6.9 Discussion

The general, individual and group data can be compared, interpreted and discussed in
detail
58

6.10 Conclusion
1. The subject Intelligence Quotient is

2. The subject score is interpreted as.

3. The group as a whole falls under

4. Individuals differ in Intelligence Quotient levels

 59

CHAPTER - 7
BENDER GESTALT VISUAL MOTOR TEST

7.1 Introduction

Neuropsychological Assessment is a comprehensive assessment of cognitive

processes. We can evaluate neurological or neurodevelopmental disorders, and understand
the etiology and evolution of a disorder. Neuropsychology is the unique integration of genetic,
developmental, and environmental history with testing data to better understand brain functioning.
With a comprehensive assessment of a person’s cognitive and personality functioning, we can
specify the origin and development of a disorder and customized recommendations. Testing
will give a comprehensive understanding of an individual’s strengths and impairments. We
then create a Road Map of customized recommendations for therapy, treatments, educational
assistance, and medications.

Neuropsychological tests are given, scored, and interpreted by a licensed clinical

psychologist or neuropsychologist. A neuropsychologist is a professional who specializes in
understanding how the brain and its abilities are affected by neurological injury or illness.
Psychometrists are professionals specially trained in giving and scoring tests under the
supervision of a licensed psychologist.

The neuropsychologist writes a detailed report that includes important information form
the interview and tests including diagnostic conclusions. Information will be provided on your
strengths, weaknesses, and limitations and your emotional well-being. The report will often
include recommendations for improving memory, therapy to improve mood, or referral to other
rehabilitation professionals.

Bender Gestalt Visual Motor Test was introduced by Lauretta Bender and based on
the principles of Gestalt psychology. Gestalt function may be defined as that function of the
integrated organism whereby it responds to a given constellation of stimuli as a whole, the
response itself being a constellation or pattern or gestalt. The function of the test is to determine
the individual’s capacity to experience visual motor gestalt in a spatial and temporal relationship.
60

Perception & reproduction of the Gestalt figures are determined by biological principles of
motor & sensory actions. These vary depending on the growth pattern and maturation level of
an individual, as also his pathological states either functionally or organically induced. Bender
believed that maturation in an individual occurs as per the laws of perceptual organization. Any
deviation in it could be used as some sort of a clinical syndrome. The test shows the continuous
interplay between motor & sensory factors. The 3 factors at play are Sensory reception,
Interpretation at the cortical level and Motor execution. Disturbance at any of the above might
produce distortions in the figures. Deviation may result from – Neural injury, Emotional
maladjustment, Fatigue, Variations in intellectual ability and Inattention or poor attention. The
organization of stimuli into an image is based upon such perceptual laws as similarity, direction,
proximity, and inclusiveness of parts of the stimuli. The resulting perceptual experience is a
pattern of stimuli or as it is more commonly known a gestalt, in which the whole is more than
the sum of its parts. These structuralized configurations, or organized units of gestalten are the
result of innate, biological reactions. In the sensory field, these gestalten correspond to the
configurations of the stimulating world. Skilful perceptual act is considered to involve (a) sensory
reception, (b) central neural interpretation, and (c) motor reproduction (hand drawing) by the
perceiving subject of the stimulus objects.

A Psychological test first developed by the Child Neuropsychiatrist Lauretta Bender in

the late nineteenth century. The test is used to evaluate visual motor maturity, to screen for
developmental disorders and to assess neurological function or brain damage. Used as a
screening device for brain damage. It measures perceptual motor skills, perceptual motor
development and gives an indication of neurological intactness. It has been used as a personality
test and a test of emotional problems. The impetus for the clinical use of the Bender Gestalt
came in the late 1930s when Max L. Hutt, an instructor at the educational clinic of city college
of New York became interested in developing a non verbal projective personality test. The test
was consider primarily a maturation test of visual- motor ability, bender also explored the more
dynamic concept of gestalt psychology in individuals with organically and functionally determined
pathological states. The Bender Visual Gestalt II testing kit includes 16 stimulus cards that are
separated into two tests. These stixmulus cards include an improved version of the original
nine designs and new cards that were constructed to be more fitting for the age range covered
 61

by the test. All of the stimulus cards have been mechanically drawn to increase the clarity of
the design. The BGT-II manual authors are Gray G. Brannigan and Scott L. Decker.

According to Schilder (2003), Lauretta Bender experienced learning problems herself

and struggled during her early school years. However, over time, her academic performance
improved markedly. She graduated as the valedictorian of her high school class and went on
to earn a bachelor’s degree in biology and a master’s in pathology from the University of
Chicago. She then entered the medical school at the University of Iowa. It was there that she
worked with Samuel Orton and determined that a dyslexic condition had contributed to her
early learning problems. Following her medical training in neurology, she began work on the
Visual Motor Gestalt Test. Bender first described her Visual Motor Gestalt Test in an 1938
monograph entitled: A Visual Motor Gestalt Test and Its Clinical Use. The figures were derived
from the work of the famous Gestalt psychologist Wertheimer. The Bender-Gestalt test as it
is now often called, was typically among the top five tests used by school and clinical
psychologists for decades. In this work, she provided clinicians with an elaborate scoring system
and normative data on the maturation of visual-motor gestalt functioning as well as detailed
descriptions of the performance of individuals with various organic and functional pathological
conditions (e.g., organic brain disorder, schizophrenia, psychoneuroses). Bender examined
the maturation of the gestalt function in children from 3-11 yrs of age by observing how they
copied designs with a pencil on paper. The Bender-II contains 16 figures 9 in the original. The
new or revised scoring system for the Bendar-II was developed based on empirical investigation
of numerous scoring systems.

7.2 Title: Bender Gestalt Visual Motor Test

Experiment No: Experimenter:

Date: Subject:

Individual/Group Experiment:

7.3 Aim
1. To assess the visual motor perception and fine motor skills of the subject
62

7.4 Materials Required

1. Bender Gestalt Visual Motor Test

2. 2 pencils with erasers

3. 10 sheets of drawing paper

4. stop watch

5. Manual and scoring key

7.5 Description of the Material

The original test consists of nine figures, each on its own 3 × 5 card. The subject is
shown each figure and asked to copy it onto a piece of blank paper. The test typically takes 7–
10 minutes, after which the results are scored based on accuracy and other characteristics.
The Bender Gestalt Test is used to evaluate visual maturity, visual motor integration skills,
style of responding, reaction to frustration, ability to correct mistakes, planning and organizational
skills, and motivation. Copying figures requires fine motor skills, the ability to discriminate
between visual stimuli, the capacity to integrate visual skills with motor skills, and the ability to
shift attention from the original design to what is being draw. The Bender-II contains 16 figures
versus 9 in the original. The new or revised scoring system for the Bender-II was developed
based on empirical investigation of numerous scoring systems. The Global Scoring System
was, tangentially related to Bender’s original scoring method and a revision of a system devised
by Branigan in the 1980s, was selected based on reliability and validity studies, as well as its
ease of use and construct clarity. Elizabeth Koppitz, a clinical child psychologist and school
psychologist (who worked most of her career in New York), developed a scoring system in the
1960s devoted to assessing the maturation of visual-motor skills in children, remaining true to
Bender’s aim for the test, and popularized its use in the schools.

Standardization

Reliability: Test retest and internal consistency was established for BGT. For test retest
a correlation coefficient of .80 for copy phase and .86 for recall phase was obtained. For
internal consistency correlation coefficient of .85 for copy phase and .92 for recall phase was
obtained.
 63

Validity: - A construct validity of .87 coefficency was calculated for BGT II

Norms Stratified random sampling planning was conducted on 4,000 individuals from 4
to 85+ years of age over a 12 month period. Samples included individuals with MR, LD, ADHD,
Autism and Alzheimer’s disease.

7.6 Procedure

The Bender Gestalt Test is an individually administered pencil and paper test used to
make a diagnosis of brain injury. There are nine geometric figures drawn in black. These
figures are presented to the examinee one at a time; then, the examinee is asked to copy the
figure on a blank sheet of paper. Examinees are allowed to erase, but cannot use any mechanical
aids (such as rulers). The popularity of this test among clinicians is most likely the short amount
of time it takes to administer and score. The average amount of time to complete the test is five
to ten minutes.

The Bender Gestalt Test lends itself to several variations in administration. One method
requires that the examinee view each card for five seconds, after which the card is removed.
The examinee draws the figure from memory. Another variation involves having the examinee
draw the figures by following the standard procedure. The examinee is then given a clean
sheet of paper and asked to draw as many figures as he or she can recall. Last, the test is
given to a group, rather than to an individual (i.e., standard administration). It should be noted
that these variations were not part of the original test.

 Copy phase:

- Measure how long the examinee takes to complete the items- record time in minutes
and seconds

- Document your observations – carefully note the examinee’s approach to drawing each
design.
64

Instructions:

“I have a no. of cards here. Each card has a different drawing on it. I will show you the
cards one at a time. Use this pencil to copy the drawing from each card onto this sheet of
paper. Try to make your drawings look just like the drawings on the cards. There are no time
limits, so take as much time as u need. Do you have any questions? Here is the first card”

 Begin timing.

 Offer additional paper only if needed

 On the observation form, document observations noting the examinee’s approach to

drawing each design

 When the examinee has completed the drawings, stop timing and record the total amt.
of time required to complete the drawings in the copy time box.

 Take the examinee’s paper, label it “copy sheet” and indicate the top of the page with
an arrow pointing up and remove the paper from the table.

 Recall phase:

 Administered immediately following the copy phase

 Examinee’s given a new sheet of paper and asked to draw as many of designs that
were previously shown.

Instructions

“Now I want you to draw as many of the designs that I just showed you as you can
remember. Draw them on this new sheet of paper. Try to make your drawings just like the ones
on the cards that you saw earlier. There are no time limits, so take as much time as you need.

• Do you have any questions? Begin”

 Begin timing.

 Stop timing when the examinee finishes drawing all the designs or does not recall any
more designs after 2 mins.
 65

 Use Recall Time box to indicate total amt. of time required to complete the recall phase.

 Label it “Recall Sheet” and indicate the top of the page with an arrow pointing up.

 Numerically label the designs in the order the examinee recalled and document your
observations in the Recall section of the form.

 Motor test:

 Consists of a sample time and 4 test items with 3 figures per item.

 Takes 2-4 mins

Instructions

 “draw a line between the dots in each figure without touching the borders”

 Do not allow to lift the pencil, erase or tilt the paper while drawing the line between the
dots.

 Perception test:

 Consists of 10 items

 Should be administered after the Motor Test

 2 to 4 mins

 Circle or point to a design in each row that best matches the design in the numbered
box on the left.

 “look at this picture. There is another picture that looks just like it in this row. Circle or
point to the picture that looks just like this one”/ Which one of these pictures looks like
this one?

 Not more than 30 seconds. If > proceed to next. S-skipped items

7.7 Scoring

Global Scoring System

0= no resemblance, random drawing ,scribbling, lack of design

66

1= slight-vague resemblance

2= some- moderate resemblance

3= strong- close resemblance, accurate reproduction

4=nearly perfect

 Angular difficulty: this includes increasing, decreasing, distorting or omitting an angle

in a figure.

 Bizarre doodling: Involves adding peculiar component to the drawing that have no
relationship to the original Bender Gestalt figure.

 Closure difficulty: This occurs when the examinee has difficulty closing open spaces
on a figure, or connecting various parts of the figure. This results in a gap in the copied
figure.

 Cohesion: involves drawing a part of a figure larger or smaller than shown on the
original figure and out of proportion with the rest of the figure. It may also include drawing
of a figure or part of a figure significantly out of proportion with other figures that have
been drawn.

 Collision: Crowding the designs or allowing the end of one design to overlap or touch
a part of another design.

 Contamination: This occurs when a previous figure or part of it influences the examinee
in adequate completion of the current figure. (may combine 2 different BG figures)

 Omission: failing to adequately connect the parts of a figure or reproducing only parts
of a figure.

 Overlapping difficulty: includes problems in drawing portions of the figures that overlap,
simplifying the drawing at the pt. that it overlaps, sketching or redrawing the overlapping
portions or distorting the figure at the pt. of overlap.

 Perseveration: Includes increasing, prolonging or continuing the no. of units in a figure.

 67

 Fragmentation: Involves destroying part of the figure by not completing or breaking up

the figures in ways that entirely lose the original design

 Impotence: occurs when the examinee draws a figure inaccurately and seems to
recognize the error, then he/she makes several unsuccessful attempts to improve the
drawing

 Irregular line quality or lack of motor coordination: involves drawing rough lines,
particularly when the examinee shows a tremor motion, during the drawing of the figure.

 Line extension: Involves adding or extending a part of the copied figure that was not
on the original figure.

 Retrogression: involves substituting more primitive figures for the original design (
dashes for dots, dots for circles)

 Perceptual Rotation: Involves rotating a figure or part of a figure by 45 degree or

more. This error is also scored when the examinee rotates the stimulus cards that is
being copied.

 Scribbing: involves drawing primitive lines that have no relationship to the original.

 Simplification: involves replacing a part of the figure with a more simplified figure.

 Superimposition of design: involves drawing one or more of the figures on top of

each other.

 Workover: involves reinforcing, increased pressure, or overworking a lone or lines in a

whole or part of a figure.

Motor test and Perception test

 Each correct-1

 Incorrect- 0
68

7.8 Interpretation

Interpreting test scores

 Raw score of the Bendar-Gestalt II copy and recall phase have been converted to standard
scores and percentile scores.

 The examinee percentile scores indicates the percentage of individuals in his or her age
group with that score or a lower score.

Classification labels for BGT II Standard Scores

145-160 Extremely high or advanced

130-144 Very high or advanced

120-129 High or advanced

110-119 High average

90-109 Average

80-89 Low average

70-79 Low or borderline delayed

55-69 Very low or mildly delayed

40-54 Extremely low or moderately delayed

7.9 Results

The individual and group data are tabulated in the following table

Table 1-Individual data on the Bender Gestalt Visual Motor Test

S. No Initial Raw Score Interpretation

 69

Table II-Group data on the Bender Gestalt Visual Motor Test

S. No Initial Raw Score Interpretation

10

7.10 Discussion

The general, individual and group data can be compared, interpreted and discussed in
detail

7.11 Conclusion
1. Write about the raw score, interpretation of the score by the subject. The group’s raw
score and interpretation will also be written about. Individuals differ in Intelligence Quotient
levels.
70

CHAPTER - 8
WECHSLER ADULT
INTELLIGENCE SCALE

8.1 Introduction

Intelligence according to Wechsler is, “A global concept that involves an individual’s

ability to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.”

Thus we see the nature of intelligence as the ability for adjustment to environment, ability
to perceive relationship between various objects and methods, ability to solve problems, ability
to think independently, ability to learn maximum in minimum period of time, ability to benefit
from one’s own experience and the experience of others.

Therefore, intelligence is an inborn ability of an individual, the distribution of intelligence

is not equal among all human beings. There is wide individual difference that exists among
individuals with regard to intelligence.

Measurement of Intelligence:

Intelligence tests are classified in two ways - individual/group, aptitude/achievement.

Aptitude tests measure the potential development of the testee, like a tool for predicting future
performance. Achievement tests, on the other hand, measure mastery of a specific domain,
and thus evaluate current performance. Abstract tests are mainly aptitude in type, while quarterly
examinations in schools are mainly achievement in type. Intelligence tests also differ in how
they are being administered, whether by individual or by group. Individual tests consider the
interaction between the tester and the testee, and thus are more customized and personal. On
the other hand, groups’ tests are more economical, saving time, money and effort. Because
group tests are more superficial than individual tests, they only serve supplemental basis when
it comes to special placements. For example, the legal requirements for placing children in
special education include group and individual tests, and additional information outside the
testing situation. Intelligence tests today, however, are more complicated than these basic
 71

classifications. They can be mainly aptitude type, mainly achievement type, or both; and can
be administered individually and/or by group.

Criteria for Intelligence Tests:

A good intelligence test must be valid, reliable and standard.

Standardization refers to the uniformity of administering and scoring the test. An intelligence
test does not consist only of the test items; it includes the process in which the test is given and
interpreted

Validity refers to how well the test accurately captures what it attempts to measure. For
intelligence tests, that is “intelligence”. Validity can be established in two ways. First, there
should be a representative sample of items across the entire domain of intelligence (i.e., not
just mathematical abilities, but verbal skills as well). Second, the results should match an
external criterion. Common external criteria are educational achievements, career success,
and wealth; that is, intelligent people are often achievers, whether in school, work, or finances.

Reliability refers to the stability and consistency of scores the intelligence test produces.

The Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS) is an individually administered measure of

intelligence, intended for adults aged 16–89.

The WAIS is intended to measure human intelligence reflected in both verbal and
performance abilities. Dr. David Wechsler, a clinical psychologist, believed that intelligence is
a global construct, reflecting a variety of measurable skills and should be considered in the
context of the overall personality. The WAIS is also administered as part of a test battery to
make inferences about personality and pathology, both through the content of specific answers
and patterns of subtest scores.

The WAIS is founded on Wechsler’s definition of intelligence, which he defined as “...

the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively
with his environment”. He believed that intelligence was made up of specific elements that
could be isolated, defined, and subsequently measured. However, these individual elements
72

were not entirely independent, but were all interrelated. His argument, in other words, is that
general intelligence is composed of various specific and interrelated functions or elements that
can be individually measured.

This theory differed greatly from the Binet scale which, in Wechsler’s day, was generally
considered the supreme authority with regard to intelligence testing. A drastically revised new
version of the Binet scale, released in 1937, received a great deal of criticism from David
Wechsler (after whom the original Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence scale and the modern
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IV are named).

Wechsler was a very influential advocate for the concept of non-intellective factors, and
he felt that the 1937 Binet scale did not do a good job of incorporating these factors into the
scale (non-intellective factors are variables that contribute to the overall score in intelligence,
but are not made up of intelligence-related items. These include things such as lack of
confidence, fear of failure, attitudes, etc.).

8.2 Title: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

Experiment No: Experimenter:

Date: Subject:

Individual/Group Experiment:

8.3 Aim
1. To assess the intelligence quotient (IQ) of an individual using Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale (WAIS- III).

8.4 Materials Required

1. WAIS kit containing materials for all the tests

2. record sheet

3. Stopwatch

4. Answer sheet
 73

5. Manual and scoring key

6. Pencil and eraser

8.5 Description of the Material

The WAIS-III, a subsequent revision of the WAIS and the WAIS-R, was released in
1997. It provided scores for Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, and Full Scale IQ, along with four
secondary indices (Verbal Comprehension, Working Memory, Perceptual Organization, and
Processing Speed).

The verbal IQ

The verbal IQ is derived from scores on seven of the subtests: information, digit span,
vocabulary, arithmetic, comprehension, similarities, and letter-number sequencing. Letter-
number sequencing is a new subtest added to the most recent edition of the WAIS (WAIS-III).

The performance IQ

The performance IQ is derived from scores on the remaining seven subtests: picture
completion, picture arrangement, block design, object assembly, digit symbol, matrix reasoning,
and symbol search. Matrix reasoning and symbol search are new subtests and were added to
the most recent edition of the WAIS (WAIS-III).

Subtests:
1) Picture Completion: Picture Completion contains 25 items. The examinee views a picture
and then either points to or names the important feature missing from the picture

2) Vocabulary. Vocabulary contains 33 items. The examinee provides oral definitions for
words presented.

3) Digit Symbol–Coding: For Digit Symbol–Coding, the examinee is shown a series of symbols
that are paired with numbers.

4) Similarities: Similarities contains 19 items, which are pairs of words. The examiner presents
the words orally, and the examinee is asked how the two objects or concepts are alike.
74

5) Block Design. Block Design contains nine test items which are nine different designs.
The examinee is asked to replicate models or pictures of two colours, six sided blocks,
progressing in difficulty from two block designs to nine block designs.

6) Arithmetic: Arithmetic contains 20 arithmetic problems. For this subtest, the examinee is
presented with arithmetic word problems to be solved without the use of pencil or paper.

7) Matrix Reasoning: Matrix Reasoning contains 26 items. The examinee views a matrix
from which a section is missing, and from five response options identifies the missing
piece.

8) Digit Span: Digit Span has two subsections: Digits Forward and Digits Backward; each
contains eight items. On both, the examiner reads a series of number sequences in
which the examinee is required to repeat the sequence in either forward or reverse order.

9) Information: For Information, the examinee responds orally to a series of questions about
factual information.

10) Picture Arrangement: Picture Arrangement consists of 11 items. The cards are presented
to the examinee out of order, and the examinee rearranges the cards to create the story
in proper sequence, within a specified time limit.

11) Comprehension: Comprehension contains 18 items. The examinee responds orally to a

series of questions that require solutions to everyday problems or understanding of
concepts or social practices.

12) Symbol Search: Symbol Search contains 60 items. For this subtest, the examinee visually
scans two groups of symbols and indicates if either of the target symbols matches any of
the symbols in the search group.

13) Letter Number Sequence: For Letter Number Sequence, the examiner reads a combination
of numbers and letters and the examinee is asked to recall the numbers first in ascending
order, then the letters in alphabetical order.

14) Object Assembly: Object Assembly contains five object assembly puzzles. The examinee
is presented with puzzle pieces that, when properly assembled, form common objects.
 75

Standardization:

Reliability:

The reliabilities are very good (1.00 would be considered perfect), and the Standard
Error of Measurement (SEM) is generally small. Most subtests have test-retest reliabilities in-
between .81 to .94, with a few falling lower than that. As to practice effects over a one to three
month time, Verbal IQ increased about 3 points, Performance IQ about 6 or 7 points, and Full
Scale IQ about 4 or 5 points. Inter-rater reliability is also rather good.

Validity:

Content Validity was established by expert judges who reviewed the items. Criterion
Validity was established by correlating WAIS-R and WAIS III. The numbers are good, and Full
Scale IQ is about three points higher on the WAIS-R, as expected by the Flynn effect. The
WAIS III is also correlated with the SB4, the WISC-III, the WIAT, etc.

Construct Validity was established using a factor analysis. Studies found that g was
supported, and that verbal subtests correlated better with each other than performance subtests.
The same was true for performance subtests verses verbal, but not as strongly.

Norms:

The sample includes 2450 adults, in 13 age groups ranging from 2 to 10 years wide (16-
17… 35-44), which is a 50% increase in sample size since WAIS-R. At least 30 people were in
each educational level (five of them) for each age group, and there were an equal number
males and females.

In general, the WAIS III is used for assessing intellectual ability. It is often a core test for
assessing learning disabilities and for determining exceptionality and giftedness. The WAIS III
is also useful for the differential diagnosis of neurological and psychiatric disorders affecting
mental functioning. And it is also appropriate for clinical research purposes.

Besides being utilized as an intelligence assessment, the WAIS is used in

neuropsychological evaluation, specifically with regard to brain dysfunction. Large differences
in verbal and nonverbal intelligence may indicate specific types of brain damage.
76

It is used in clinical setting, educational setting. In clinical setting, WAIS is used to assess
IQ and also for neurological and psychiatric disorders. It is also used for diagnosis purposes.
In educational setting, to examine the individual strengths of students in regards to academics
and extra-curricular.

8.6 Procedure

The test WAIS III is administered in the sequence given below which alternates between
Verbal and Performance tests. The standard procedure for administration and scoring is followed.

Test 1: Picture Completion

Conduction:

“I’m going to show you some pictures in which there is some important part missing, look
at each picture and tell me what is missing” .(Place the stimulus booklet in front of the examinee)
.Now look at the picture .what important part is missing ?(allow maximum exposure of
20seconds).

Start: start with item 6 and 7 if the examinee gets a perfect score (1 point) on item 6 and
7, give full credits for 1-5

Reverse: if the examinee scores 0 in either item 6 or7 administer item1-5 in reverse
sequence until examine obtains perfect scores on two consecutive items. Discontinue after 5
consecutive scores of 0.

Time limit: 20 second each item

Discontinue: 5 consecutive scores of 0

Scoring: 0 or 1 point

Test 2: Vocabulary

Conduction:
 77

Now we are going to do something different, in this next section I want you to tell me the
meaning of some words. Now listen carefully and tell what each word I say means. Are you
ready?

Start: item 4, if the examinee obtains perfect scores (2points) on item 4 and 5 give full
credit for item 1-3.

Reverse: if the examinee obtains a score of 0-1 on either item 4-5 then administer item 1-
3 in reverse order. Until they obtain the perfect score of 2 on consecutive items. Discontinue
after 6 consecutive 0.

Discontinue: 6 consecutive scores of 0

Scoring: 0, 1 or 2 points for all item.

Test 3: Digit Symbol Coding:

Conduction:

“Look at these boxes and notice that each has a number in the upper part and a special
mark in the lower part .Each member has its own mark .Now look down here where the squares
have the numbers in the top part but the squares at the bottom are empty. In each of the empty
squares put the mark that should go there .begin here and fill in as many as squares as you
can one after the other, without skipping any .Keep working until I say stop . Work as quickly as
you can, without any mistakes”.

Scoring: record one point for each correctly drawn symbol completed within 120 sec time
limit. Maximum score 133.

Test 4: Similarities

Conduction:

“In this section I’m going to read two words to you and I want you to tell me how they are
alike. For each item slowly ask the following question “In what way are A and B alike”? No
further help is given to them. However if the response is unclear, a neutral enquiry is made.
The testee’s response to each item is recorded verbatim
78

Start: start with item 6, 7 if the examinee gets a perfect score of one on item 6 and 7, give
full credits for 1-5

Reverse: if the examinee scores 0in either item 6 or7 atministeritem1-5 in reverse
sequence until examine obtains perfect scores on two consecutive items.

Discontinue after 4 consecutive scores of 0.

Scoring: Responses from 1-4 are 0or 1 point, responses to item 6-19 are scored 2,1or 0
points.

Test 5: Block design

Conduction:

Design 1: The examiner takes 4 blocks and says, “You see these blocks? They are all
alike. On some side they are red. On some white, and on the other half red and half white. I am
putting them together to make a design .Watch closely. The four blocks are arranged into the
design on card 1 without exposing the card. The testee is then given 4 other blocks with the
instruction, “Make one just like this”. The timing is started and 60 seconds is given .If the
testee successfully completes the design within the time limit , the examiner proceeds to item
2.If the testee fails examiner should demonstrate again and give a second trial allotting 60
seconds .Whether the testee succeeds or fails the examiner proceeds to design 2

Design 2: the testee’s blocks are scrambled. The blocks that served as models for design
1 are replaced by the card marked 2. This time we are going to put the block together to make
them look like this picture”. The examiner demonstrates and then scrambles these blocks she
asks the testee to look at the picture and construct the design. Sixty seconds is allowed to
complete the design. If the testee successfully completes the design within the time limit, the
examiner proceeds to design 3.If the testee fails the examiner scrambles the blocks and makes
the design again. Once again the blocks are scrambled and the testee is given another trial of
60 seconds. Whether the testee succeeds or fails on the second design, the examiner proceeds
to design 3 .For design 3 to 9, the blocks are scrambled and placed before the testee with
instruction to make the design. No second trials or demonstrations are given. For design 3 to
 79

5, 60 seconds is given for each design. When design 6 is reached, the other 5 blocks are taken
out and the subject is asked to use all the 9 blocks for the remaining designs. 120 seconds is
allowed for each design. For design 9, the testee should not be permitted to rotate the card and
give design a flat base. The subtest should be discontinued after 3 consecutive failures. The
first 2 designs are considered as failures only if both the trials are not completed appropriately.

Discontinue: 3 consecutive 0

Scoring rule: item 1-6 2 points for each correct design in trial one and two.

Item 7-14 circle appropriate scores up to 7 points.

Test 6: Arithmetic

Conduction:

“Now we are going to switch tasks. In this session I’m going to ask you to solve some
arithmetic problems”. The examinee is presented with a series of arithmetic word problem to
be solved mentally without the use of pencil or paper and respond orally with a time limit.

Start: With item 5, if the examinee obtains perfect score (1 point) on both item 5 and 6
give full criticism for item 1 -4.

Reverse: if the examinee scores 0 on either item 5 or 6 administer 1-4in reverse

Discontinue: after 4 consecutive scores of 0

Scoring: Item 1-8:- 0 or 1 point

Item 19-20:0, 1 or 2

Test 7: Matrix reasoning

Conduction:

“I am going to show you some pictures. For each picture, there is a part missing. Look at
all aspects of each picture carefully and choose the missing part from the five choices.”
80

(For sample item) “Tell me which of these pictures (point to the response choices) should
go here (Point to the question mark). Make sure you carefully look at the picture on top and at
the response choice below before making your selection. If you think there is more than one
correct answer to the problem, choose the best one. Remember, you are to choose the one
that best completes the pattern.”

If the examinee doesn’t respond correctly, the: “for this item, the missing part should
complete the pattern by making the picture the same color. See, this choice (response 2)
would best complete the pattern because the squares are all yellow.”

Item 1-26. “Now tell me which of these should go here.”

Start: Three samples items (A-C) and then item 4. Administer the three sample items to
all examinee in forward sequence. If the examinee obtains perfect score (1 point) on both
items4 and5, give full credit for items 1-3.

Reverse: if the examinee scores 0 on either item 4 or 5, administer items 1-3 in reverse
sequence until the examinee obtains perfect scores on two consecutive items.

Discontinue: after 4 consecutive scores of 0.

Scoring: response to items 1-3 and items 4-26 are scored 0-1 point. If the examinee
obtains perfect scores on item 4 and 5, then give 1-point credit for each of the items 1-3.

Test 8: Digit span

Conduction:

Administer both trails of each item even if the examinee passes trail1. “I am going to say
some numbers listen carefully, and when I am through, I want you to say them right after me.
Just say what I say”

“Now I am going to say some more numbers. But this time when I stop, I want you to say
them backward. For example, if I say 7-1-9, what would you say?” (If rightly said, then: “that’s
right”. Otherwise you tell them the right response: 9-1-7’)
 81

Test 9: Information.

Conduction: “Now I am going to ask you some questions and I would like you to tell me
the answers.”

Start: Item 5 if the examinee obtains perfect score 1 point on items 5 and 6, give full
credit to items 1-4.

Reverse: if the examinee scores 0 on either item 5 or 6, administer items 1-4 in reverse
sequence until the examinee obtains the perfect scores on two consecutive items.

Discontinue: after six consecutive scores of 0.

Probes; “Explain what you mean or tell me more about it.”

Scoring: 0 or 1 for each response.

Test 10: picture arrangement

Conduction: in this section, I am going to give you a group of cards that are in the wrong
order. Put them together so they tell a story that makes sense.

Item instructions for e.g. these pictures tell a story about a worker building a house, but
they are in the wrong order. Put them in the right order to so they will tell a story that makes
sense. Item 2, I have some more sets of pictures of you to arrange. In each case, they are
mixed up, and you are to put them in the right order so they make the most sensible story.
Work as quickly as you can and tell me when you have finished.

Start: item 1

Discontinue: after four consecutive scores of 0 starting with item 2.

Scoring: Item 1:- 2 for correct response in Trial 1.

1 for correct response on Trial 2

0 for incorrect response for incorrect answer

82

Task 11: comprehension

The examiner starts with item 1, each question is read slowly to the testee. Questions
are repeated whenever necessary without altering the words or using abbreviations. When the
response is unclear or ambiguous the examiner is permitted to say “please explain further”.
For item 1 alone if the testee does not give a two point response, the examiner may help by
giving the correct response. Item 5, 6,7,10 and 13 require 2 correct response. If the testee only
gives one correct response than the examiner may ask for a second response.

Start: item 4

Discontinue: after 4 consecutive scores of 0

Scoring: item 0-1: 0 or 1 point, item 4-18: 0, 1, or 2

Task 12: symbol search

Conduction: in the next task, I want you to look at two target shapes. Then see if you can
find either one of them in the group of shapes next to them.

Sample 1: look over here. Notice there are two shapes on the left side and a group of
shapes on the right side. You are to mark the yes box if one of the shapes on the left side is the
same as any of the shapes from the group on the right side.. When I tell you to start, you do
these the same way. Begin here and do as many as you can. When you finish the first page, go
on to the next page and so on. Most people don’t do all of them. Work as quickly as you can
without changing your answers. Don’t skip any items and don’t stop until I tell you to do so. Any
questions?

Discontinue: after 120 second

Scoring: 1 point for each correct symbol.

Task 13: letter number sequencing

Conduction: I am going to say a group of numbers and letters. After I say them, I want
you to tell me the numbers first, in order, starting with the lowest number. Then tell me the
 83

letters in alphabetical order. For e.g.: if I say B-7, your answer should be 7-B. The number goes
firs, then the letters. If I say 9-C-3, then your answer should be 3-9-C, the numbers in order
first, then the letters in alphabetical order. Let’s practice.

Similarly, undertake the following test items. Start: practice items and then item 1

Discontinue: after scores of 0 on all three trials of an item.

Scoring: 0 or 1 for each response

8.7 Scoring
1. The subtest score for each test is calculated as given in the manual

2. The raw score of each subtest is converted to scaled scores

3. The verbal score is the sum of scaled scores of all the verbal subtests and performance
score is the sum of all the scaled scores of performance test. The full scaled score is the
sum of verbal and performance scaled score.

4. The verbal, performance and full scaled scores are converted into VIQ, PIQ and FCIQ

8.8 Results

The individual and group data are tabulated in the following table

Table I-Individual data on the WAIS

Verbal Performance Total

Scores

Subsets

Mean Score
84

Table II-IQ and index scores of the subject

IQ/INDEX VIQ PIQ FSIQ VCI POI WMI PSI

SCORES

SUM OF
SCALED SCORES

IQ/INDEX
SCORES

PERCENTILE

Table III-Group data on the WAIS

S. No Initial VIQ PIQ FSIQ VCI POI WMI PSI Category of

IQ

10
 85

8.9 Discussion

The general, individual and group data can be compared, interpreted and discussed in
detail

8.10 Conclusion
1. Write about the raw score, interpretation of the score by the subject. The group’s raw
score and interpretation will also be written about.
86

CHAPTER - 9
RAVEN’S STANDARD
PROGRESSIVE MATRICES

9.1 Introduction

Same General Introduction as Chapter 6 and 8 for Intelligence. Raven’s S.P.M was
developed by JC Raven originally developed in 1936 published in 1938. This is a revised
edition published in the year 1956. The test measures observation skills, clear thinking ability,
intellectual capacity and intellectual efficiency. Especially it measures the ability to formulate
new concepts when faced with novel information, extracts meaning out of confusion and
ambiguity think clearly for complex situation and events. The test is based on spearman’s two
factor theory which distinguishes between eductive and reproductive thinking process. RSPM
is designed to assist a person ability to educe relationships rather than reproduce learned
material. The eductive reasoning is similar to cattle’s fluid intelligence, it is the capacity to think
logically and solve problem in novel situation in independent of acquired knowledge. This test
consists of only designs or patterns. It can be administered to both illiterates and literates.
SPM measures a person’s capacity, the time of the test, to understand meaningless figures
presented for observation. The person has to find out relation between the designs and by
doing so develop a systematic method of reasoning.

The SPM has an extensive history of research, with more than 60 years of studies that
support its usefulness as a measure of general mental ability. The current revision of the SPM
was undertaken to provide customers with a shorter version of the assessment that maintains
the essential nature of the construct being measured and the psychometric features of the
assessment. The 47-minute administration time for the current SPM (45 minutes for 28 items
in Part 1; 2 minutes for 2 items in Part 2) maintains the SPM as an assessment of cognitive
reasoning power rather than speed. Speeded assessments are typically composed of relatively
easy items and rely on the number of correct responses within restrictive time limits to
differentiate performance among candidates. The SPM items have a wide range of difficulty
which makes it a power assessment. Classical Test Theory (CTT) and Item Response Theory
 87

methodologies were used in analyses of the SPM data. Specifically, for each of the 60 items in
the previous SPM version, we examined the following indices to select items: item difficulty
index (p value), item-total correlation, and IRT item difficulty parameter. Because the SPM was
designed to assess mental ability in the general population, we selected a range of low- through
high-difficulty items that had high item-total correlations. For the current SPM revision, we
used data from 793 applicants and employees in a number of positions across various
occupations. These individuals took the SPM within the period May, 2006 through May, 2007.
Four hundred and forty of these individuals provided responses about their current position
levels. In the sample, the single most indicated current position was that of “Manager.”

9.2 Title: Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices

Experiment No: Experimenter:

Date: Subject:

Individual/Group Experiment:

9.3 Aim
1. To assess the capacity of the subject for observation and clear thinking by means of
progressive matrices.

9.4 Materials Required

1. Standard progressive matrices test booklet

2. Record sheet

3. Stopwatch

4. Answer sheet

5. Manual and scoring key

6. Pencil and eraser

88

9.5 Description of the Material

SPM consists of 60 problems in five sets of 12 each problem which consists of objective
designs with a missing piece from 6-8 choices in each section. The first problem in each set is
the easiest one. Then the problems are progressively more difficult in nature. As in when the
subject work on these problems he gains some training and he or she can understand the
pattern of arrangements of the other problem. All the 5 sets provide subject chances to
understand 5 progressive methods. It can be stated that there are 5 progressive assessments
of intellectual capacity of the person. The scale covers whole range of intellectual development
for early period to adulthood. It can be applied irrespective of age. This test can be administers
individually, as group test or self-administered. A person’s total score provides the idea of
intellectual capacity. This test can be used as untimed capacity test or 20 min speed capacity
test.

Standardization:

Reliability: Internal consistency studies using either the split-half method corrected for
length or KR20 estimates result in values ranging from .60 to .98, with a median of .90. Test-
retest correlations range from a low of .46 for an eleven-year interval to a high of .97 for a two-
day interval. The median test-retest value is approximately .82. Raven provided test-retest
coefficients for several age groups: .88 (13 yrs. plus), .93 (under 30 yrs.), .88 (30-39 yrs.), .87
(40-49 yrs.), .83 (50 yrs. and over).

Validity: Spearman considered the SPM to be the best measure of g. When evaluated by
factor analytic methods which were used to define g initially, the SPM comes as close to
measuring it as one might expect. The majority of studies which have factor analyzed the SPM
along with other cognitive measures in Western cultures report loadings higher than .75 on a
general factor. Concurrent validity coefficients between the SPM and the Stanford-Binet and
Weschler scales range between .54 and .88.

Norms: British children between the ages of 6 and 16; Irish children between the ages of
6 and 12; military and civilian subjects between the ages of 20 and 65. A supplement includes
norms from Canada, the United States, and Germany.
 89

It can be used for research purposes, anthropological, gender and clinical studies for this
we can use SPM without time limit. It can be used for vocational guidance and occupational
selection especially in military recruitment. For occupational purposes we can use advanced
progressive matrices set one and two with time. This test can also be used in educational
settings as it is good predictor of success in educational context and also in clinical settings.

9.6 Procedure

The progressive matrices, set A, B, C, D and E are printed in a book form. The person
who gives the test explains the problem on page one i.e. set A, and instructs the subject to
solve the rest in similar manner. Each problem consists of a pattern in which a piece is missing
.There are several pieces below the pattern and each of the pieces is of the same shape as the
missing piece but only one of it completes the pattern. The subject has to choose the piece,
which she feels, will complete the pattern and note down the number of this piece against the
pattern number on the answer sheet.

The following instructions are given “there is a pattern on every page of your book with a
piece missing. Each time you have to decide which of the piece below the right one to complete
the pattern is. When you have found the right piece, write down the number of piece on the
answer sheet the pattern number. The problem are simpler in the beginning and gets harder as
you go on. If you pay attention to the way the easy ones are solved, you will find the latter ones
less difficult. Try each in turn from the beginning to the end of the booklet. Work at your place.
Do not turn to see how many you have solved right. You have as much as time you want”.

9.7 Scoring

The SPM consists of 60 items arranged in five sets (A, B, C, D, & E) of 12 items each.
Each item contains a figure with a missing piece. Below the figure are either six (sets A & B) or
eight (sets C through E) alternative pieces to complete the figure, only one of which is correct.
Each set involves a different principle or “theme” for obtaining the missing piece, and within a
set the items are roughly arranged in increasing order of difficulty. The raw score is typically
converted to a percentile rank by using the appropriate norms.
90

A brief description of the grades are made below

Grade 1: (Intellectually Superior) if the score lies at or above the 95th percentile.

Grade 2: (Above average intellectual capacity) if the score lies at or above the 75t percentile

Grade 2+: if the score lies at or above the 90th percentile

Grade 3: (Intellectually average) if a score lies between 25th and 75th percentile

Grade 3+: If the score is greater than the median or 50th percentile

Grade 4: (Below average) if the score lies below 25th percentile

Grade 4-: if a score lies below the 10th percentile

Grade 5: (Intellectually impaired) if the score lies at 0r below 5th percentile.

9.8 Results

The individual and group data are tabulated in the following table

Table 1-Individual data on the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices

S. No Initial Raw Score Interpretation

Table II-Group data on the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices

S. No Initial Raw Score Interpretation

4
 91

10

9.9 Discussion

The general, individual and group data can be compared, interpreted and discussed in
detail

9.10 Conclusion
1. Write about the raw score, interpretation of the score by the subject. The group’s raw
score and interpretation will also be written about.
92

CHAPTER: 10
SEGUIN FORM BOARD TEST

10.1 Introduction

Same General Introduction as Chapter 6 and 8 for Intelligence. The Seguin Form Board
Test is used to assess visual discrimination, matching and eye-hand coordination. Previous
analysis has shown the factor loadings for the same scale to differ among age levels, so the
test may be measuring different abilities at different age levels. Test materials consist of ten
differently shaped wooden blocks and a large form board with recessed corresponding to
these shapes. The child is instructed to put the shapes where they belong as fast as he/she
can. Three trials are given, each with similar instructions, and are instructed to go faster on
each trial. Time, in seconds, and number of errors were obtained for each trial. A significant
decrease in response time from Year 1 to Year 2 was found. Results indicate that cognitive-
perceptual abilities are involved in Seguin performance. Sex differences were small but indicated
that girls performed better than boys. Fewer errors as well as faster response time were
associated with age in both years.

The form board has been used for several years, and clinical psychologists continue to
regard it as one of their best general tests. It appeals to the child’s interest, affording him a
short and fascinating task which calls for his best effort, and it helps to free him from the fear
and self-consciousness which often interfere seriously in a mental examination. At the same
time the test gives the examiner a good general view of the child’s mentality and it usually
indicates more or less clearly the nature of his defects.

10.2 Title: Seguin Form Board Test

Experiment No: Experimenter:

Date: Subject:

Individual/Group Experiment:
 93

10.3 Aim
1. To assess the subject’s manipulation, ability to respond to pressure for speed and
performance when faced with difficulty

10.4 Materials Required

1. Seguin Form Board

2. Record sheet

3. Stopwatch

4. Answer sheet

5. Manual and scoring key

6. Pencil and eraser

10.5 Description of the Material

The Seguin Form Board Test is based on the single factor theory of intelligence, measures
speed and accuracy. It is useful in evaluating a child’s eye-hand co-ordination, shape-concept,
visual perception and cognitive ability. The test primarily used to assess visual-motor skills. It
includes Gesell figures where in the child is ask to copy ten geometrical figures to evaluate
visual-motor ability. Test materials consist of ten differently shaped wooden blocks and a large
form board with recessed corresponding shapes.

For e.g. the individuals are required to insert 10 variously shaped blocks into the
corresponding recesses as quickly as possible.

Its facility for arousing spontaneous interest in children, it’s amenability for brief and fairly
satisfactory appraisal and the claim that it is a fairly valid ‘g’ test only below mental ages of
above 10 have made use the Seguin form board as a routine test in clinical set up to assess
the IQ of children below 11 years of age and adult feeble-minded. Various features noted were
child’s coordination, apparent mentality, ability at planning ahead, and use of the hands.
94

Standardisation

In the Indian context, Bharatraj administered to 1052 subjects (705 males and 347 females)
between 5 to 15 years of age. S. K. Goel, administered to 1125 subjects (749 females and 376
females). The total time taken and shortest time consistently decrease under successive age
groups, but the difference in time of successive age groups is minimum in upper age levels as
compared to lower age levels.

The Seguin Form Board test is used to assess visual discrimination and matching and
eye- hand coordination. The test may be measuring different abilities at different age levels. It
is used in school settings to assess children’s coordination abilities and to identify children with
low and high eye-hand coordination. It is also used in special schools to improve the coordination
of special children.

10.6 Procedure
The board has ten wooden blocks of different shapes. While administering this test,
these blocks are taken out by the examiner and stacked in front of the subject who has to put
them back as quickly as he can. The stacked blocks are kept in order of easy to hard designs
as given in the manual. The task is repeated three ties and the score is the time taken on the
fastest trial.

The following instructions are given to the subject: “Here are ten wooden blocks which
have to be put by you in the appropriate space. Be as fast as you can. You will be allowed only
three trials”. These tasks show the subject’s manipulation, his ability to respond to pressure for
speed and his performance when faced with difficulty.

10.7 Scoring
Three trials are given to the subject.

• The trials are timed.

• The shortest time is written.

• The mental age corresponding to the shortest time is the subject’s mental age.

10.8 Results

The individual and group data are tabulated in the following table
 95

Table 1-Individual data on the Seguin Form Board

S. No Initial Raw Score Interpretation

Table II-Group data on the Seguin Form Board

S. No Initial Raw Score Interpretation

10

10.9 Discussion

The general, individual and group data can be compared, interpreted and discussed in
detail

10.10 Conclusion
1. Write about the raw score, interpretation of the score by the subject. The group’s raw
score and interpretation will also be written about.
96

CHAPTER: 11
FUNDAMENTAL INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS
ORIENTATION–BEHAVIOR (FIRO-B)

11.1 Introduction

Interpersonal Relationship is a connection or association between two or more people. It

may be for a short span or lifelong depending upon the relationship .One cannot live in isolation
and everyone needs someone to” Share and Care,” Good interpersonal relationships help us
lead healthy and joyous life and for this we need to be continuously aware of the effects of our
thoughts, words, behaviour and actions on our relationships. Relationships are a lot like plants,
the more we care for the healthier they become. Interpersonal relationships are essential for
our wellbeing. We have personal needs that can be satisfied only through interacting with
others. How fulfilling, productive, meaningful and satisfying our lives turnout to be depends on
the quality of the relationship we form with other people. As we grow our social circle widens.
From family members, to peer group and other people in community, our identities are defined
by our interpersonal relationship. It is within our relationships that we discover who we are as
a person.

Interpersonal relationship refers to a strong association amongst individuals with similar

tastes, aspirations and interests in life. It is essential for individuals to share a healthy relationship
with each other not only for quicker delivery of results but also for a positive ambience at the
workplace.

Let us go through the theories of interpersonal relationship development in detail:

Social Exchange Theory

Social Exchange Theory was proposed by George Casper Homans in the year 1958.

According to Social Exchange Theory “give and take” forms the basis of almost all
relationships though their proportions might vary as per the intensity of the relationship.
 97

In a relationship, every individual has expectations from his/her partner. A relationship

without expectations is meaningless.

According to Social Exchange theory feelings and emotions ought to be reciprocated for
a successful and long lasting relationship.

Relationships can never be one sided. An individual invests his time and energy in
relationships only when he gets something out of it.

There are relationships where an individual receives less than he gives. This leads to
situations where individual starts comparing his relationship with others.

Comparisons sometimes can be really dangerous as it stops individuals from putting

their best in relationships. Don’t always think that you would have a better relationship with
someone else. Understand your partner and do as much as you can for him/her. Don’t always
expect the other person to do things first. Take initiative on your own and value partner.

Uncertainty Reductions Theory

Both Charles R. Berger and Richard J. Calabrese proposed Uncertainty Reductions Theory
to explain the relationship between individuals who do not know each other much or are complete
strangers.

According to Uncertainty Reductions Theory, two unknown individuals meeting for the
first time go through various stages to reduce the level of uncertainty between them and come
closer to each other. Strangers must communicate well to know each other better and find out
their compatibility level.

Following are the stages individuals go through to reduce the level of uncertainty in
relationships.

1. Entry Stage

The entry stage is characterized by two individuals trying to know each other better.

Each one tries to find out the other person’s background, family members, educational
qualification, interests, and hobbies and so on.
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Each one discloses his/her likes and dislikes to strengthen the bond and take the
relationship to the next level.

2. Personal Stage

In the second stage or the personal stage, individuals try to find out more about their
partner’s attitude and beliefs.

Individuals try to know more about the other person’s ethics, values, behaviour and nature
on the whole. Individuals who are no longer strangers learn more about each other’s personality
traits in the personal stage.

3. The Exit Stage

The Personal Stage decides the fate of the relationship. Individuals comfortable in each
other’s company decide to enter into long term commitments i.e. either formally get married or
stay together forever.

Not all relationships flower into marriages. Individuals failing to understand and adjust
with each other decide to mutually end their relationship for a better future.

The exit stage is characterized by individuals moving out of relationships in search

of a more compatible partner.

Interpersonal Relationship Model

Interpersonal Relationship model explains an individual’s outlook towards relationship

and how one’s perception changes in due course.

Two people come together, like each other and enter into a relationship.

According to interpersonal relationship model, two directional components go a long way

in creating an individual’s perception about relationships.

They are as follows:

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 Other to Self: The component “other to self” represents an individual’s awareness of

his partner’s attitude, thoughts and beliefs towards himself. The other to self component is
more to do with the awareness of an individual as to how his/her partner treats him/her.

 Self to Other: The “self to other” component signifies an individual’s awareness of his
own behaviour, attitude towards his/her partner. How an individual treats the other person in
relationship is denoted by self to other component.

Interpersonal Relationship Model describes above two directional components as per

following criteria:

Assistive Polarity
Assistive Polarity further consists of the following:

1. Assistive Attitude: Assistive attitude consists of actions and behaviour which are in favour
of the other person.

2. Resistive Attitude: Resistive attitude consists of actions and behaviour of an individual

which are against the recipient and tend to make the other person weak.

3. Level of Intentionality: Level of intentionality further consists of following three levels:

i. Hypotelic Level of intention: Sometimes an individual is unaware of the other person’s

aspirations and intentions and unknowingly comes in his/her way without realizing its
harm. Hypotelic level signifies resistance to other person’s aspirations unknowingly.

ii. Telic or Meta telic Level of Intention: There are several cases where individuals
deliberately stop the other person from doing something clearly knowing how much it
would affect the other person. An individual intentionally obstructing aspirations of an
individual comes under telic or meta telic level of intention.

iii. Degree of Autonomy: Degrees of autonomy are further classified into the following:

According to interpersonal relationship model, the degree of assistance and obstruction

arise out of following:
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 Autonomous Agency: Autonomous agency comes into picture when both resistance
as well as acceptances arises out of either of the two partner’s personal wishes, choices
and interests. None of the partners is influenced by a third party.

 Proxy Agency: Proxy agency comes into play when resistances and acceptances are
due to an external party often called the third party. Here the third party influences the
decisions of the two individuals in relationship often called as Targets.

Interpersonal Relationship Development

Every relationship needs time to grow. One needs time to come really close to someone
and trust him/her. Miracles do not happen in a single day. One needs to be patient enough to
understand the other person for the relationship to grow and reach to the next level.

Various models have been proposed in the field of interpersonal relationship development.
All the models suggest how relationship grows between friends, partners, couples, colleagues
and so on.

Let us go through the models one by one:

Knapp’s Relationship Escalation Model

According to Knapp’s relationship escalation model, every relationship goes through the
following stages:

Every relationship begins with a stage where two individuals not knowing each other
before meet and instantly get attracted towards each other. In this stage, both the participants
try their level best to create an everlasting first impression on the other person. Individuals
show their best side to mark the beginning of a relationship. In this stage physical appearance,
grooming, manners, etiquette play an essential role as individuals do not know each other
much.

In the second stage individuals try to know each other more. They share their likes and
dislikes and also try to find out about the other person’s interests. This stage is characterized
by extensive meetings and phone calls so that individuals get to check their compatibility level.
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Case 1 - Individuals are not compatible with each other.

Result - Individuals do not take the relationship forward and decide to end it for a better
future.

Case - 2 Individuals are compatible with each other

Result - Individuals decide to continue the relationship

In the third stage, individuals make regular efforts to strengthen their relationship. People
make commitments and prepare themselves for a long term relationship.

The fourth stage begins when individuals in a relationship start doing things together.
They are often seen together shopping, dining, going for movies and so on.

When individuals are really sure about their relationship, they decide to stay together
forever. Individuals enter the wedlock in the fifth stage.

What is important for relationship Development?

 Effective communication between partners - It is important for individuals to stay in touch

on a regular basis.

 Trust

 Care

 Loyalty

 Understanding

 Respect for each other

A relationship does not survive if any of the above is missing.

Knapp’s Relationship Termination Model

A relationship ends when individuals do not communicate with each other effectively.
Misunderstandings and confusions arise leading to unnecessary conflicts.
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Remember there is no place for ego and jealousy in relationships. One needs to be
forgiving for the relationship to grow. The stagnating stage is often characterized by individuals
avoiding each other and not interacting much.

Individuals are no longer interested in each other and physical intimacy also decreases.
People decide to move on from the relationship and opt for mutual separation.

Duck’s Relationship Filtering Model

As the name suggests, Duck’s relationship filtering model consists of many filters, a
relationship has to pass through.

Distance

It is convenient for individuals to start a relationship with someone who stays close by or
works with him/her. Distance does matter in relationships. People staying far off often find it
difficult to meet and eventually their relationship suffers. This explains why long distance
relationships are not very successful.

Perception

What one thinks about the other person also affects relationship. Individuals might make
wrong perception towards someone and not decide to continue the relationship.

Physical appearance

How individuals look, speak and present themselves also affect the relationship. Individuals
tend to get attracted towards someone who is charming and confident

The Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation–Behavior (FIRO-B)

instrument was created in the late 1950s by William Schutz, PhD. Schutz developed the
FIRO-B theory to aid in the understanding and predicting of how high-performance military
teams would work together. In developing the FIRO-B theory, Schutz began with the
premise that “people need people.” He used the term interpersonal to indicate any
interaction, real or imagined, occurring between people. He used the term need to describe
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a psychological condition that, if not satisfied, leads to a state of discomfort or anxiety. In

addition to his own observations of group behavior, Schutz was influenced by the
psychological literature, including the works of Freud, Adorno, Fromm, Adler, and Jung,
among others. He posited that interpersonal needs could be grouped into three categories:
Inclusion, Control, and Affection. The FIRO-B model describes the interaction of these three
categories of interpersonal need along two dimensions: expressed and wanted.

The FIRO-B assessment is used in a wide variety of applications including:

• Leadership development

• Team building

• Individual interpersonal effectiveness

• Retention

The FIRO-B instrument can also be used in conjunction with the MBTI® instrument for
leadership development with the Leadership Report Using FIRO-B® and MBTI® and in
team-building workshops.

11.2 Title: Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation–

Behavior (FIRO-B)

Experiment No: Experimenter:

Date: Subject:

Individual/Group Experiment:

11.3 Aim
1. To assess the Interpersonal relationship of the subject

11.4 Materials Required

1. FIRO-B

2. Record sheet
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3. Stopwatch

4. Answer sheet

5. Manual and scoring key

6. Pencil and eraser

11.5 Description of the Material

FIRO-B, Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation - Behavior, is a questionnaire

designed by Will Shutz, formerly of Stanford University, distributed by Consulting Psychologists
Press of Palo Alto, California. FIRO-B measures a person’s self-perception of how they
characteristically relate to other people. In addition to giving information about how individuals
see themselves behaving in interpersonal relationships, the instrument can also be used to
facilitate effectiveness in those relation-ships. For this reason, FIRO-B has been used widely
in a variety of settings including the study of individual personality dynamics, sensitivity training,
marriage counselling, personnel selection and assignment, team building, and significantly,
managerial relationships.

FIRO-B addresses three dimensions of human relations: Inclusion, Control, and Affection.
Shutz describes these dimensions through the analogy of a boat ride: Inclusion concerns
whom you would like to take a boat ride with; Control has to do with who is operating the engine
and rudder; and Affection has to do with close relationships that may develop between individuals
on the boat.

In more formal terms, the Inclusion scores reflect behavior of “moving toward” or “moving
away from” people. Some might call this “extroversion” or “introversion.” Another way of
thinking of this is as “in” or “out.” In some ways, this scale is a reflection of a person’s general
social orientation. The Control scores reflect the degree to which person perceives him or
herself assuming responsibility, making decisions or dominating others; in some ways, a
reflection of leadership behavior. One can think of this as “up” or “down.” The Affection
scores indicate the degree to which a person sees himself or herself becoming emotionally
involved with others, a tendency toward deep relationships rather than superficial ones. “Close”
or “distant” capture the dimension here.
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For each of these three dimensions, FIRO-B produces two scores, one an indication of
expression and one of want. Thus, in looking at one’s own scores, one can consider six
elements of one’s interpersonal behavior:

expressed Inclusion (eI), wanted Inclusion (wI),

expressed Control (eC), wanted Control (wC),

expressed Affection (eA), and wanted Affection (wA).

Expressed scores reflect what we think we do with others in relationship with them.
Wanted scores reflect what we want from others in relationship. Expressed scores are
reflections of outward-bound behaviors, while wanted scores are reflections of desired incoming
behaviors.

Reliability and Validity

The FIRO-B instrument measures behaviors driven by interpersonal needs in three areas:
Inclusion, Control, and Affection and addresses how such behaviors can affect one’s interactions
with others (Hammer & Schnell, 2000). The FIRO-B model is based on the theory that fulfilment
of these interpersonal needs serves as motivation in people’s daily functioning.

The need for Inclusion refers to the extent to which individuals need to have social
interactions and associations with others. The need for Control refers to the extent to which
individuals want to lead and influence others as well as the extent to which they prefer to be led
and influenced (Hammer & Schnell, 2000). The need for Affection refers to the emotional
connections between people and the extent to which individuals seek to establish relationships
with others, particularly one-on-one relationships (Waterman & Rogers, 1996).

The FIRO-B instrument measures the extent to which each of these interpersonal needs
is expressed or wanted (Schnell & Hammer, 1993). Expressed needs refer to behaviors
individuals demonstrate toward others, whereas wanted needs refer to behaviors individuals
prefer to have exhibited toward them by others (Schutz, 1958).
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The FIRO-B instrument also measures overall needs (e.g., Total Inclusion) and overall
behaviors (e.g., Total Expressed), and provides an Overall Interpersonal Need Score.
Respondents receive a numerical score as well as a categorical score (low, medium, or high)
for each measure.

The current norm sample for the FIRO-B instrument includes a U.S. national sample of
3,091 individuals who took the assessment in 1997 (Hammer & Schnell, 2000). In examining
the internal consistency reliability of each measure for the national sample, results indicate
that reliability coefficients for all measures are satisfactory, ranging from .85 to .96. Test-retest
reliability coefficients also demonstrate good reliability ranging from .71 to .85 for three different
samples reported in the FIRO-B manual (Hammer & Schnell, 2000).

Research results also support the validity of the instrument. A number of studies have
shown the FIRO-B assessment to be related to measures of leadership (e.g., Fiedler’s Least
Preferred Co-worker scale, -.43 to .46), personal value such as community service (.05 to .27),
and relationships/friendships (-.03 to .27) (Hammer & Schnell, 2000). Additionally, relationships
are also found with assessments such as the MBTI Form M instrument (-.56 to .29) and the
CPI™ instrument (-.48 to .51) (Hammer & Schnell, 2000).

11.6 Procedure

FIRO-B comes in two forms, self-scoring and questionnaire only. The following instructions
are given to the subject: “Read all the questions thoroughly. Be as fast as you can. You must
not ponder over the questions too much”.

11.7 Scoring

FIRO-B comes in two forms, self-scoring and questionnaire only. If you have the self-
scoring form, you can follow the instructions on the instrument to generate your scores. If you
have the questionnaire only, you will have to send your answers to Consulting Psychologists
Press in Palo Alto, California, to be scored. Test booklets are available to qualified administrators
from CPP. Once you have calculated your scores, you may read on to learn how to interpret
your scores.
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11.8 Interpretation

A good first step in interpreting your FIRO-B scores is to understand the magnitude of
the scores. Each of these six scores may range from zero to nine. The higher your score, the
more you indicated that you believe that the statements reflect your behavior. You can think of
the strength of your scores as ranging from extremely weak to extremely high as indicated
below:

0-l extremely low, compulsive

2-3 low, noticeably characteristic

4-5 borderline, may be a tendency

6-7 high, noticeably characteristic

8-9 extremely high, compulsive

As you compare the strength of your scores with their verbal indications above, you
might ask yourself with each one, how that particular tendency might affect your ability to work
with individuals in your organization.

Next, we can compare the Expressed and Wanted scores on each of the three basic
dimensions. If your scores are similar, you might conclude tentatively that you tend to give as
much or as little as you expect. If the scores are divergent, you might conclude that you tend
either to give more than you expect or that you want more than you give on that particular
dimension. For example, a high wI (wanted Inclusion) score coupled with a low eI (expressed
Inclusion) score would indicate someone who wants to be involved in social activities but who
does not express this desire to others. This person may be perceived as being distant, aloof,
or not interested, while in reality the person may be feeling resentful for having been left out.
Wide differences in scores can lead to conflict and frustration in relationships. Again, thinking
about what your particular pattern might mean for you in your organizational relationships,
dealing with superiors, peers, and subordinates, is where the real benefit of this exercise comes.
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The third step in interpretation is analyzing how your orientations in the three areas may
help or hinder each other. For example, a person with a high wA (wanted Affection) score
wants to establish close personal relationships and may be able to do this given the opportunity.
If he/she also has a low eI (expressed Inclusion) score, he/she may not be engaging in enough
social contacts to meet persons with whom he/she can become close

FIRO-B Scoring Categories

Expressed Inclusion (eI) Expressed Control (eC) Expressed Affection (eA)

I make efforts to include I try to exert control & I make efforts to become
other people in activities influence other things. I take close to people. I express
and to get them to include charge of thing & tell other friendly & affectionate
me in theirs. people what to do. feelings & try to be personal
I try to belong, to join social and intimate.
groups, to be with people
as much as possible.

Wanted Inclusion (wI) Wanted Control (wC) Wanted Affection (wA)

I want other people to I want others to control and I want others to express
include me in their activities influence me. I want other friendly and affectionate
and to invite me to belong people to tell me what to do. feelings toward me and to try
even if I do not make an to become close to them.
effort to be included.

11.9 Results

The individual and group data are tabulated in the following table

Table 1-Individual data on the FIRO-B

S. No Initial Raw Score Interpretation

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Table II-Group data on the FIRO-B

S. No Initial Raw Score Interpretation

10

11.10 Discussion

The general, individual and group data can be compared, interpreted and discussed in
detail

11.11 Conclusion
1. Write about the raw score, interpretation of the score by the subject. The group’s raw
score and interpretation will also be written about.
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CHAPTER - 12
THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT)

12.1 Introduction

Personality is a concept to be used to recognize stability and consistency of behavior

across different situations, uniqueness of the person and individual differences.

Components of Personality

• Physical appearance: It is refers to the physique of an individual.

• Character: It is refers to the ethical or moral aspect of a personality which one possesses.
The character of an individual is judged by the level of consistency exhibited in his or her
behavior.

• Temperament: It is refers to the deep-rooted emotional trends present in an individual. It

is result of secretion of endocrine glands as well as habit form. Temperament plays an
important role in one’s ability to adjust to his or her environment.

• Interests: It is refers to felt need. It is connected to three aspects, the need to know feel
and perform.

• Ability: It is refers to a special natural power to do something well, physical or mental.

• Sociability: It is refers to an ability of the individual to socialize him or herself in a social

environment and how other perceives his or her presence in the group.

• Emotionality: It is refers to the ability of an individual to show mature emotional behavior

in suitable situations.

• Consistency: It is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially,

people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.

• Psychological and Physiological: Personality is a psychological construct, but study

suggest that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.
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• It impacts behaviors and actions: Personality does not just influence how we move and
respond in our environment; it also causes us to act in certain ways.

• Multiple expressions: Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be
seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships and other social interactions.

Factors Influencing Personality

The factors affecting personality can be divided into - two classes - biological and
environmental.

Biological Factors

The biological factors affecting the development of personality are heredity, endocrine
glands, physique and nervous system.

Heredity: At conception when the egg cell of the female is fertilized by the sperm cell of
the male, each new human being receives a genetic inheritance that provides potentialities for
development and behavioral traits throughout a whole life time. The principal raw materials of
personality - physique, intelligence and temperament are the result of heredity. How they will
develop will depend on environmental influences. Many aspects of human behavior and
development ranging from physical characteristics such as height, weight, eye and skin color,
hair, the complex patterns of social and intellectual behavior, are influenced by a person’s
genetic endowment.

Endocrine Glands • The secretions of endocrine glands affect physical growth, emotional
growth and mental growth. These will have an impact on the total personality of an individual.

• The thyroid gland secretes a hormone called thyroxin, and the main function of this
hormone is regulation of body metabolism. If the thyroid gland is under active, the result
is usually mental dullness, inactivity, depression, fatigue and poor appetite. Hyper secretion
of these glands leads to extreme over activity.

• The parathyroid gland regulates calcium metabolism excitability of the nervous system is
directly dependent on the amount of calcium in the blood. Deficient working of this gland
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leads to the development of an irritable, quickreactive, distracted, nervous and a tense

person.

• Similarly other glands like pituitary, the adrenal and the gonads have their tremendous
impact on various personality traits.

Physique: An individual’s size, strength and general appearance determines to a large

extent the way in which he or she behaves towards others and how others react towards him or
her. An individual with an imposing body-build and a healthy appearance definitely influences
those around him or her. Even if he or she has not proved themselves, yet they gains recognition
and status through his or her physical appearance. Contrary to this it the small lean persons
even if he or she has some merits, they are over-looked because of their physique. People are
apt to judge them according to their appearance.

Nervous System : Entire behavior is effectively managed and controlled by the coordination
and functioning of the nervous system. How we will behave in a particular situation depends
upon the judgment of our brain. The sense impressions, which are received through sense
organs, do not bear any significance unless they are given a meaning by the nervous system.

Environmental Factors

• Family: Among environmental factors, the most important is the family environment. The
reaction of the family environment towards an individual, and the role of parents, are very
important in the moulding of personality, parents serve as a model whom the child imitates,
and their influence is considerable on the child. Parents influence the development of
child’s personality in a wide variety of ways. Children learn the moral values, code of
conduct, social norms and methods of interacting with others from parents.

• On the whole friendly and tolerant fathers help their children to have greater emotional
stability, self-esteem and self-confidence. Domineering and rigid fathers will only foster
the development of submissive and frightened, dependent children.

• Over protective mothers will influence their children in the direction of dependence and a
total disregard for others. Nagging mothers will cause their children to be shy, submissive
and emotionally unstable.
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• Besides the role of the parents, the atmosphere in the family is greatly influencing. A
peaceful and loving atmosphere results in children being orderly, peace-loving and very
affectionate. Without undue strain they develop nature and pleasant personalities. In a
family where there is tension, anxiety, constant quarrels and incompatibility among parents,
the child is likely to develop strong feelings of insecurity and inferiority.

• Birth Order: This is another familial factor that can have an important influence on the
personality development. All children have a unique position in the family, such as the
eldest, youngest, second or third. This position has a definite influence on personality.
The eldest child is very often overburdened with responsibility, hence, he or she grows
up to be very independent, while the youngest being the baby of the family is petted and
spoilt. The common view of an only child would be that he or she will be pampered and
spoilt.

• School: The children spend much of their time in the schools and hence it can play a very
significant part in the formation of the personality of the child.

• The following factors at school will have a direct role in shaping the child’s personality: -
the friendships and acquaintances which are made among the children themselves. - the
type of curriculum in the schools. – well-furnished libraries, adequate play ground, etc. A
nurturing school atmosphere provides for all round development of the child. Consistency,
structure, warmth and responsiveness can provide a great deal of help to the children for
developing a favourable personality and cope with changing life circumstances.

• Teacher: A teacher is the most important person in the school who can help in modifying
the children’s personalities. He or she is the most powerful source of stimulation for the
child. If he/she possess desirable personal and social modes or reactions he/she will
inculcate them among his/her student or the other hand, effects of prejudicial treatment
on the part of teachers can make the child lose self-confidence and develop low self-
esteem.

• Peer Group: Developmental psychologists believe that their interactions with peer are
critical to many of the social skills and advances that occur during childhood. Peer group
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refers to other children of the same age who study with or play with the children. Friends
are much more influential than sibling or parents. Even at preschool age, playmates are
highly influential. Children Imitate peers and try to be like them in many respects. The
peer group serves as an important reference group in shaping personality traits and
characteristics of the growing children. As the children grows up peers become
progressively more influential in moulding the children’s self-concept, self-esteem. From
their peers children learn many forms of behaviour, some socially appropriate and others
socially undesirable.

The major theoretical approaches to understand personality include trait theory,

psychoanalytic theory, learning theory and humanistic theories.

(1) Type and Trait theories of personality - Type theories - Eysenck’s hierarchical theory -
Trait theories - Allport’s theory Assumption: The basis assumption of these theories is
that individual personalities can be described in terms of a limited number of dimensions.

(2) Dynamic personality theories - Psychoanalytic theory by Sigmund Freud. - Analytical

psychology by Jung. - Individual psychology by Adler - Psychoanalytic Interpersonal theory
by Horney. - Psychosocial theory by Erikson. Assumption: This theory assumes that much
of human motivation is unconscious and must be inferred indirectly from behaviour. This
theory emphasizes stages in development, a conflict between pleasure seeking and reality
demands. It also suggests that sexuality is the source for conflict and human growth.

(3) Learning and Behavioural theories of personality - Radical Behaviourism by Skinner. -

Later social learning theory by Bandura and Watson. Assumption: This theory assumes
that personality differences result from variations in learning experiences. Response may
be learned through observation without reinforcement; but reinforcement is important in
determining whether the learned responses will be performed. Emphasis is on situation -
specific behaviour rather than on broad characterizations of personality across diverse
situations.

(4) Humanistic theories - Personality as the self - Self theory by Roger’s. - Self actualization
theory bye Maslow. Assumption: This theories are concerned with the individual’s personal
view of the world, his self-concept, and his push towards growth or self actualization.
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Despite the short comings of each the major perspectives on seasonality theory each
point of view has enlarged our understanding of human behaviour-psychoanalysis
broadened our awareness of the continuity between infant and adult. Learning theory
provided insight into how behavior is acquired, maintained and extinguished. Humanistic
theory enlarged our horizons by emphasizing human strivings towards self-fulfilment and
growth. Here describe some theories of personality for understanding human personality.

Psychoanalytic Theory by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Freud (1939), who has been
called the father of psychoanalytic theory, is credited as the first to identify development by
stages. He believed that an individual’s basic character is formed by age of five. This theory is
based on a few fundamental principles. One of these was psychic determinism, the idea that
human behavior does not occur randomly but in accordance with intra psychic causes, which
may not always be obvious to an outside observer or even to the person displaying the human
behavior. This concept, that all of our behavior “means” something, even if we are not aware of
its meaning, is one of the most significant and widely known features of Sigmund Freud’s
theory. In the psychoanalytic perspective few, if any, aspects of human behavior are accidental
: writing the word ‘sex’ when you meant to write ‘six’, calling your lover or Husband/Wife by
another person’s name, or forgetting a dental appointment could be interpreted as expressing
feelings, desires, fears, or impulses of which you may not be aware. Freud says the part of
mental functioning that is out of our awareness and to which we cannot gain access the
unconscious. Thoughts, feelings, emotions and ideas of which we are unaware but that we can
bring into the conscious portion of the mind are called to be preconscious. For example, we
can easily become aware of the feelings of our tongue even though, until we read this sentence,
we were probably not thinking about it. Such thinking are preconscious, by contrast, according
to Freud if we harbour unconscious hatred toward a close friend, we would claim that no such
feelings exist because we do not experience them consciously. Freud’s another fundamental
assumptions was that human personality is formed out of the continuous struggle between the
individual’s attempts to satisfy inborn instincts (primarily involving sex and aggression) while at
the same time coping with an environment that will not tolerate completely uninhibited conduct.
In Freud’s view all human beings are born with instinctual sexual and aggressive impulses
which demand immediate gratification but which individuals cannot always directly express
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without causing themselves harm or other negative consequences. Thus, it becomes each -
34 - individual’s lifelong task somehow to satisfy instinctual youngest while taking into account
the demands, rules, and realities of the environment. For example, a man may desire sexual
relations with a particular woman, but because he has been socialized by his parents and other
agents of society, he knows that he cannot just walk up to her as a perfect stranger and
attempt to attain his goal directly. Therefore, he may seek to meet her socially, develop a close
relationship with her over some period of time, and ultimately reach his original objective. This
solution to the man’s problem is far more socially appropriate than a direct expression of
sexual impulses and thus reflects a compromise between instinct and reality. For Freud, then,
personality is a kind of arena in which what individuals want to do (instinct) conflicts with what
they have learned they should or can do (morality and reason) and where some compromise is
worked art. Freud categorized his personality theory according to structure, dynamics and
development.

• Freud’s Structure of the Personality

According to Freud, personality has a three-part structure : id, ego and super ego. Although
the three parts interact intimately, each has its own characteristics.

Id: The id is the mental province or agency containing everything inherited, especially
the instincts. It is the basis of personality, the energy source for the whole system, and the
foundation from which the ego and superego later become differentiated the id, according to
Freud, is the inner most core of personality, and it is closely linked to biological processes.
Increases in early generated by internal or external stimulation produce tension and discomfort
that the id can’t tolerate. The id seeks immediate tension reduction. This tendency toward
immediate tension reduction is called the pleasure principle, and the id obeys it, seeking
immediate satisfaction of instinctual wishes and impulses, regardless of rational or logical
considerations. Sigmund Freud believed the impulses of the id to be chiefly sexual and
aggressive instincts. Freud classified these impulses or instincts into the categories of “life” or
sexual instincts are wishes and ‘Death’ or Aggressive instincts. The psychological representations
of these instincts are wishes, and they often are irrational and unconscious. To discharge and
reduce tension the id forms an internal image or hallucination of the desired object. The hungry
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infant, for example, may conjure up an internal representation of the mother’s breast (feeding).
The resulting image is considered a wish fulfilment, similar to the attempted wish fulfillment
that Freud believed characterized normal dreams and the hallucinations of psychotics. “primary
process thinking”, was Freud is terms for such direct, reality - ignoring attempts to satisfy
needs irrationally. Because mental schemas (images) by themselves cannot reduce tension, a
“secondary process” develops in the form of the ego.

Ego: The Ego, the organized outgrowth of the id, is in direct contact with the external
world. It is governed by considerations of safety, and its task is preservation of the organism.
The ego wages its battle for survival against both the external world and the internal instinctual
demands of the id. In this task it has to continuously differentiate between the mental
representations of wish fulfilling images and the actual perceptual characteristics of the outer
world of reality. In its search for food, water or sexual release, for example, it must locate the
appropriate tension-reducing objects in the environment, so that tension reduction can actually
occur. That is, it must go from image to object, and find satisfaction for id impulses while
simultaneously preserving itself. The function of ego is governed by the reality of principle,
which requires it to test reality and to delay discharge of tension until the appropriate object
and environmental conditions are found. The ego operates by means of a ‘secondary process’
that involves realistic, logical thinking and planning through the use of the higher or cognitive
mental processes. That is, while the id seeks immediate tension or anxiety reduction by such
primary process means as wish fulfilling imagers and direct gratification of sexual and aggressive
impulses, the ego, like an executive, mediates between the id and the world, testing reality and
making decisions, about various courses of available action, for example, it delays impulses
for immediate sexual gratification until the environmental conditions are appropriate.

Super Ego: The super ego is the agency that internalizes the parental influence. In
represents the morals and standards of society that have become part of the internal or own
world of the individual in the course of the development of his/her personality. In so far as the
super ego is differentiated from the ego or opposed to it, it constitutes a third force that the ego
must take into account. The super ego is the conscience, the judge of right and wrong, of good
and bad, in accord with the internalized standards of the parents and thus, indirectly, of society.
It represents the ideal. Whereas the id seeks pleasure and the ego tests reality, the superego
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seeks perfection. The superego for Freud, involved the internalization of parental control in the
form of self-control. For example, the individual with a well-developed superego refrains from
‘bad’ or ‘evil’ (wrong) temptations, such as stealing when hungry or killing when angry, even
when there are no external constraints (in the form of police or other people) to stop him/her.
The hypothesized mechanisms in this process, and the research relevant to it, are crucial for
understanding personality development.

• Dynamics of Personality

The human personality functions on three levels of awareness: conscious, preconscious

and unconscious.

• Consciousness refers to the perception, thoughts, emotions, things and feelings existing
in a person’s immediate awareness.

• Preconscious content on the other hand, is not immediately accessible to awareness.

Unlike conscious and preconscious, content in the unconscious remain inaccessible for
the most part.

• The unconscious affects all the three personality structures. The id, the ego and the
super ego. Although the id’s content resides totally in the unconscious, the superego and
the ego have aspects in all the three levels of consciousness.

• Some ideas, memories, feelings, or motives which are disturbing, forbidden and
unacceptable and anxiety or tension producing are repressed from consciousness. The
process of repression if self is unconscious and automatic, it just happens without our
knowledge. This repressed material continues to operate underground and converts the
repressed conflicts into disturbed behaviour and unexplained signs and symptoms.
According to Freud this repressed material is also responsible for some of our dreams,
accidental slips or tongue etc.

Conflict: The quest for immediate satisfaction of impulses reflects man’s hedonistic nature.
People are motivated to avoid pain and to achieve immediate human’s anxiety and tension
reduction. This drive for immediate satisfaction of instinctual demands leads to an early and
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enduring clash between the individual and the environment. Conflict develops to the degree
that the environment and its representatives in the form of other persons, notably the parents
in childhood, exercise censorial and controlling functions that punish or impede immediate
impulse expression. The person time comes to incorporate the societal code by which he/she
is raised, largely through a process of inter realizing parental characteristics. Thus in Freud’s
view perpetual warfare and conflict exist between man and environment. In so far as societal
values become “internalized” as part of the person, this warfare is waged internally between
the components of personality and it produces anxiety.

Anxiety: Freud distinguished three kinds of anxiety. In neurotic anxiety the person fears
that his/her instincts will get out of control and cause him to behave in ways that will be punished.
In moral anxiety the person feels conscience - stricken or guilty about unacceptable tings that
he/she feels he/she has done or even contemplates. Both neurotic and moral anxiety are
derivatives of reality anxiety, the fear of real dangers in the external world. The sequence of
events in reality anxiety (or ‘objective anxiety’) is simple: a danger exists in the external world,
the person perceives it, and his perception evokes anxiety. This sequence may be summarized
as: External danger ’! perception of danger ’! real anxiety.

• Freud’s Psychosexual Stages and Personality Development

Freuds organized his theory of personality development around psychosexual stages.

Body pleasure, Freud believed, is focused successively on different zones (Mouth, anus, genitals)
in the course of development. The oral, anal, and phallic stages unfold during the first five
years of human life. A quiet or repressive latency period of about five or six years follows these
three states. In adolescence the prenatal impulses are activated again at puberty. If they are
successfully utilized, the individual reaches the mature or genital stage. The pleasure derived
from the oral, anal and genital zones is related to one general source: The ‘libido’ or energy or
the sexual instincts. In each psychosexual stage the libido is focused on the pleasure-giving
(erogenous) zone that characterizes that stage and that provides unique potentialities for
gratification or frustration. According to the theory the person’s experiences at each stage -
oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital leave a some characteristic imprint that influences his/
her future development. The special experiences (vicissitudes) encountered by sexual impulses
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at any of the early psychosexual stages, either in the form of over indulgence or deprivation
may produce “fixation.” Fixation is an arrest in sexual impulses at an early stage of psychosexual
development; it may lead to a character structure built around the unresolved difficulties of that
period.

• The Oral Stage (Birth to 18 Months) During this period the dependent person is said to
be fixated, which occurs at a time when the infant is totally dependent upon others for satisfaction
of his/her needs. The oral stage characterizes the first year of life. According to Freud, it is
divided into two periods; (1) Sucking (2) biting and chewing. During this stage baby’s mouth is
the focal point of pleasure, children suck, bite and chew anything that fits into their mouth. To
Freud, this behavior suggested that the mouth is the primary site of a kind of sexual pleasure.
Infants who are either overly indulged of frustrated in their search for oral gratification might
become fixed at this period. Fixation refers to conflicts or concerns that persist beyond the
developmental period to which they first occur. Fixation at the oral stage might produce an
adult who is unusually interested in oral activities such as eating, talking, etc. The infant feels
a sense of attachment and is unable to differentiate the self from the person who is providing
the mothering. At the age of 4-6 months the development of ego begins, the infant starts to
view the self as separate from the mothering figure. A sense of security and the ability to trust
others is derived out of gratification from fulfillment of basic needs during this time. More
specifically, oral incorporation (as in sucking and taking in milk in the first oral period/feeding)
becomes the proto type of such pleasure as those gained from the - 39 - acquisition of knowledge
or possessions. The gullible person (who is “easily take in”) is fixated at the oral, incorporative
level of personality. The sarcastic, bitingly argumentative person is fixated at the second oral
period-the sadistic level associated with biting and chewing.

• The Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years) The major developmental tasks in this stage are
gaining independence and control, with focus on the excretory function. During this stage the
id is slowly brought under the control of ego. At this point the major source of pleasure changes
from the mouth to the anal region and children obtain considerable pleasure from both retention
and expulsion of faeces. During this period toilet training is initiated, giving the child his/her first
experience with imposed control of an instinctual impulse. The way in which this training is
conducted affects later traits and values. Internal conflicts about withholding and retentiveness
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may arise in a person who has remained preoccupied with unresolved problems of the anal
phase. The expressive character (cruel, destructive, tempestuous, and disorderly), according
to the theory, result from fixation in the early anal phase, in which pleasure is localized in the
expulsion of faces. This fixation may result from extreme repressive measure on the part of the
mother or other person) in toilet training. Pleasure is located in the retention of faces later in
the anal phase. A person fixated at this level would show character traits of obstinacy and
stinginess, precision and orderliness.

• The Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years) In the phallic stage, characterized by masturbatory

stimulation and the observation of the anatomical distinction between the genders (sexes),
sets the scene for the ‘Oedipus complex.’ According to Freud, the Oedipus complex, though
modified and repressed after the age of five, remains a vital force in later personality. Both
boys and girls love their mother as the satisfier of their basic needs and resent their father as
a rival for their mother’s affections. In addition, the boys’ fears castration by the father as
retribution for his incestuous desires for his mother and his death wish toward his father.
Castration fear is reinforced by the child’s conception of the female as a castrated male and
often by direct threats of castration accompanying discouragement of the boy’s masturbation.
Castration anxiety, in the boy, results in the repression of his sexual desire for his mother and
in hostility towards his father. Gradually, to reduce the anxiety of possible castration by the
father, the boy tries to become like him or to ‘identify’ with him. Identification with the father in
turn helps the boys gain some vicarious satisfaction of his sexual impulses toward his mother.
In this phase or Oedipus complex of the male, the superego reaches its final development as
the internalized standards of parents and society: The opposition to incest and aggression
becomes part of the child’s own value system. In the female, penis envy, resulting from the
discovery that she lacks the more desirable male organ, is the impetus for the exchange of her
original love object - the mother. For a new object, the father. Unlike the boy’s Oedipus complex,
which is repressed through fear, the girl - having nothing to lose-persists in her sexual desire
for her father. This desire does, naturally, undergo some modification because of realistic
barriers. This period, characterized by reduced overt sexuality, follows at the end of the phallic
stage, memories of infantile sexuality are repressed and socially for bidden sexual activity is
forgotten.
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• The Latency Stage (6 to 12 years) The major developmental task during this stage is
“repressed sexuality with focus on relationships with same sex peers.” Sexuality is not absent
during this stage, but remains obscure and imperceptible to others. Children of this age show
a distinct preference for same - sex relationships even rejecting members of the opposite sex.

• The Genital Stage (12 to 20 years) The love objects of the pre genital period are
essentially selfish or “narcissistic” that is others are loved only because they provide additional
forms of body pleasure to the child. Some of this narcissism eventually becomes channelled
into genuine “object choices” or love relations, and the adolescent begins to love others for
altruistic reasons. In the well-socialized adult the experiences of the oral, anal and phallic
stages have become fused and synthesized with genital impulses. This final phase of maturity
is called the genital stage, and in it the individual is capable of genuine love and adult sexual
satisfaction. The major developmental tasks during this period are; libido, is reawakened as
genital organs mature; focus in on relationships with members of the opposite sex. The
development of sexual maturity evolves from self-gratification to behaviors that have been
deemed acceptable by social norms.

Carl Rogers’ Self Theory (1902-1987)

Rogers emphasized that each of us interprets the same set of stimuli differently, so there
are as many different ‘real words’ as there are people on this planet (Rogers, 1980) elf
Actualization Rogers used the word self-actualization to capture the nature underlying the
tendency of humans to move forward and fulfil their true potential. Rogers argued that people
strive towards growth even in less-than favourable surroundings.

• Personality Development Carl Rogers proposes that even young children need to be
highly regarded by other people. Child also need positive self reward to be esteemed by self as
well as others. Rogers believed that everyone should be given unconditional positive reward.
Which is a non judgmental and genuine love without any strings attached.

Personality Theory by Gorden Allport (1897-1967)

One of the most outstanding trait psychologies was Gordon Allport, whose conceptions
of traits have had an important influence for more than 30 years. Allport’s theory asserts that
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no two individual are alike. Allport regarded “traits” as being responsible for these individual
differences. According to Allport’s, trait is a predisposition to act in the same way in a wide
range of situations. Allport distinguished between common traits and individual traits. Common
traits are shared by several people within a given culture. Individual traits are peculiar to the
person and do not permit comparisons among people. They guide, direct and motivate an
individual’s adjustment. Therefore, they accurately reflect the distinctiveness or uniqueness of
his/her personality. Gorden Allport was deeply committed to the study of individual traits. He
started calling them as ‘personal’ dispositions. Common traits were simply called as ‘traits.’
Allport proposed that there are three types of personal dispositions.

(1) Cardinal Disposition: A cardinal dispositions is so dominant that all actions of the person
are guided by it. Very few people possess cardinal dispositions. For example, Ms.
Nightingale whose actions were driven by compassion for people.

(2) Central Disposition: There are not as dominant as cardinal disposition, but they influence
the person’s behavior in a very prominent way. Therefore, they are called the building
blocks of personality. For example, a human may have such central dispositions as
punctuality, responsibility, attentiveness, honesty, loyalty etc.

(3) Secondary disposition: These are not very consistent and are thus less relevant reflecting
the personality of the individual. For example food, water and clothing preferences, specific
attitudes, etc. may be considered as secondary dispositions.

Personality Theory by Raymond Cattell (1905-1998)

Raymond B. Cattell has been another important proponent of trait theory. For cattell trait
is also the basic unit of study; it is a “mental structure”, inferred from behavior, and a fundamental
construct that accounts for behavioral regularity or consistency. Like Allport, Cattell distinguished
between common traits, which are possessed by all human being, and unique traits, which
occur only in a particular person and cannot be found in another in exactly the same form.
Cattell also distinguished surface traits from source traits. Surface traits are clusters of overt or
manifest trait elements (responses) that seem to go together. Source traits are the underlying
variables that are the causal entities determining the surface manifestations In research, trait
elements (in the form of test responses or scores) are inter correlated statistically until collection
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of elements that correlate positively in all possible combinations are discovered. This procedure,
according to Cattell, yields surface traits. He spoke of the multiple traits that comprise the
personality, the extent to which these traits are genetically and environmentally determined
and the ways in which genetic and environmental factors interact to influence behavior. According
to him, personality is that which permits us to predict what a person will do in a given situation.
In line with his mathematical analysis of personality, prediction of behavior can be made by
means of a specification equation : R = F (S, P) According to formula the response (R) of the
human is a function (F) of the stimulus (S) at a given moment of time and of the existing
personality structure (P). This equation conveys Cattell’s strong belief that person behavior is
determined and can be predicted. Traits are a major part of Cattell’s theory, which he defined
as the individual’s stable and predictable characteristics. He divided traits into surface traits
and source traits. Surface traits are not consistent over time and do not have much value in
accounting for the individual’s personality. Source traits are the basic building blocks of
personality which determine the consistencies of each person’s behaviour over an extended
period of time. Basing on some extensive research, he identified sixteen source traits that
constitute the underlying structure of personality (such as outgoing-reserved; stable-emotional;
self-sufficient-group dependent, etc.) Cattell constructed a scale to measure these source
traits, which came to be known as ‘sixteen personality factor questionnaire’ (16 PF
Questionnaire). In system of his, traits may also be grouped into classes or modalities on the
basis of how they are expressed. Those that are relevant to the individual’s being ‘set into
action’ with respect to some goal are called dynamic traits, where as those concerned with
Cattell’s effectiveness in gaining the goal are ability traits. Traits concerned with energy or
emotional reactivity are named temperament traits. Cattell has speculated extensively about
the relationships between various traits and the development of personality.

Trait Type Theory of Personality by Hans Eysenck (1916-1997)

Personality Theory by Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Erik Erikson was not trained by Freud,
nor did he hold a Doctorate a highly respected university. In fact he wasn’t formally educated
like the vast majority of his psychodynamic colleagues. Although his parent pushed him for
medical school, he saw himself as an artist and spent his youth wandering through Europe
living the artist’s life. His two major contributions to psychodynamic thought include a reappraisal
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of the ego and an extended view of developmental stages. Erikson (1963) studied the influence
of social processes on the development of the personality. He tried to revise psychoanalytic
theory by giving a greater role to ego processes. Erikson expanded Freud’s theory to cover the
whole life cycle of man as the eight stages, the individual is faced with a psychological crisis,
which must be successfully resolved, if healthy development must take place at a later stage.

(1) Infancy (0 to 1 Year of Life) Trust Vs Mistrust (Virtue - Hope) The major development
task during this period is to develop a basic trust with the mothering figure and be able to
generalize it to others “The infant learns to trust, if all his/her needs are met. Achievement
of the task results in self confidence, optimism and faith in the gratification of needs and
desires and hope for the future. Distrust can develop if the infant’s world is filled with
insecurity due to unmet needs, caused by lack of caring on the part of parents and
significant others. Non-achievement results in emotional dissatisfaction with the self and
others, suspiciousness and difficulty with interpersonal relationship.

(2) Early Childhood (2 to 3 Year of Life) Autonomy Vs Shame and Doubt (Virtue-will
Power) The major developmental task during this stage is “to gain some self-control and
independence within the environment.” As the child attempts to gain independence, parents
need to encourage him/her. Which will help him/her gain autonomy. Achievement of the
task results in a sense of self-control and the ability to delay gratification and a felling of
self-confidence is one’s ability to perform. If children are not allowed freedom or if they
are over protected or criticized for what they does, shame, doubt and uncertainty about
him/her self and their capabilities result.

(3) Middle Childhood (4 to 5 Year) Initiative Vs Guilt (Virtue-Purpose) The major

developmental task during this period is ‘to develop a sense of purpose and the ability to
initiate and direct own activities.’ Initiative is achieved when creativity is encouraged and
performance is recognized and positively reinforced. Achievement of the task results in
the ability to exercise restraint and self-control of inappropriate social behaviors. If his/her
initiative and curiosity are discouraged, the children may be prevented from setting future
goals by a sense of guilt and shame for holding such ambitions.

(4) Late Childhood (6 to 11 Years of Life) - Industry Vs Inferiority (virtue - Competence)

The major developmental task during this period is “to achieve a sense of selfconfidence
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by learning, competing, performing successfully and receiving recognition from significant

others, peers and acquaintances.” If parents praise the child’s efforts, a sense of esteem
and industry develops. Achievement of the task results in a sense of satisfaction and
pleasure in the interaction and involvement with other. When parents set unrealistic
expectations for the child, when discipline is harsh and tends to impair self-esteem and
when accomplishments are consistently met with negative feedback, the individual may
become a workaholic with unrealistic expectations, non-achievement results in difficulty
in inter personal relationships due to feelings of personal inadequacy.

(5) Adolescence (12 to 19 Years of Life) - Ego Identity Vs Role Confusion (Virtue-Fidelity)
The major developmental task during this stage is “to integrate the tasks mastered in the
previous stages into a secure sense of self.” childhood comes to an end during this stage
and youth begins. Puberty brings on a “physiological revolution” with which adolescents
must learn to cope. Identity is achieved when adolescents are allowed to experience
independence by making decisions that influence their lives. Achievement of the task
results in a sense of confidence, emotional stability and a view of the self as a unique
individual. When independence is discouraged by the parents and the adolescent is
nurtured in the dependent position, it may cause lack of self confidence. Non-achievement
results in a sense of self-consciousness, doubt and confusion about one’s role in life.

(6) Early Adulthood (20 to 25 Years) - Intimacy Vs Isolation (Virtue-Love) The Major
developmental task in this period is “to form an intense, lasting relationship or a commitment
to another person.” Intimacy is achieved when an individual has developed the capacity
for giving of oneself to another. This is learned when one has been the recipient of this
type of giving within the family unit. Achievement of the task results in the capacity for
mutual love and respect between two people. If there is extreme fear of being rejected or
disappointed, the individual may withdraw or isolate him/her self.

(7) Middle Adulthood (26 to 64 Years of Life) - Generativist Vs Stagnation (Virtue -

Care) The major developmental task in this period is to achieve the life goals established
for oneself, while also considering the welfare of future generations. According to him,
generativist includes marriage, parenthood and the sense of working productively for the
good of others. The generative individual enjoys work and family and is continuously
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ready to come to the help of others. When earlier developmental tasks are not fulfilled he/
she becomes withdrawn, isolated, and highly self-indulgent.

(8) Old age (65 Years and above Years of Life) Ego Integrity Vs Despair (Virtue-Wisdom)
The major developmental task during this stage is “to review one’s life and derive meaning
from both positive and negative events, while achieving a positive sense of self-worth.”
Ego integrity is achieved when individuals have successfully completed the developmental
tasks of the previous stages. Achievement of the task results in a sense of self-worth and
self-acceptance. When earlier tasks are unresolved he feels worthless and helpless to
change. Non-achievements result in a sense of self-contempt and disgust with how life
has progressed.

12.2 Title: Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Experiment No: Experimenter:

Date: Subject:

Individual/Group Experiment:

12.3 Aim
1. To assess the personality structure of the subject

12.4 Materials Required

1. TAT picture cards

2. Record sheet

3. Stopwatch

4. Answer sheet

5. Manual and scoring key

6. Pencil and eraser

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12.5 Description of the Material

Thematic Apperception Test was originally described by Morgan and Murray in 1935.
There were several attempts made before and this was the third set to be used since 1935.
Several modifications of TAT pictures were also devised to meet the cultures and particular
age of groups. Following are the types of cards in TAT

• Consists of 30 pictures + 1 blank card (31)

• 11 pictures for both sexes & all ages (1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 19 & 20)

• 7 are for boys/male (BM)

• 7 are for girls/female (GF)

• 1 for boys/girls under fourteen (BG)

• 1 for males/females over fourteen (MF)

• 1 for boys (B) & 1 for Males(M)

• 1 for girl (G) & 1 for females (F)

• Grouped into 4 sets of 20 black & white cards according to age & sex + 1 blank card

• 1 to 10 pictures depict the situation pertaining to daily life.

The Indian version of the test follows Uma Chaudry’s adaption which was proposed in
1960. It includes ten cards. There are separate cards for boys and male and a slightly modified
version for the gender depicted female and women. Some of these include a young boy
contemplating over a violin which rests on a table. A country scene, a woman clutching the
shoulders of a man whose face and body are averted with the female and so on .the pictures
may be presented in a way that the non–threatening ones precede more dramatic and
emotionally charged pictures.

Standardization:

A subject’s responses to the TAT involve complex, meaningful verbal material. Because
of the complexity of this material, exact quantitative analysis is difficult, and interpretations are
typically based more on a qualitative than a quantitative analysis of story content. Most methods
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of determining reliability, therefore, become problematic. This issue is further complicated

because there are so many different scoring systems. Reliability and validity for one system
may not mean that adequate reliability will be present for another system. TAT may be useful
in uncovering abuse both sexual and physical. It may reveal any transition of crisis the person
is currently facing . It can be used as a tool to identify people at risk or those who have a
disposition for clinical depression or severe mal adjustment. Problems with sexual issues or
gender role identification can also be revealed .by interpreting the outcome of stories the
examiner may get an insight of the persons common coping styles and if found to be mal
adaptive interventions can be provided .

12.6 Procedure

First session: the subject is seated in a comfortable chair or stretched out on a couch
preferably (except for children and psychotic patients) with his back to the examiner, and the
instructions in one of the following forms are read out to him slowly.

Form A: (suitable for adolescents and adults of average intelligence). “This is a test of
imagination, one form of intelligence. I am going to show you some pictures, one at a time;
your task will be to make up as dramatic a story as you can for each. Tell what has lead up to
the event shown in the picture, describe what is happening in the moment, what the characters
are feeling and thinking; and then give the outcome. Speak your thoughts as they come to your
mind. Do you understand? Since you have about fifty minutes for ten pictures, you can devote
about 5 minutes to each story. Here is the first picture”.

 The exact words of the instructions can be altered to suit the age, intelligence, personality
and circumstance of the subject.

 After finishing the first story the subject is commended and then reminded of the
instructions once again (unless he has obeyed them faithfully).

 As a rule it is better for the examiner not to say anything else for the rest of the hour
except (1) remind the subject if he is much ahead or behind schedule so that the same
amount of time is devoted to all stories, (2) encourage him from time to time and (3) to
prompt him with a brief remark if he omits any crucial detail.
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 If a subject inquires about a detail that is not clear, the examiner must reply “You may
make it anything you please”.

 The subject should not be allowed to tell several stories for one picture.

Blank Card: “See what you can see on this blank card. Imagine some picture there and
describe it to me in detail”. After the subject has given a full description, the examiner says
“Now tell me a story about it”.

12.7 Scoring

The responses are evaluated on the basis of the following parameters The hero is the
one who the person identifies with or around whom the story evolves. The person may be more
interested in the hero or he may closely resemble the subject .there could be sequence of
heroes , two component heroes primary and secondary heroes and a number of partial heroes.
The second parameter would be motives, trends and the feelings of the heroes. They may
reflect the person’s needs which can be evaluated by using Murray’s list of 28 needs such as
achievement, affiliation .The inner status may include conflict, emotional change and dejection.

Forces of the heroes’ environment such as the various presses of affiliation, aggression,
dominance or lack of certain presses. the story can also be evaluated in terms of outcome
which is the interaction between the heroes needs and the press ,and the resulting impacts on
the heroes decision on solving the problem . Themes are the combination of needs, presses
and outcome which reveal the dynamics of an episode. There would be themes of achievement,
rivalry or love.

12.8 Interpretation

 Since the original publication of the TAT manual in 1943, a number of alternate methods
of scoring and interpretation have been developed by such individuals as Rapaport, Gill,
and Schafer ( 1946), Wyatt (1947),Bellak ( 1954), Henry( 1956) , Arnold( 1962) and
Thomas and Duck( 1985)

 Whenever a large number of different theories are put forth to explain a particular
phenomenon, it is usually a strong indication that none of them is fully adequate and that
they all have significant short comings.
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 As many alternative techniques are there to interpret TAT, difficulty arises primarily
because due to the type of information under investigation

 The validity of the final inferences is also depends up on the skill and expertise of the
examiner, comparison with themes derived from other test data and whether the state of
the subject at the time of examination is representative of his or her usual orientation to
the world.

MURRAY’S METHOD

 Murray’s method of interpretation is a relatively concise and clear approach and has
more extensive history and familiarity within the field.

 Although Murray’s approach involves a certain degree of quantification it is basically

qualitative , focusing on specific story content

 The goal is not so much to achieve a diagnosis of the subject, but to obtain a description
of how the subject confronts and deals with basic universal life situations.

· Murray suggests 5 categories of analysis

1. The hero/heroine

2. Motives, trends, and feelings of the hero/heroine( needs)

3. Forces of the hero/heroine’s environment( press)

4. Themes and outcomes

5. Interests and sentiments

HERO/ HEROINE

 The initial task of the examiner to determine which character is the focal figure

 Presumable, the subject has identified with this figure and is therefore likely to project
personal needs , attitudes and feelings on to him or her

 The hero/ heroine can be described as the central character around which the story
events revolve
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 The subject might identify with more than one character. This may become evident from
continual references or attribution of needs to a secondary figure. In this case ,the
weighting of the hero or heroine’s needs only be half those of primary hero/heroine

 If there is no clear identification ,but rather an objective description of each character in

turn, the needs and press of each character should be given equal weighing

MOTIVES, TRENDS, AND FEELINGS OF THE HERO/HEROINE (NEEDS)

 The recognition of the hero/heroine’s needs is the next category to be considered

 The selection of this variables depends on what the examiner wants to know about the
subject

 Murray suggests a 5 point scale with one representing the ‘slightest suggestion’ of a
need and 5 indicating ‘ the intense form’ or’ a repeated occurrence of a milder form’

 For example, a response to card 1 (a boy playing a violin) may include a description of
the boy “practicing relentlessly in the hopes of someday living up to his expectations of
being a famous concert violinist”. This would clearly receive a rating of 5 for need for
achievement. An achievement rating one might occur in a story in which “he hoped
someday he would be able to enjoy playing the violin, but he was presently preoccupied
with finding out how he could go out and play with his friends”.

 Another consideration, Other than intensity, in rating the needs within a story is the relative
importance or centrality of the need to the story.

FORCES OF THE HERO/HEROIN’S ENVIRONMENT (PRESS)

 A press refers to any important environmental factor that may influence or interfere with
the need of the hero.

 The interpreter should observe the details as well as the general nature of the situations,
especially the human situations, which confront the heroes.

 Special not should be taken of physical objects and human objects (other characters)
which are not shown in the pictures but invented by the imagination of the story teller.
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 Mark the traits which recur among the people with whom the hero deals.

 Here, the practice is to use a comprehensive list of press classified according to the
effect they have on the hero.

 The concept of press includes absence of required beneficial press (lack, loss, deprivation)
and also bodily disturbances to which the personality must adjust (physical pain, injury,
disease).

 The strength of each press that occurs in the story is rating on 1-5 scale, 5 being the
highest possible mark for any press on a single story.

 The criteria of strength are intensity, duration, frequency and general significance in the
plot.

THEMES AND OUTCOMES

Outcome

 Comparative strength of the forces emanating from the hero and the forces emanating
from the environment.

 Viewing each event, each interaction of press and need, from the point of view of the
hero, the interpreter must determine the amount of hardship and frustration experienced,
the relative degree of success and failure.

Themas

 The interaction of a hero’s needs (or fusion of needs) and an environmental press (or
fusion of press) together with the outcome (success or failure of the hero) constitutes a
simple theme.

 Combinations of simple themes, interlocked or forming a sequence, are called complex

themes.

 When used precisely the term designates the abstract dynamical structure of an episode,
when loosely it means plot, motif, theme, principle dramatic feature of the story.
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INTERESTS AND SENTIMENTS

 These are treated separately since the author displays his own interests and sentiments
by not only attributing them to his heroes but in his choice of topics and his manner of
dealing these.

 Of particular importance is positive or negative cathexis (value, appeal) of older women

(mother figures), older men (father figures), same sex women and same sex men (some
of which may be sibling figures).

Interpretation of Scores

 A set of stories is analyzed and scored at first regardless of the probable personal
significance of their content.

 Then two tentative assumptions are made, to be corrected later if necessary.

I. The attributes of the heroes (needs, emotional states and sentiments) represent
tendencies in the subject’s personality. These tendencies may be of his past, anticipated
future or active present.

II. The press variables represent forces in the subject’s apperceived environment, past,
present or future.

 Some knowledge of the subject’s past history and present circumstances plus a little
intuition is required to decide whether a given element belongs to the subject’s past,
present or anticipated future.

 While interpreting, the following should be kept in mind:

I. If the test has been unskilfully administered, if the subject has not been involved in the
task, if the stories are short and sketchy the content may be psychologically irrelevant.

II. Under average conditions about 30% of the stories (six out of 20) will fall in the impersonal
category although even from these a few items of significance can be extracted.
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III. One must not lean too heavily on the subject’s judgement in deciding whether a given
item is personal or impersonal.

IV. The TAT draws forth no more than 20 small samples of the subject’s thoughts. To assume
that these will invariably provide a skeleton of the total personality is unduly optimistic.

V. It is convenient to identify two levels of functioning:

 First level functioning – physical and verbal behavior (actual overt deeds).

 Second level functioning – ideas, plans, dreams, fantasies about behavior.

VI. It is also convenient to distinguish three if not more layers in normal socialized personalities:

 Inner layer – repressed unconscious tendencies

 Middle layer – tendencies which appear in though in undisguised form and which may be
confessed to one or more suitable individuals.

 Outer layer – tendencies which are publically asserted or acknowledged and openly
manifested in behavior.

Interpreter should determine to which of these layers each variable belongs to.

VII. It may state, as a rough generalization, that the content of a set of TAT stories represents
second level covert personality not first level overt personality.

VIII. Although TAT was not designed to reveal first level outer personality, the interpreter can
often guess some of its characteristic features.

IX. Experiments have shown that the sex of the examiner should be taken into account. This
is especially true when analyzing stories of a subject who holds an unusual hostility
towards the gender to which the examiner belongs.

X. Still more important as determinants are life situations and the momentary emotional
states of the subjects. Eg: marital conflicts will be prominent in the stories of a woman
contemplating divorce.
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Formal Analysis

 Under this heading we include the discrimination of a variety of attributes descriptive of

the topic, structure, style, mood, degree of realism and power of the plot and of the
language of the stories.

 It is among these attributes we look for evidences of temperament, emotional maturity,

observational ability, intellectuality, aesthetic imagination, literary ability, verbal facility,
psychological insight, reality sense, integrity of cognition and so forth.

 Obsession, manic and depressive trends are not difficult to recognize.

12.9 Results

The individual interpretations are discussed.

12.10 Discussion

The general, individual data can be compared, interpreted and discussed in detail

12.11 Conclusion
1. Write about the interpretation of the answers by the subject.
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CHAPTER - 13
CHILDREN’S APPERCEPTION TEST (CAT)

13.1 Introduction

Same General Introduction as Chapter 12 for Personality. The Children’s Apperception

Test, often abbreviated as CAT, is an individually administered projective personality test
appropriate for children aged three to 10 years. The CAT was originally developed to assess
psychosexual conflicts related to certain stages of a child’s development. The CAT is intended
to measure the personality traits, attitudes, and psychodynamic processes evident in prepubertal
children. By presenting a series of pictures and asking a child to describe the situations and
make up stories about the people or animals in the pictures, an examiner can elicit this
information about the child. It was designed to facilitate understanding of child’s relationship
to important figures and drives, feeding problems, sibling rivalry, attitude towards parental
figures, child’s fantasies about aggression, fear of being lonely at night.

Today, the CAT is more often used as an assessment technique in clinical evaluation.
Clinical diagnoses can be based in part on the Children’s Apperception Test and other projective
techniques.

13.2 Title: Children’s Apperception Test (CAT)

Experiment No: Experimenter:

Date: Subject:

Individual/Group Experiment:

13.3 Aim
1. To assess the personality structure of the subject

13.4 Materials Required

1. CAT picture cards
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2. Record sheet

3. Stopwatch

4. Answer sheet

5. Manual and scoring key

6. Pencil and eraser

13.5 Description of the Material

The Children’s Apperception Test was developed in 1949 by Leopold Bellak and Sonya
Sorel Bellak. It was an offshoot of the widely used Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), which
was based on Henry Murray’s need-based theory of personality. Bellak and Bellak developed
the CAT because they saw a need for an apperception test specifically designed for children.
The most recent revision of the CAT was published in 1993.

The original CAT featured ten pictures of animals in such human social contexts as
playing games or sleeping in a bed. Today, this version is known as the CAT or the CAT-A (for
animal). Animals were chosen for the pictures because it was believed that young children
relate better to animals than humans. Each picture is presented by a test administrator in the
form of a card. The test is always administered to an individual child; it should never be given
in group form. The test is not timed but normally takes 20–30 minutes. It should be given in a
quiet room in which the administrator and the child will not be disturbed by other people or
activities.

The second version of the CAT, the CAT-H, was developed in 1965 by Bellak and Bellak.
The CAT-H includes ten pictures of human beings in the same situations as the animals in the
original CAT. The CAT-H was designed for the same age group as the CAT-A but appeals
especially to children aged seven to 10, who may prefer pictures of humans to pictures of
animals.

The pictures on the CAT were chosen to draw out children’s fantasies and encourage
storytelling. Descriptions of the ten pictures are as follows: baby chicks seated around a table
with an adult chicken appearing in the background; a large bear and a baby bear playing tug-
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of-war; a lion sitting on a throne being watched by a mouse through a peephole; a mother
kangaroo with a joey (baby kangaroo) in her pouch and an older joey beside her; two baby
bears sleeping on a small bed in front of a larger bed containing two bulges; a cave in which
two large bears are lying down next to a baby bear; a ferocious tiger leaping toward a monkey
who is trying to climb a tree; two adult monkeys sitting on a sofa while another adult monkey
talks to a baby monkey; a rabbit sitting on a child’s bed viewed through a doorway; and a puppy
being spanked by an adult dog in front of a bathroom. The cards in the human version substitute
human adults and children for the animals but the situations are the same. Gender identity,
however, is more ambiguous in the animal pictures than in the human ones. The ambiguity of
gender can allow for children to relate to all the child animals in the pictures rather than just the
human beings of their own sex.

The pictures are meant to encourage the children to tell stories related to competition,
illness, injuries, body image, family life, and school situations.

One theoretical basis for the CAT and other apperception tests is Murray’s theory of
personality. Murray is credited with clarifying the concept of human needs. He believed that a
person’s needs affect the way in which he or she interacts with the environment. The pictures
on the CAT often address the manner in which individuals interact with their environment in
terms of need fulfilment. Murray developed the Thematic Apperception Test, or TAT, in order to
assess the relative strength of a person’s needs. The needs that Murray particularly emphasized
include the need for achievement and the need for recognition.

Because the primary content of the CAT consists of pictures, it is widely used in countries
outside the United States.

13.6 Procedure

First session: the subject is seated in a comfortable chair or stretched out on a couch
preferably (except for children and psychotic patients) with his back to the examiner, and the
instructions in one of the following forms are read out to him slowly.

“We are going to engage in a game in which you have to tell what is going on, what the
animals are doing now. May be asked at the suitable points, what went on in the story before
and what will happen later.
140

The exact words of the instructions can be altered to suit the age, intelligence, personality
and circumstance of the subject.

 After finishing the first story the subject is commended and then reminded of the
instructions once again (unless he has obeyed them faithfully).

 As a rule it is better for the examiner not to say anything else for the rest of the hour
except (1) remind the subject if he is much ahead or behind schedule so that the same
amount of time is devoted to all stories, (2) encourage him from time to time and (3) to
prompt him with a brief remark if he omits any crucial detail.

 If a subject inquires about a detail that is not clear, the examiner must reply “You may
make it anything you please”.

 The subject should not be allowed to tell several stories for one picture.

Blank Card: “See what you can see on this blank card. Imagine some picture there and
describe it to me in detail”. After the subject has given a full description, the examiner says
“Now tell me a story about it”.

13.7 Scoring

The responses are evaluated on the basis of the following parameters The hero is the
one who the person identifies with or around whom the story evolves. The person may be more
interested in the hero or he may closely resemble the subject .there could be sequence of
heroes , two component heroes primary and secondary heroes and a number of partial heroes.
The second parameter would be motives, trends and the feelings of the heroes. They may
reflect the person’s needs which can be evaluated by using Murray’s list of 28 needs such as
achievement, affiliation .The inner status may include conflict, emotional change and dejection.

Forces of the heroes’ environment such as the various presses of affiliation, aggression,
dominance or lack of certain presses. the story can also be evaluated in terms of outcome
which is the interaction between the heroes needs and the press ,and the resulting impacts on
the heroes decision on solving the problem . Themes are the combination of needs, presses
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and outcome which reveal the dynamics of an episode. There would be themes of achievement,
rivalry or love.

13.8 Results

The individual interpretations are discussed.

13.9 Discussion

The general, individual data can be compared, interpreted and discussed in detail

13.10 Conclusion
1. Write about the interpretation of the answers by the subject.
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CHAPTER - 14
DRAW A PERSON TEST

14.1 Introduction

Same General Introduction as Chapter 6, 8 and 12 for Intelligence and Personality.

Typically used with children, the subject is asked to draw a picture of a man, a woman,
and themselves. No further instructions are given and the pictures are analyzed on a number
of dimensions. Aspects such as the size of the head, placement of the arms, and even things
such as if teeth were drawn or not are thought to reveal a range of personality traits (Murstein,
1965). The personality traits can be anything from aggressiveness, to homosexual tendencies,
to relationships with their parents, to introversion and extroversion (Machover, 1949). There
are many versions of the test, but the one discussed in detail here is the version by Karen
Machover in 1949. The official beginning of when figure drawing was first thought to be
associated with personality is unknown. Whether it was the drawing on a cave wall, a painting
by a great artist, or a doodle made by an average person, the curiosity somehow came about.
However, the formal beginning of its use for psychological assessment is known to begin with
Florence Goodenough, a child psychologist, in 1926 (Scott, 1981).

Florence Goodenough

Goodenough first became interested in figure drawing when she wanted to find a way to
supplement the Stanford-Binet intelligence test with a nonverbal measure. The test was
developed to assess maturity in young people. She concluded that the amount of detail involved
in a child’s drawing could be used as an effective tool. This led to the development of the first
official assessment using figure drawing with her development of the Draw-A-Man test. Over
the years, the test has been revised many times with added measures for assessing
intelligence (Weiner & Greene, 2008). Harris later revised the test including drawings of a
woman and of themselves. Now considered the Goodenough-Harris Test it has guidelines for
assessing children from ages 6 to 17 (Scott, 1981).
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Karen Machover’s Book

Soon after the development of the test, psychologists started considering the test for
measures of differences in personality as well as intelligence. In 1949, Karen Machover
developed the first measure of figure drawing as a personality assessment with the Draw A
Person Test (Machover, 1949).

Machover did a lot of work with disturbed adolescents and adults and used the test to
assess people of all ages. She wrote a book on her measure expressing that the features of
the figures drawn reflect underlying attitudes, concerns, and personality traits. In her test, she
included a suggestion to ask about the person they have drawn. She advises to ask them to
tell the administrator a story about the figure as if they were in a novel or play. Machover used
a qualitative approach in her interpretation considering individual drawing
characteristics (Machover, 1949). Others have since suggested a more quantitative approach
that can be more widely used analyzing selected characteristics that are in an index of deeper
meanings (Murstein, 1965).

The most popular quantitative approach was developed by Elizabeth Koppitz. Koppitz
developed a measure of assessment that has a list of emotional indicators including size of
figures, omission of body parts, and some “special features”. The total number of the indicators
is simply added up to provide a number that represents the likeliness of disturbance (Murstein,
1965).

House-Tree-Person Test

With the Draw a Person test as a base, a number of other tests have developed using
figure drawing as a personality assessment tool. For example, the House-Tree-Person test
similarly just asks the person to draw those three objects and then inquires about what they
have drawn. The questions asked for inquiry include what kinds of activities go on in the
house, what are the strongest parts of the tree, and what things make the person angry or sad.
The KFD (Kinetic Family Drawing) tells the drawer to draw their
family doing something (Murstein, 1965).
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KFD Test

All of these tests have the important element of not only the assessment of the pictures
themselves, but also the thematic variables involved. Every figure drawing test asks the drawer
to include some kind of description or interpretation of what is happening in the picture. These
elements are also analyzed accordingly (Weiner & Greene, 2008).

Advantages:

-Easy to administer (only about 20-30 minutes plus 10 minutes of inquiry)

-Helps people who have anxieties taking tests (no strict format)

-Can assess people with communication problems

-Relatively culture free

-Allow for self administration

Disadvantages:

-Restricted amount of hypotheses can be developed

-Relatively non-verbal, but may have some problems during inquiry

-Little research backing

14.2 Title: Draw A Person Test

Experiment No: Experimenter:

Date: Subject:

Individual/Group Experiment:

14.3 Aim
1. To assess the personality structure and intelligence of the subject
 145

14.4 Materials Required

1. Stopwatch

2. Answer sheet

3. Manual and scoring key

4. Pencil and eraser

14.5 Description of the Material

DAP is a projective test, that allow an examinee to respond to questions through drawings.
Projective tests can be applied in various settings from schools, corporate, and private practices
to assess different psychological aspects include: personality, family background, intelligence,
physical and emotional abuse, depression etc. Fan (2012), asserts that this test is more
appropriate when administered to children in grade one and grade two. The test is used to
understand the interaction within the members of the family and the perception of the patient
over their family and the cognitive functioning of the test taker. Usually clinicians find these
tests to be easily administered, and the common instruction of the test is structured as “draw a
person doing something”. More over the test is timed to a maximum of 5 minutes per picture
and it is advised that if the child doesn’t complete each picture on time the clinician should give
instruction to the examinee to continue draw the other picture (Nagleria et al, 1991).

14.6 Procedure

The following instructions are given to the subject: “I want you to make a picture of a
person. Make the very best picture that you can. Take your time and work very carefully. Try
very hard and see what a good picture you can make.” No time limit. Usually 10 minutes will
suffice with young children. This test is to be used primarily as a screening device. The
drawings of bright children more than 10 years old or those who have had drawing lessons will
result in an invalid evaluation of the child’s intellectual potential.

14.7 Scoring

CLASS A Preliminary Stage in which the drawing cannot be recognized as

a human figure:
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1. Aimless uncontrolled scribbling – score 0.

2. Lines somewhat controlled – approaches crude geometrical

form – score 1.

CLASS B All drawings that can be recognized as attempts to represent the

human figure. Each point is scored plus or minus. One credit for
each point scored plus and no half credits given.

GROSS DETAIL 1. Head present

2. Legs present.

3. Arms present

4. Trunk present

5. Length of trunk greater than breadth.

6. Shoulders are indicated (abrupt broadening of trunk below

neck)

ATTACHMENTS 1. Both arms and legs attached to trunk.

2. Arms and legs attached to trunk at correct points.

3. Neck present.

4. Outline of neck continuous with that of head, trunk, or both.

HEAD DETAIL 1. Eyes present (one or two)

2. Nose present

3. Mouth present

4. Nose and mouth in two dimensions, two lips shown.

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5. Nostril shown

6. Hair shown

7. Hair on more than circumference of head and non-transparent

– better than a scribble.

CLOTHING 1. Clothing present (any clear representation of clothing)

2. Two articles of clothing non transparent (ex. Hat, trousers)

3. Entire drawing free from transparencies – sleeves and

trousers must be shown.

4. Four articles of clothing definitely indicated. *should include

4 hat, shoes, coat, shirt, necktie, belt, trousers*

5. Costume complete with incongruities *business suit, soldier’s

costume and hat, sleeves trousers and shoes must be shown*

HAND DETAIL 1. Fingers present (any indication)

2. Correct number of fingers shown

3. Fingers in two dimensions – length greater than breadth, angle

subtended not greater than 180 degrees

4. Opposition of thumb clearly defined

5. Hand shown distinct from fingers and arm

JOINTS 1. Arm joint shown – elbow, shoulder, or both

2. leg joint shown – knee, hip, or both

PROPORTION 1. Head not more than ½ or less than 1/10 of trunk

2. Arms equal to trunk but not reaching knee

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3. Legs not less than trunk not more than twice trunk size

4. Feet in 2 dimensions – not more than 1/3 or less than 1/10 of

leg

5. Both arms and lens in two dimensions

MOTOR COORDINATION

1. Lines firm without marked tendency to cross, gap, or overlap.

2. All lines firm with correct joining.

3. Outline of head without obvious irregularities. Develop beyond

first crude circle. Conscious control apparent.

4. Trunk outline. Score same as #3.

5. Arms and legs without irregularities. 2 dimensions and no

tendency to narrow at point of junction with trunk.

6. Features symmetrical (more likely to credit in profile drawings)

FINE HEAD DETAIL 1. Ears present (2 in full face, 1 in profile)

2. Ears present in correct position and proportion.

3. Eye details – brow or lashes shown.

4. Eye detail – pupil shown.

5. Eye detail – proportion. Length greater than width.

6. Eye detail – glance – only plus in profile.

7. Chin and forehead shown.

PROFILE 1. Projection of chin shown – usually + in profile.

2. heel clearly shown

3. Body profile – head, trunk, and feet without error.

4. Figure shown in true profile without error or transparency.

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TABLE OF MENTAL AGE EQUIVALENTS OF SCORES

SCORE MA SCORE MA SCORE MA SCORE MA

1 3-3 14 6-6 27 9-9 40 13-0

2 3-6 15 6-9 28 10-0 41 13-3

3 3-9 16 7-0 29 10-3 42 13-6

4 4-0 17 7-3 30 10-6 43 13-9

5 4-3 18 7-6 31 10-9 44 14-0

6 4-6 19 7-9 32 11-0 45 14-3

7 4-9 20 8-0 33 11-3 46 14-6

8 5- 21 8-3 34 11-6 47 14-9

9 5-3 22 8-6 35 11-9 48 15-0

10 5-6 23 8-9 36 12-0 49 15-3

11 5-9 24 9-0 37 12-3 50 15-6

12 6-0 25 9-3 38 12-6 51 15-9

13 6-3 26 9-6 39 12-9

“In finding the IQ of differently abled children who are more than 13 years old, the
chronological age should be treated as 13 only below”.

14.8 Results

The individual interpretations are discussed.

150

14.9 Discussion

The general, individual and group data can be compared, interpreted and discussed in
detail

14.10 Conclusion
1. Write about the interpretation by the subject.
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CHAPTER - 15
NIMHANS NEUROPSYCHOLOGY BATTERY

15.1 Introduction

Neuropsychology is the study of brain-behaviour relationship with the development of a

science of human behaviour based on the function of human brain. Clinical Neuropsychology
is the application of empirically established facts concerning brain behaviour relationships to
clinical problems and neurological assessment, which is sensitive to the condition of the brain.
Man’s interest in this area extends back at least 2500 years, when Pythagoras argued that the
brain was the site of human reasoning. Approximately 100 years later, Hippocrates claimed
that the brain was the organ of the intellect and recognized that a depressed skull fracture on
the right side of the head could produce motor paralysis on the (contra lateral) left side of the
body. Galen, in approximately 170 AD, was able to map out many of the major brain structures
and argued that the frontal lobes were the seat of our mental abilities. Galen’s hypothesis,
however, was later discarded in favour of the belief that reasoning and intelligence was a
product of the ventricles of the brain. It was not until 15 centuries later that Galen’s views of the
relationship between the cortex and intelligence were taken seriously, when Vesalius reported
an anatomical relationship between the brain and intellectual functioning. He argued that humans
are more intelligent than animals, because humans have larger brains. Present views on brain–
behavior relationships began to take form since nineteenth century. During the last 20 years
there has been a growing realization that the emotional and behavioural problems that
accompany brain insults are more disabling than the cognitive problems that are produced
(Lezak, 1987; Sbordone, 1990). Neuropsychology can be divided into two branches. The first,
clinical neuropsychology includes behavioural neurology and deals with patients with cerebral
lesions. The second branch is experimental neuropsychology, which studies normal subjects
in the laboratory by a range of techniques including specialized physiological techniques
(Sbordone, Saul, & Purisch, 2007).

Neuropsychological Assessment

The use of psychological tests to investigate the behavioural consequences of brain

damage was first utilized approximately 70 years ago in the United States. A number of
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publications appeared during the 1930s and 1940s that described the effects of frontal lobe
lesions on intelligence and other functions, visual–spatial impairments following right frontal
lobe lesions and the effect of brain damage on abstract thinking, and memory impairments
following focal brain lesions (Jones & Butters, 1983). In the Soviet Union during this same
time, Luria utilized psychological tests to investigate the effects of brain trauma and disease
(Sbordone, Saul, & Purisch, 2007). The first neuropsychological laboratory in the United States
was set up by Ward C. Halstead in 1935. He used neuropsychological tests to study the effects
of brain damage on a wide range of cognitive, perceptual, and sensory motor functions. In
1951, Halstead collaborated with his former student, Ralph M. Reitan, who had established a
neuropsychology laboratory at Indiana University Medical Centre. Reitan (1955) modified
Halstead’s neuropsychological battery and created what is now described as the “Halstead–
Reitan Battery.” Reitan administered this battery to a number of patients with documented
focal and diffuse brain damage, as well as to a group of hospitalized control patients, presumably
free of brain disease, and developed a set of test norms. Indices developed by Reitan allowed
him to localize brain damaged areas, as well as to infer the cause of the neurological injury
(Wheeler, Burke, & Reitan, 1963). Brenda Milner and her colleagues at the Montreal Neurological
Institute and at McGill University have utilized neuropsychological assessment techniques to
evaluate behavioural changes. Those patients have undergone the surgical removal of portions
of their temporal lobes, which were believed to cause uncontrollable seizures. She described
the relationships between verbal and nonverbal learning following temporal lobe lesions. She
found that patients whose surgery involved the left temporal lobe had impaired verbal learning
skills, while the patients who underwent right temporal lobe surgery had impaired visual learning
skills (Milner, 1970). She also found that bilateral removal of the hippocampi produced a severe
and permanent impairment in the ability to learn new information. On the basis of the research
studies of Milner and her colleagues, a number of neuropsychological tests were developed
that were particularly sensitive to damage to specific areas of the brain. Hans-Lukas Teuber, at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, used neuropsychological tests to study the effects
of local brain damage on a variety of visual and spatial skills and identified the importance of
the parietal lobes in spatial relations and the role of the frontal lobes in problem solving. These
studies led to the development of several psychological tests that were found to be highly
sensitive to specific brain lesions and the functions served by these regions (Teuber, 1972).
 153

The Boston V.A. Medical Centre, under the leadership of Harold Goodglass, Edith Kaplan, and
Nelson Butters, was responsible for the development of a number of neuropsychological tests
based upon numerous research studies, which were conducted over a period of over 30 years.
They assessed patients with aphasia, amnesia, and dementia, and developed “qualitative”
methods for analyzing the various psychological and behavioural manifestations and damage
to specific parts of the brain. Their approach has provided clinical neuropsychologists with a
greater appreciation of the specific effects that brain damage can have on the individual. Arthur
Benton, at the University of Iowa, also developed several neuropsychological tests and made
a number of important contributions to clinical neuropsychology. Alexander Luria, who was
initially trained as a cognitive psychologist and then later as a physician and neurologist, spent
over 40 years in studying the behavioural and psychological impairments of head-injured war
victims and neurological and neurosurgical patients, and developed understanding about the
relationship between a specific area of the brain and its effect on complex behaviours. He
developed neuropsychological tests that could be administered at the patient’s bedside and
formulated a theory of brain–behavior relationships. His theory emphasized that complex
behavior could be broken down into their respective components and studied separately to
determine which aspects of a “functional system” had been compromised. His evaluation
procedure heavily emphasized qualitative methods based upon observation of the types of
errors made by the patient. Through collaboration with Anna-Lise Christensen, a Danish
psychologist, Luria’s tests and method of neuropsychological assessment were introduced in
the United States in 1975 under the title of Luria’s Neuropsychological Investigation.
Unfortunately, it was generally not well received in the United States since it required the
neuropsychologist to have extensive training and a strong background in behavioural neurology.
In an attempt to rectify this, Charles Golden, Thomas Hammeke, and Arnold Purisch
administered the several hundred test items contained in Luria’s Neuropsychological
Investigation to normal controls and later to neurological patients. They utilized discriminant
function statistical analysis techniques to determine which test items were sensitive to the
presence of brain damage. Their research (Golden et al., 1978) resulted in a battery of 269
items, which could be administered to a patient in 2 or 3 hours. This test battery was eventually
named the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery and first introduced in 1978. Within the
past 20 years, there is an increased need to examine patients who had sustained traumatic
154

brain damage in motor vehicle or road traffic accidents and to predict whether these patients
could return to work, school, or their pre-injury duties and responsibilities. Unfortunately, the
neuropsychological tests were never designed to make such predictions rather these tests
were primarily developed to determine if the patient had brain damage and how it affected the
patient’s cognitive functioning (Sbordone, Saul, & Purisch, 2007). Hence, this upcoming need
forced neuropsychologists to focus on the ecological validity of the test data and how well are
the tests able to predict a patient’s ability to function in real-world settings (Sbordone, 1997;
Sbordone&Guilmette, 1999). Neuropsychological testing is primarily used today to determine
whether a patient has sustained brain damage when the neurological examination is normal,
and the neuroimaging studies are negative. This is likely to place more emphasis on the
development of innovative methods of assessing how the brain injury or dysfunction effects
the patient’s functioning in real-world situations.

Assessment Processes

Assessment process typically includes identifying specific areas of the brain, that have
been damaged and demonstrating the relative severity of the patient’s cognitive and emotional
impairments. Since, the issue of causation is often important, it is essential that a variety of
confounding or extraneous factors be ruled out so that the relationship between a specific
event (e.g., accident, trauma, or fall) and the patient’s neuropsychological impairments may be
made as unequivocally clear as possible. Hence, primary goals of all neuropsychological
evaluations are, first, to determine an individual’s cognitive and behavioural strengths and
weaknesses, second, to interpret the findings from a diagnostic viewpoint, and third, to
recommend viable treatment and rehabilitation resolutions (La Rue, 1992). Neuropsychological
procedures also provide a complement to other medical evaluations when used in conjunction
with quantitative or functional neuroimaging. This enhances the understanding of pathological
disturbances of the brain (Howieson & Lezak, 2000). There are two distinct strategies of
approaching neuropsychological assessment, one is the comprehensive battery approach (also
known as the fixed approach), and the other is flexible approach, utilizing a qualitative,
hypothesis-testing strategy (Groth-Marnat, 2003). Each of these approaches has different
strengths and weaknesses (Bauer, 2000; Jarvis & Barth, 1994; Russell, 2000). The advantages
of the fixed approaches are, first, it assesses both strengths and weaknesses for a broad
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spectrum of behaviours, and second, it is more extensively normed and researched and has
been validated psychometrically to identify individuals with brain damage. However, major
disadvantages are, it is time consuming and may overlook the underlying reason for a client’s
specific test score. It is also difficult to tailor toward the unique aspects of the client and referral
question. On the other hand, flexible approach is hypothesis-testing approach and can be
tailored to the specifics of the client and referral question. It emphasizes the processes underlying
a client’s performance rather than a final score, is time efficient. It also allows the measurements
of a client’s strengths, weaknesses, or certain reasons for ambiguous responses to be pursued
in depth. The major disadvantages of the flexible approach are that it focuses on a client’s
weaknesses, and relies too extensively on clinician’s expertise. This approach consists of tests
that have usually not been validated psychometrically to identify individuals with brain damage,
and provides a narrower slice of a client’s domains of functioning.

Neuropsychological Test Batteries

There are number of standardized neuropsychological batteries to evaluate individuals

suspected of having brain dysfunction or damage. Some of the important neuropsychological
test batteries are discussed below :

Halstead–Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery

This is perhaps the best known and most widely used battery, developed by Ward Halstead
and Ralph M. Reitan (Horton & Wedding, 1984). The tests were initially used by Halstead to
investigate the cognitive abilities that were compromised by brain injury. It consists of adult,
intermediate child (9 to 14 years) and young child (5 to 8 years) versions. Each battery is
designed to include a minimum of 14 neuropsychological tests capable of assessing as many
as 26 different brain-behavior relationships. The Halstead-Reitan Battery includes Aphasia
Screening Test (Halstead & Wepman, 1959), Halstead Category Test (Reitan & Wolfson, 1993),
Finger Tapping Test (Halstead, 1947; Reitan and Wolfson, 1993), Grip Strength (Hand
Dynamometer) Test, several perceptual examinations, tactile and tactual perceptual
examinations. This battery also includes Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
(Hathaway & McKinley, 1940), and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) (Wechsler, 1955).
The indices include Halstead Impairment Index, Average Impairment Index, and General
Neuropsychological Deficits Scale.
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Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery (LNNB)

It is a comprehensive battery that integrates the neuropsychological assessment

procedures of the late Professor Alexander Romanovich Luria and the American psychometric
tradition through the work of its authors (Golden et al., 1978). This battery contains a total of
269 test items that make up 11 clinical scales, which are motor functions, rhythm and pitch,
tactile and kinaesthetic functions, visual functions, receptive language, expressive language,
reading, writing, arithmetic, memory, and intellectual processes. Later on Form II was developed,
which is “largely a parallel form”. This contains a 12th scale, intermediate memory, which
assesses delayed recall of some of the previously administered short-term memory items.
Performance on each item is evaluated on a 3-point scale where, 0 indicates no impairment
and 2 indicates severe impairment. The summed scores for each of these scales produce 11
of the above scoring indices. In addition to these scales, 3 additional scales have been developed
(based on the 269 test items) that are sensitive to brain impairment and recovery following
brain injury. These are known as the Pathognomonic, which consists of items that best
discriminated patients with brain impairment from healthy controls and sensitive to the acuteness
of an injury, Profile elevation, and Impairment scales together register the level of present
functioning and degree of overall impairment. LNNB also contains 2 lateralization scales, i.e.,
left-hemisphere and righthemisphere scale, which are composed of all the tactile and motor
function items In addition, 8 scales (four for each side of the brain) have been developed to
localize brain damage to the frontal, sensorimotor, parietal-occipital, and temporal regions.
Also attempts to integrate the qualitative tradition of Luria by listing 66 different qualitative
indices that aid the examiner in evaluating the nature of failure and not merely its fact. The
entire test battery can usually be administered in 2½ to 3 hours. Unlike the Halstead-Reitan,
the Luria-Nebraska is portable and can be administered at the patient’s bedside. It is designed
to be administered to patients 14 years and older. Children revision (Golden, 1989) of this test
is also available, which is a downward extension of the adult version for children in the age
range of 8 - 12 years consisting of 11 subscales discussed above.
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15.2 Title: NIMHANS Neuropsychology Battery

Experiment No: Experimenter:

Date: Subject:

Individual/Group Experiment:

15.3 Aim
1. To assess the neuropsychological profile of executive functions of the subject

15.4 Materials Required

1. NIMHANS Neuropsychology Battery

2. Stopwatch

3. Answer sheet

4. Manual and scoring key

5. Pencil and eraser

15.5 Description of the Material

The neuropsychological tests used in the present study have been taken from the
NIMHANS neuropsychological battery. The battery consists of 21 different neuropsychological
subtests which were originally developed by different authors and standardized in the Indian
population by Rao, Subbakrishna, and Gopukumar (2004). This battery has been extensively
used in researches on neuropsychological performances of a wide variety of groups including
normal individuals and clinical populations, and hence has proven validity and applicability.
The different areas of functions covered in the test battery are: attention and concentration;
motor speed; executive functions such as planning ability, category fluency, phonemic fluency,
working memory, set shifting and response inhibition, verbal learning and memory; visual learning
and memory; expressive and receptive speech; visuo-constructive ability; and focal signs.
From this neuropsychological test battery, the following eight tests were used in the present
investigation.
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Test of speed.

Digit symbol substitution test. Digit symbol substitution test (Wechsler, 1981) is a test
of visuo–motor co-ordination, motor persistence, information processing and speed. The test
consists of a sheet in which numbers one to nine are randomly arranged in four rows of 25
squares each. The subject has to substitute each number with a symbol using a number–
symbol key given on top of the page. The first ten squares are for practice. The test takes
about seven minutes.

Administration. The subject was seated comfortably and the test sheet was placed in
front of him or her. The principle of substituting symbols for digits was explained. Practice was
given for the first ten squares after which the test started. The subject was instructed to complete
the task as fast as possible.

Scoring. The time taken to complete the test constituted the score of the test; the longer
the time taken, poorer the performance.

Test of attention.

Digit vigilance test. Digit vigilance test (Lezak, 1995) consists of a sheet containing
numbers one to nine randomly ordered and placed in rows on a page. There are 30 digits per
row and 50 rows in a test sheet. The subject has to focus on target digits six and nine amongst
other distracter digits. Inability to sustain and focus attention leads to increased time to complete
the test.

Administration. The subject was seated comfortably and the test sheet was placed in
front of the subject. The subject was asked to scan the sheet and cancel the target numbers
six and nine (by drawing a “/” mark on them) as fast as possible without missing the targets or
canceling other numbers.

Scoring The time taken to complete the test formed the score; the longer the time taken,
poorer the performance.
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Tests of executive function.

Controlled oral word association test. The Controlled oral word association test (Benton
& Hamsher, 1989) is a measure of phonemic fluency. In this test, the subject generates words
based on phonetic similarity of words. The subject is required to generate words beginning
with the letters F, A, and S for one minute. Proper nouns and names should be excluded. The
same word should not be repeated with a different suffix. Subjects who do not know the English
language were asked to generate words in their own mother tongue commencing with ‘ka’,
‘pa’, ‘ma’. The subject was asked to generate words for one minute in case of each letter
starting with F, going unto A and ending with S or with ‘ka’, going on to ‘pa’ and ending with ‘ma’
as the case may be.

Administration. The subject was seated comfortably and told that he or she has to
generate words beginning with a letter, which will be provided by the tester. A practice trial was
given with the letter other than the ones used in the test. The subject was asked to generate as
many words as possible for one minute in the case of each letter, and not to repeat the same
words or give names of persons and places, and also not to say different deviations of the
same word (e.g., ask, asking, asked). After each one-minute test, the subject was given a
short rest pause before commencing the next test with a different letter.

Scoring. The total number of acceptable new words produced in one minute was noted
down for each consonant. The average of the new words generated over the three tasks
formed the score; the higher the score, better the performance.

Animal names test. Animal names test is a measure of category fluency (Lezak, 1995).
Category fluency is another form of verbal fluency. In this test, it is the content of the words
rather than the phonetic similarity of the words, which is regulated. The subject generates
words which belong to a particular semantic category. The Animal names test requires the
subject to generate names of animals for one minute.

Administration. The subject was asked to generate the names of as many animals as
possible in one minute. He or she has to exclude the names of fish, birds and snakes.
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Scoring. The total number of new words generated formed the score; the higher the
score, better the performance.

Verbal N back test. The 1 back and 2 back versions of the N back test (Smith & Joindes,
1999) assess verbal working memory. The 1 back version requires verbal storage and rehearsal
while the 2 back version requires in addition to the above, manipulation of information. Therefore,
the 1 back version would involve the articulatory loop in the verbal modality and the visuo-
spatial sketchpad in the visual modality. The 2 back would involve the central executive in both
the modalities.

Administration. Thirty randomly ordered consonants common to multiple Indian

languages are presented auditorily at the rate of one per second. Nine of the 30 consonants
are repeated. The consonants which are repeated are randomly chosen. In the 1 back test the
subject has to respond by tapping the table whenever a consonant was repeated consecutively.
In the 2 back test, the subject has to respond by tapping the table whenever a consonant was
repeated after an intervening consonant. That means, in this test there will be an intervening
consonant after which the consonant might repeat. Therefore, the subject was instructed to
remember each consonant till the consonant is over. A practice trial was given for the subject
with four consonants wherein 1 consonant is repeated.

Scoring. The number of correct responses formed the score in each test; the higher the
score, better the performance.

Stroop test. Stroop test measures response inhibition (Benson & Struss, 1986). It
measures the ease with which a perceptual set can be shifted both to conjoin demands and
suppressing a habitual response in favor of an unusual one. The prefrontal areas are essential
for response inhibition. In this test, the colour names ‘blue’, ‘green’, ‘red’, and ‘yellow’ are
printed in capital letters on a paper. The colour of the print occasionally corresponds with the
colour designated by the word. The words are printed in 16 rows and 11 columns.

Administration. The stimulus sheet was placed in front of the subject. The subject was
asked to read the printed words column-wise as fast as possible. The time taken to read all the
11 columns was noted down. Next, the subject was asked to read the colour in which the words
 161

were printed. The time taken to read all colours was noted down. The words were presented in
the mother tongue of the subject. The test takes about 20 minutes.

Scoring The time taken to read the printed words and the time taken to read the colour
of the printed words were converted into seconds. The time taken to read the printed words
was subtracted from the time taken to read the colour to get the Stroop effect score; the higher
the score, poorer the performance.

Tests of learning and memory.

Rey’s auditory verbal learning test (AVLT). The Rey’s Auditory Verbal Learning Test
(Schmidt, 1996) adapted for different cultures by WHO (Maj et al., 1994) was adapted to suit
conditions in India. Rey originally developed the test in 1996. It consists of words designating
familiar objects like vehicles, tools, animals and body parts. There are two lists A and B, with 15
different words in each list. The words were translated into the five Indian languages-Kannada,
Tamil, Telugu, Hindi, and Malayalam. Word lists in the different languages are given in appendix.
The words in list A were presented at the rate of one word per second in five successive trials.
The words were presented in the same order in every trial. Each trial consisted of the presentation
of all 15 words, immediately followed by recall of the same. In each trial, after the presentation
of the words the subject was asked to recall the words in any order. The examiner noted down
the responses verbatim in the order in which the subject gives them. On an average, recall in
each trial takes about 2 minutes. After the completion of all the five trials of list A, words in list
B were presented once and an immediate recall was taken for the same. This is followed by
the immediate recall from list A. The subject was given a brief rest of a few minutes and then
the Stroop test which does not involve the task of recall was given. After a lapse of 20 minutes
from the completion of the last recall of list A, a delayed recall of words was taken. Following
delayed recall, recognition of the words in list A was tested. In recognition trial, the examiner
presented the words form the recognition list one by one at the rate of one word per second
and the subject was asked to identify the words from list A by saying “yes” or “no”. The number
of words correctly identified formed the hits. The test takes about 30 minutes.

Scoring. The number of words correctly recalled in each of the 5 trials of list A as well as
the total number of words recalled over all the five trials formed the AVLT- Total score. The
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number of words recalled correctly in the immediate recall trial, delayed recall trial and the
recognition trial formed the memory. In the recognition trial, the hits or the correct response
were scored separately. The other score was Long Term Percent Retention, which was calculated
by the formula: Delayed Recall Score / Trial 5 score x100; the higher the score, better the
performance.

Complex figure test (CFT). The complex figure test (Meyers & Meyers, 1995) consists
of a complex design which is abstract in nature and cannot be named easily. This test measures
visuo-constructive ability and visual learning and memory. The figure from the complex figure
is copied and subsequently recalled. Immediate and delayed memory scores are obtained.

Administration. An 8.5 inch by 11 inch card containing the complex figure is placed in
front of the subject. A paper of the same size of the complex figure card was placed in front of
the subject. The subject was asked to copy the figure on the paper and he or she was not
allowed to use rulers to draw lines, but rather draw it freehand. The subject was allowed to use
eraser. The subject was asked to recall the figure twice: the first time was an immediate recall
three minutes after the copying was completed, and the second time was a delayed recall 30
minutes later. For the intervening three minutes, after the subject finished copying the design
and before the immediate recall, another task such as one measuring verbal fluency was given
to the subject. After the lapse of three minutes another sheet of paper was placed in front of the
subject and then the subject was again asked to draw the design. Following this, during the
thirty minutes before the delayed recall was given, the subject was given another task and he/
she was not told that the design has to be drawn after this delayed period. After thirty minutes
have elapsed, another sheet of paper was placed in front of the subject and the subject was
asked to draw the design again from memory.

Scoring. On each of the copy, immediate recall and delayed recall trials, a score of 0,
0.5, 1 or 2 was assigned to each unit of the figure based on the accuracy 116 and placement
criteria. The correctness of reproduction is assessed according to the scoring system given in
the test manual; the higher the score, better the performance.

Sensitivity and Specificity. In NIMHANS battery, the subjects who score below the 15th
percentile on the scores of accuracy are considered to have a deficit. A score above the 85th
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percentile is considered as a deficit for time and error scores. So the 15th and 85th percentiles
are taken as cut-off scores to identify deficits as these represent mean plus and minus 1
standard deviation.

Validity. The factorial validity of the tests were established for literate subjects. Ten subjects
in each of the gender, age and education intersections were administered all the tests. There
were 120 subjects in the literate sample. Variables included in the factor analysis were chosen
in such a way that the different neuropsychological domains were represented, with a ratio of
variables to the number of subjects at 1: 5. A principal component analysis of the data was
performed for the literate and illiterate samples separately. The analysis on the literate sample,
22 variables yielded 6 factors with Eigen values more than 1 accounting for 66% of the variance.
The factor, which accounted for 36% of the variance, consisted of mental speed, attention,
visuo-spatial construction and visual memory, and has been named as speed of visuo- spatial
processing and memory. The second factor which accounted for 8% of the variance, consisted
of verbal fluency, divided attention and verbal delayed recall, and has been named as flexibility
of processing. The third factor which accounted for 6.4 % of the variance consisted of verbal
and visual learning and memory, and has been termed as visual encoding of learning and
memory. The fourth factor, which accounted for 5.4% of the variance consisted of verbal
comprehension and verbal working memory, and has been called as verbal manipulation. The
fifth factor, which accounted for 5% of the variance, consisted of lower perseverative errors
and high conceptual level responses, and has been termed as mental flexibility. The sixth
factor accounting for 5% of the variance consisted of adequate planning and response inhibition,
and has been termed as behavioral regulation. The validity of the tests was assessed using the
measures of criterion validity, wherein the profiles of patients with different clinical etiologies
were compared. The clinical groups which were considered for comparison were the patients
with focal lesions, patients with head injury, patients with intractable epilepsy and patients with
movement disorders.

The child battery was developed by Kar, Rao, Chandramouli, & Thennarasu (2004) and
designed with a careful consideration for the developmental perspective in child
neuropsychological assessment. It covers the whole paediatric age range (5 - 15 years of age)
164

for its wider application and is sensitive to the developmental perspective of child
neuropsychological assessment. This also gives an opportunity to study the growth profile
across the age levels. Each test included assesses a known specific function and has well-
established construct validity. The battery has been standardized on Indian children. The norms
are based on the empirical validation of age trends of neuropsychological functions using the
growth model approach. The battery is sensitive to the effects of brain damage and has been
validated in terms of localization and lateralization of brain dysfunction.

15.6 Procedure

As given in the manual and in the description of the test section

15.7 Scoring

As given in the manual and in the description of the test section

15.8 Results

The individual and group interpretations are discussed.

15.9 Discussion

The general, individual and group data can be compared, interpreted and discussed in
detail

15.10 Conclusion

Write about the interpretation and results by the subject and group.