1.

Social Systems and Arts in Indian Knowledge Tradition

1.1 Dance, Music, Architecture, and Visual Arts________________________________________________

A culture that is truly complete and all-encompassing is the one that stands the test of time on this earth. The
term “complete and all-encompassing” implies that such a culture should consider all aspects of human thought,
both individual and societal, from every angle. When evaluated against this criterion, Indian culture emerges as
a true exemplar. This is why Iqbal, who became the national poet of Pakistan after the partition of India,
declared:
“Greece, Egypt, and Rome
have all perished, but
there is something about our
existence that will never fade!”

This “existence” refers to our very being, our holistic way of life. We were far ahead in all aspects of life, far,
far ahead!

Let me illustrate with a small example: I first visited America in 1994. Having already travelled extensively
in Japan and Europe, I did not have as much excitement or curiosity about America as I should have. However,
I had heard a lot about America. The man who was showing me around there was, fortunately for me, an
Indian. A Bengali gentleman, he was showing me all the novelties of America. He started showing me the
amusement of drive-ins, explaining how convenient drive-ins are in America, even in remote areas. He also
showed me drive-in ATMs, where you can pay and pick up your food packets while sitting in your car, after
eating at McDonald's.

I was also a little impressed and scared by it. He went to Raigad after five years. There, on a vast expanse of
land, he saw platforms built in a single row, the height of a man, and out of curiosity asked the guide about it,
“What is this, brother? For whom would such high, identical platforms have been built?” In a natural voice he
replied, “This was the market at that time.” Think, at that time, where would people who came to the market on
horseback put their horses? Therefore, the Maharaja had provided the facility of platforms so that people could
ride horses and shop for what they needed. To be honest, my hair stood on end when I heard this answer....!!

Who will we consider modern? Our Shivaji Raja, who built a drive-in market for his people and soldiers three
and a half centuries ago, is to be called modern, or is America, which has been practicing drive-ins for the last
50-60 years, to be called modern?

This example is from today's era. We Indians have been reformers and progressives for the last many decades.
Our entire lifestyle was progressive. Along with science and spirituality, arts and music subjects were created
and developed in our country and gradually gained proficiency. Indians have done the work of taking various
arts to a high level and giving them a definite form. Our tradition of singing and playing music is ancient.

Goddess Saraswati is considered the adorable deity of this art. A veena is seen in her hand. The Shardamba
Devi temple built in Sringeri in the ninth century is a temple of Saraswati. The ancient Saraswati temple of
Gadag was built in the 11th century. But idols of Saraswati are found earlier. An ancient statue of Goddess
Saraswati was found in Bharuhun. Which is from the 1st century AD. There are also some sculptures of
Sharada dancing. But most of the idols are seen holding veenas in their hands. So how old will the veena be?

Thousands of years old, of course. So see how long music has been mentioned in our country..!
The stringed instrument 'Veena' held by Saraswati should be at least 4000 years old. In ancient times there was
a one-stringed Veena. Bharat Muni in his book 'Natya Shastra' mentioned two main Veenas - 'Chitra' (made of
seven strings) and 'Vipanchi' (made of nine strings). While he also gave information about other second-class
Veenas like Ghosha and Kachchhbi.

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years old. Music is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The 19th and 20th mantras of the 30th chapter of the Yajurveda
talk about playing many instruments. That is, playing instruments must have been considered an art at that time.
Along with stringed instruments like Vana, Veena, Karkariya, there is a mention of percussion instruments like
Dundubhi, Gargara, and wind instruments like Bakur, Nadi, Tunav, Shankha etc.

Only in the 'Sama Veda' is music described in detail. At that time, the notes were called 'Yam'. The 'Sam' of the
Sama Veda should have a close relationship with music. The relationship would be so strong that in the
'Chhandogya Upanishad' the question is asked, what is the speed of 'Sam'? The answer is - Swara.

In Vedic times, the singing of three notes was called “Samrik” (today's Samuhik). These three notes were - Ga,
Re, Sa. Later, seven notes were formed. The group formed by fixing the order of the notes was called “Sam”.
Later in Europe, the sequential group of notes of Western music came to be known as scales in modern times.
This means that the notes of the music developed there three to four thousand years ago were echoing all
around. Later, Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra came to us, and the antiquity of Indian music was sealed.

Bharata Muni's period is believed to be 500 BC. But there is no consensus on this matter. According to some
scholars, he was born 100 years before Christ. Be that as it may, it is certain that due to Bharata Muni's Natya
Shastra treatise, it could be proved that Indian music was composed on the basis of scientific principles and was
fully developed. This treatise provides systematic information about other arts that are complementary to Natya
Shastra. A detailed description of songs and music can be seen in it.

Which is the oldest music in the world? Or which is the oldest instrument? It is said that in 4000 BC, the people
of the country of Egypt made some instruments like flutes. A trumpet-like instrument was built in Denmark in
2500 BC.

But Pythagoras introduced the Western world to the specific series of notes (in the melody). In 600 BC, he
created a circle (group) of notes and then arranged them in mathematical terms.
Unfortunately, many old documents and other materials in India were lost during the Islamic invasion. So, we
cannot present the definite history of our music to the world. But a record of 2500 years before Christ has been
found. And according to that, new music or instruments were discovered at that time.

It doesn't seem like that. Looking at the note, it seems that an attempt has been made to codify the developed art
of music in that writing. Based on the mentions made in the Rigveda and Samaveda, it can be said for sure that
our music is at least five thousand years old. In the Samaveda, a developed and advanced musical system is
solved through sutras. One by one, the petals of the flower of music seem to be opening before us.

Just like the Vedas, there is also mention of music and other arts in different Upanishads. In the Shrautasutra,
there is Katyayan's Shrautasutra. It is actually a Vedic ritual related text. But there is also a melody of songs
and music sung on the occasion of festivals. The time period of this Shrautasutra is believed to be around 3000
years ago.

If we consider Western music, there is a specific mention that their music is two to two and a half thousand or
at most three thousand years old. Along with that, new discoveries have also been made in this field. There is
also a clear mention of what discoveries were made. On the contrary, the description that is found in Indian
scriptures is literature that gives information about the developed musical system. This means that Indian
musicology had developed thousands of years ago with a scientific method. How many years ago? It is difficult
to say...!

It is also unfortunate that most of the information and references available on the history of Indian art is the
result of research done by Western scholars. Names like Brodie, E. Winduish, V. Smith, Pishel, Jacobi, Harman
Keet. are dominant. Therefore, the history of Indian music has been seen only from a neglected point of view.

The same neglect as in the case of music is also seen in the case of Natya Shastra. Just like India, a
comprehensive development of Natya Shastra took place in Greek..! There the drama flourished in all sixteen
arts. In the 19th century, there was a fierce debate on whether the Indians had taken all the ideas from the Greek
stage, imitated them, or whether the Greek stage was influenced by Indian Natya Shastra?

2
We recognize Chhattisgarh as a 'Naxalite-infested region'. Even today there is no peace, there is anarchy and
fear. But this is not the real picture of Chhattisgarh. Apart from Naxalism, there are many other things here that
enrich this region. Make it rich. Many relics of ancient times can still be seen here today. Being a naturally
inaccessible region, this region has been relatively less affected by Muslim invaders compared to other regions.
Hence, there has been less destruction here compared to other regions. As a result, some important places have
been able to survive.

One such place is the Sita Bengara Cave. Located 280 kilometres from Raipur, the capital of Chhattisgarh,
these caves are located near the village of Ramgarh in Sarguja district. This is a completely mountainous area.
But the road to Ramgarh is good as it is on the Bilaspur-Ambikapur Road. What is the special feature of the
caves that has been specifically mentioned? This cave is the first known theater in Asia (perhaps the whole
world).

The paintings on the walls of this cave are evidence that the cave was used between 200 and 300 BC. The cave
has three chambers (rooms). One of them is large. This large chamber can seat 50 to 60 spectators. There is also
a stage. It is believed that the poet Kalidasa composed the epic “Meghadut” while sitting here.

It is only our misfortune that, let alone the common man, even our great artists who roam freely in the field of
art and cite examples of Greek, Roman, French and British theater from time to time do not know about these
caves.

The main chamber of this cave is 44 feet long and 20 feet wide. The walls are straight and the entrance is round.
Holes have been drilled in the walls in some places to prevent echoes from bouncing off the walls of this
completely enclosed cave. Half of the cave is like a stage and the other half is for the audience to sit. Here, the
stage area is low and the semicircular part of the cave is high. Steps have been carved out to create seating for
the audience. In this cave there is an inscription in Pali language written in Brahmi script. The meaning of its
writing is as follows. 'The poets who make the heart glow, who are of great nature, forget themselves in
laughter and humor at night, far from Vasant, embracing garlands of jasmine flowers...'

This Sita Bangara cave, which is near the village of Ramgarh, is a short distance away from the cave of Jogi
mara cave is located. These caves contain colorful paintings that date back to 300 BCE, and they depict a
variety of artistic expressions. One of the paintings shows a dancer seated amidst a crowd of singers and
dancers. In addition, there are also figures of theaters and people. Dr. T. Bloch, a German archaeologist,
believes that these paintings date back to the time of Emperor Ashoka. This means that they are older than the
paintings found in the Ajanta Caves.

Overall, it seems that the caves found in the Ramgarh region were once centers of art. Sitabengara, in particular,
may have been a theater. However, some people do not believe this. They argue that Sitabengara was a center
of art, but it was not a theater. They base this on the fact that the structure of the cave does not match the
dimensions given by Bharata Muni in his treatise on theater, the Natya Shastra.

However, it is important to note that Bharata Muni was a contemporary of the caves. Therefore, it is not
possible that the caves were built according to Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra. The structure of the caves, with
its stage and seating for spectators arranged in tiers descending from above around a semicircle, is similar to
that of Greek theaters.

This means that drama and other arts were flourishing in our country even before Bharata Muni's Natya
Shastra. This also means that Bharata Muni does not provide a new definition of theater, but rather collects and
presents to us in a systematic and orderly manner the scattered pieces of an invaluable art form. This means that
the glorious art of theater in our country is more than three thousand years old.

The greatest feature of Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra is that he has rightly presented to the people the existence
of theater in India. The whole world has recognized it.
The tradition of ancient theater is found in only two countries in the whole world: Greece and India. Greece has
experienced very few foreign invasions, so the ancient ruins of its theaters can still be seen today.

3
References to Greek theater can be found in literature from the 5th century BC. Theaters built at that time still
exist today. Greek architects took advantage of the natural slopes of hills, creating seating for audiences by
building steps and terraces. The Epidaurus amphitheater, for example, had seating for 6,000 people on steps
built on such a slope.

In Greece and Rome, a large circular space for the orchestra was placed in the center of the stage area, below
the steps. A similar structure can be found in the Sitabenga Caves in Sarguda district. This raises the question of
how a theater structure similar to those built in Greece 400-500 BC could have reached such a remote and
mountainous region of India just a century or two later. Does this mean that the Greeks based their theaters on
Indian stages? Or could it have been the other way around?

In 333 BC, Alexander the Great, the king of Macedon, died. It has been established that there were close ties
between India and Greece even before his arrival in India. The writer Meena Prabhu traveled extensively
throughout the world and described the places she visited in her books in beautiful language. One of her books
is “Greek Anjali,” in which she describes her three-week trip to Greece. In the book, she writes that the house
in which she stayed as a guest for a few days was more than 3,000 years old and belonged to an archaeologist
specializing in theater.

The greatest feature of Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra is that he correctly presented the existence of theater in
India to the people. It was recognized by the whole world. The tradition of ancient theater is found in only two
countries in the whole world: Greece and India. Greece has experienced very few foreign invasions, so the
ancient ruins of its theaters can still be seen today.

References to Greek theater can be found in literature from the 5th century BC. Theaters built at that time still
exist today. Greek architects took advantage of the natural slopes of hills, creating seating for audiences by
building steps and terraces. The Epidaurus amphitheater, for example, had seating for 6,000 people on steps
built on such a slope.

In Greece and Rome, a large circular space for the orchestra was placed in the center of the stage area, below
the steps. A similar structure can be found in the Sitabenga Caves in Sarguda district. This raises the question of
how a theater structure similar to those built in Greece 400-500 BC could have reached such a remote and
mountainous region of India just a century or two later. Does this mean that the Greeks based their theaters on
Indian stages? Or could it have been the other way around?

In 333 BC, Alexander the Great, the king of Macedon, died. It has been established that there were close ties
between India and Greece even before his arrival in India. The writer Meena Prabhu traveled extensively
throughout the world and described the places she visited in her books in beautiful language. One of her books
is “Greek Anjali,” in which she describes her three-week trip to Greece. In the book, she writes that the house
in which she stayed as a guest for a few days was more than 3,000 years old and belonged to an archaeologist
specializing in theater.

The greatest feature of Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra is that he correctly presented the existence of theater in
India to the people. It was recognized by the whole world. It's interesting that there is a synonym for the word
“word” in Greek as well. “Abda” reminds Meena Prabhu of the poem by the great Marathi poet Mardhekar.

“How much I bow to you,

how much I remember you,
how many words I create for you,
O abda abda in my mind...!”

In short, there is a lot of scope to assume that just as Sanskrit, many arts like drama would have reached Greece.
Putting aside such comparative talk for a moment, even in our country.
A rich, mature, magnificent culture was developing thousands of years ago; in which arts like singing, playing
music, and drama were given importance. We saw in the previous chapter that the seeds of Natya Shastra can
be found in the Rig Veda and Sama Veda. Panini composed Sanskrit grammar in the period 500 years before

4
Christ. There is also a mention of Natya Shastra in it. In it, the two actors Shilali and Krishashva are repeatedly
mentioned as Sutradharas. Shilali is mentioned in the Yajurvedic Shatapatha Brahmana and Samavedic
Anupada Sutra. Experts on this subject have considered the Shatapatha Brahmana to be even more ancient than
four thousand years according to astrology.

The characteristics of drama are described in detail in the Agni Purana, considered to be extremely ancient.
There is a special mention of the parts of the composition of the drama like Mangalacharan, Poorvaranga etc.
On the basis of evidence, even Western archaeologists like Wilson have acknowledged that Indian drama did
not originate from outside the country and its development has taken place in India itself.

It is certain that Bharat Muni gave a systematic form to Indian dramaturgy by writing the treatise 'Natya
Shastra'. This treatise, which provides a comprehensive analysis of music, acting and drama, should have been
written around 300 to 400 years before Christ. According to some scholars, this treatise had 37 chapters. The
treatise available at present has 36 chapters.

One is amazed to read the insightful and detailed analysis of dramaturgy that Bharat Muni has done in this
treatise. We use the words 'Anki', 'Dvianki', 'Trianki' to define the time limit of a drama. Bharat Muni uses the
word 'Ank' in the same sense. But he did not know the meaning of this word. According to Bharat Muni, the
word 'Ank' is a word that has come down through tradition (conventional), so he has used this word as it is.

This means that the art of Indian dramaturgy has been going on since many years before Bharat Muni.
Bharat Muni has given a detailed description of many characters of the drama like Patra, Sutradhar, Nayak,
Nayika, Peethmarad (Nayak's companion who takes care of him), Vit (cunning citizen), Chat, Vidushak etc.
While creating the structure or form of the drama, Bharat Muni has mentioned five natures of meaning. Beej,
Bindu, Pataka, Prakari and Karya. Similarly, a detailed description of the five states (situations) and five
sandhis of the drama has been given.

‘The first play mentioned by Bharat Muni is Samvakar Amritmanthan’.

The playwright Bhasa was a contemporary of Bharat Muni or passed away a hundred years later. Bhasa was a
poet, more than a playwright. The plays of Bhasa, which became famous later, were also praised by Kalidasa
and Banabhatta.

Bhasa may have been mentioned in many places, but the plays written by Bhasa had disappeared into the abyss
of time. Long after, in 1912 AD, three plays of Bhasa were discovered in a monastery located in the state,
researcher T. Ganapati Shastri found Sanskrit plays written by Bhasa in Malayalam script on palm leaves. The
number of plays found is 13. However, based on the available evidence, it can be said that Bhasa must have
written more plays than have been found. Natyaprēmi Krishnaji Lakshman Soman introduced Bhasa's plays for
the first time in Marathi in 1931 CE. The play Priya Dar currently performed on the stage is based on the
Sanskrit play Madhyamavyayoga by the great poet Bhasa.

In short, it can be said that Indian theater has an extremely ancient, ancient, and glorious tradition. Evidence has
been found that the world's first play was written in an Indian language. Our misfortune is only that even today,
the so-called intellectuals and artists associated with the theater business only cite references to Greek, Italian,
French and English plays. Even today, Sartre, Shakespeare, Shaw, Ibsen, Chekhov are considered the ideals of
drama. Of course, all these artists are also of the same high quality, they are the best. But because of this, the
neglect of Bharata Muni, Bhasa, Kalidasa and Banabhatta, who are the masters of timeless genius, is not
considered justified..!

We are the heirs of this glorious tradition of theater. If only 'self' identity awakens, then a lot can be said...!
The purpose of writing the book “Bharatiya Gyanno Khajano” is to bring to the people many wonderful and
enlightening things that have disappeared over time in our country. Each article of this book is reaching
millions of readers through print media and social media and a flood of positive feedback is pouring in through
letters, phones and social media.

5
There are many things that leave us speechless and stunned when we come to know about them. We are left
awestruck and dumbfounded. Even today, the question of how our ancestors could have constructed and created
things that seem impossible to us just two or three thousand years ago keeps growing bigger and bigger in our
minds. Even today, we do not get a true and complete answer to this question.

The Pancha Bhoota Sthalams, or Five Element Shrines, are a group of five Hindu temples in South India, each
dedicated to one of the five prime elements of nature: earth, water, fire, air, and ether. These temples hold
immense religious, cultural, and historical significance, serving as a testament to the deep-rooted connection
between human spirituality and the elements that sustain life.

The five elements, or Pancha Bhootas, are considered the fundamental building blocks of the universe in Hindu
philosophy. They are believed to be present in all living things and to play a crucial role in maintaining balance
and harmony in the cosmos.

The Pancha Bhoota Sthalams are not just ordinary temples; they are believed to possess unique spiritual and
energetic qualities that correspond to the elements they represent. Each temple is situated in a specific location
that is said to resonate with the energy of its corresponding element. The name of these temples are:

1. Kalahasti Temple 2. Ekambareswarar Temple 3. Chidambaram Nataraja Temple

To determine a specific location on Earth, we use coordinates, which we know as latitude and longitude.
Latitude is the horizontal imaginary lines drawn on the Earth. For example. equator, tropic of cancer, tropic of
Capricorn etc. And longitude are imaginary vertical lines drawn from north to south. The latitude and longitude
of these three temples are as follows:

Serial No. Temple Name Latitude Longitude Panchmahabhuta Tatva

1 Sri Kalahasti Temple 13.76 N 79.41 E Air
2 Sri Ekambareswarar Temple 12.50 N 79.41 E Earth
3 Tillai Nataraja Temple 11.23 N 79.41 E Sky

Looking at the table above, the longitude of these three temples is the same, that is, 79.41 E. That is, all three
temples are located in a straight line. The distance between Kalahasti and Ekambareswar temples is about 350
kilometers. While Ekambareswar and Tillai Nataraja temples are one and a half hundred kilometers away from
each other. There is no concrete information about when these three temples were built. The Pallava, Chola and
other kings who ruled this region renovated these temples. It is truly astonishing to consider how these temples,
built at such great distances apart approximately three thousand years ago, could have been aligned in a
perfectly straight line.

Was the science of cartography so advanced at that time that they possessed knowledge of longitude and
latitude? Even if we assume they did have complete knowledge of longitude and latitude, in order to construct
the temples in a perfectly straight line, they would have required not only knowledge of cartography but also of
contour maps. Or perhaps they employed some other method at that time? Could the knowledge of this method
have been lost to the veil of time? All of these questions lie beyond the realm of our comprehension.

It is important to note that this is not the end of the story. When the two remaining temples are connected with
the three temples that lie in this straight line, the resulting structure or configuration exhibits unique angles.
When we consider the depth and precision of the knowledge possessed by our ancient architectural scholars, we
are left in awe. They arranged the five Shiva temples representing the five elements (Panch Tatva) on a stretch
of land spanning several square kilometers. Through this arrangement, they are trying to convey something to
us, to give us a hint. Unfortunately, we have not been able to decipher this coded language of their knowledge.

One of the Panch Tatva temples is located in Andhra Pradesh, while the remaining four are located in Tamil
Nadu. The Sri Kalahasti temple, which represents the air element, is located in the Chittoor district of Andhra
Pradesh, about 35 km from Tirupati. This temple is situated on the banks of the river Swarnamukhi. For
thousands of years, it has been known as “Dakshin Kailash” or “Dakshin Kashi.”

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This temple is extremely ancient, but the sanctum sanctorum of this temple was built in the fifth century, while
the exterior was built in the eleventh century. There are mentions of Pallava, Chola, and later Vijayanagara
kings renovating and constructing this temple. It is mentioned in many places that Adi Shankaracharya came to
this temple. Shankaracharya himself mentioned this temple in his “Shivanand Lahari”. He has also mentioned
the devotees of this place in his work.

This temple represents the air element among the five elements (panchmahabhutas). Some fascinating
references are found in the temple. The Shiva lingam located in this temple is white in color. It is self-
manifested (svayambhu). It is believed that this Shiva lingam is made of air element and hence it is never
touched. Even without wind, the flame of the lamp keeps flickering: The scientific reason behind this
phenomenon is yet to be discovered. The locals believe that it is because the Shiva linga here is made of the air
element that the flame of the lamp keeps flickering.

About 350 kilometers south of this temple, in a straight line, lies another temple of the five elements, called the
Ekambareswarar Temple. This temple is located in Kanchipuram, a famous city in Tamil Nadu. This temple
represents the earth element.

Being an earth element, the Shiva linga here is made of earth. There is a folk tale that Parvatiji sat under a
mango tree and worshiped Lord Shiva to attain him, and she too was in the form of an idol made of earth...!
That is why he is known as Ekambareswarar. In Tamil, Ekambareswarar means the god of the mango tree.
Even today, a mango tree stands in the temple premises. Based on carbon dating, this tree is 3000 years old.
This tree is considered a symbol of the four Vedas. It is said that this tree bears mangoes of four different
flavors. This temple is located in Kanchipuram, which is known as the city of temples. Kanchipuram is also
famous for Kanchipuram sarees.

A plaque in the temple is written in Tamil, Telugu, English and Hindi that this temple is 500 years old. It is
difficult to say how old it really is. There are mentions of the Pallava king in the fifth century, then the Chola
king and then the Vijayanagara king getting the temple renovated.

Both of these temples are located in a straight line to the south, about 200 kilometers from the Ekambarnathar
Temple, the third temple of the five great elements. The Tillai Nataraja Temple, which represents the element
of space, is located in the city of Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu.

This is a very ancient temple, established by Patanjali Rishi himself. The exact time period of the construction
of this temple cannot be determined, but there are mentions of repairs and new construction by the Pallava and
Chola kings in the fifth or sixth century. The 108 mudras of Bharatanatyam are carved on the stone pillars of
this temple. This means that the highly developed Bharatanatyam dance science existed thousands of years ago.
Many postures of Lord Shiva are carved on the stone pillars here, but the idol or posture of Nataraja is not
carved anywhere. His idol is enshrined in the sanctum sanctorum.

Here Lord Shiva is in the form of Nataraja. He is accompanied by Shivakami, meaning Parvatiji. There is only
a small empty space to the right of Nataraja's form. It is called Chidambaram Rahasyam. This empty space is
adorned with a necklace made of gold foil.

According to popular belief, the empty space within the sanctum sanctorum of the Nataraja Temple in
Chidambaram, which lacks a definite form, represents the element of sky (Akash Tatva). This empty space is
covered with a red curtain except during the time of worship. During puja, this red curtain or covering is
removed, and the formless element, the Akash Tatva, is worshipped. It is believed that Lord Shiva and Parvati,
in the form of Kalika Mata, danced here.

About 40 kilometers from the city of Chidambaram, the Kaveri River meets the sea. In this region, in the
8th/9th century, the king had built a shipbuilding dock. The name of this place is Kompuhār. Once a large and
famous port on the east coast of India, today it is just a small village. A few years ago, the Archaeological
Department excavated at Kompuhār and unearthed a hidden treasure. They found an extremely rich and
developed city that existed about two to two and a half thousand years ago. One is amazed to see the planning
of this city, its roads, drains, drainage system, etc. About two to three thousand years ago, a very rich and

7
developed culture lived in this area. The culture that laid out the pattern of these five temples of the five
elements on this vast expanse.

These three temples are constructed in a straight line, creating a unique angle. The fourth temple of the five
elements, Jambukeswar, is located in the village of Tiru Manai Kaval Ikkal near Trichy. This temple is the one
that represents the element of fire (Agni Tatva). The specialty of this temple, located on the north bank of the
Kaveri River, is that there is a small but bubbling spring of water flowing under this Shivalinga. Therefore, the
Shivalinga here is always submerged in water.

During the British era, an archaeologist named Ferguson conducted extensive research on this temple. His
findings were widely accepted and considered authoritative by many scholars. According to him, the temple
was constructed during the early Chola period. However, it is now recognized that his observation was
incorrect. An inscription found in the temple provides evidence that the temple was built centuries before the
Common Era.

The Arunachaleswarar Temple, the last of the Panch Bhootha temples, which form a unique angle with the
other three temples of the five elements arranged in a straight line, represents the element of fire. Located in
Tiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, this temple is considered one of the largest temples in India.

Perched atop a hill, this temple sprawls across a vast complex. Enclosed within 700-foot-high walls, the
temple's towering gopuram stands as tall as a 14-story building. This Shiva temple and the structures on its
grounds are truly awe-inspiring. The fact that three of these temples lie in a perfect straight line cannot be a
mere coincidence. These meticulously constructed temples, spread across the vast expanse of Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu, can only be considered a marvel. If we could decipher the symbolic language embedded in
their design, we might gain insights into the unsolved mysteries of ancient knowledge.

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 2.
Science and Technology in Ancient India
2.1Agriculture_____________________________________________________________________________

A sentence is inscribed at the Udaipur Agricultural University: “The line drawn by the tip of the plow is the
dividing line between savagery and civilization in human history.” The earliest mention of agriculture with
pride is found in the Rig Veda, the world's oldest scripture.

अक्षैर्मा दीव्यः कृषिषर्त् कृिस्व षित्ते रर्स्व बहुर्न्यर्मनः ।

“Do not gamble, do farming, and earn money with respect”

कृषिर्ान्यम कृषिर्ेध्यम जन्तूनमां जीिनां कृषिः । कृषि पमरमशर

“Agriculture gives wealth and intelligence. Agriculture is the basis of human life”

Agriculture began as humans progressed towards civilization. In India, agriculture developed as a science. Its
history is briefly described in the book 'A Concise History of Science in India'.

In the Vedic period, there were many agricultural practices such as sowing seeds, weeding, etc., tools like plow,
sickle, sieve, etc., and production of many grains like wheat, rice, barley, etc. The credit for starting the
tradition of increasing soil fertility by crop rotation goes to the farmers of that time. According to Romsburg,
the father of European botany, this method was later adopted by Western countries.

During the Mauryan period, the appointment of an agricultural officer to increase agriculture, agricultural
production, etc. is mentioned in Kautilya's Arthashastra

An irrigation system was developed for agriculture. According to the Greek traveler Megasthenes, officials
were appointed by the king to supervise rivers and wells to ensure equal distribution of water in the main canals
and their branches.

Agriculture is mentioned in ancient texts like Naradasmriti, Vishnu Dharmottara, and Agni Purana. The 'Krishi
Parashara' became a reference book for agriculture. This book discusses many special aspects related to
agriculture.

Tillage: It describes the type of plow, its parts, and the area to be tilled. It also describes the oxen used for
plowing, their color, nature, and the humane approach to be adopted towards them while working in the fields.

Predicting Rainfall: People in ancient times made a detailed observation of nature, studied the movement of
planets and the changes in nature, and made predictions based on them. Sage Parashara describes the results
based on which planet is the lord of the year:

1. If the Sun is the lord of the year, there will be less rain and people will have to suffer.
2. If the Moon is the lord of the year, there will be rain, plant growth, and people will be healthy.
3. Similarly, if Mercury, Jupiter, and Venus are the lords of the year, the situation will be fine, but if Saturn is
the lord of the year, there will be disasters everywhere.

Time for Sowing: They determined the right time for sowing based on the observation of constellations and
work.

Seed Sowing: Sage Parashara, in his advice for optimal seed collection, recommends that seeds should be
collected during the month of Maha (January-February) or Phalguna (February-March), dried in the sun, and
stored in a cool and secure place.

9
Measurement of Rainfall: In 'Krishi Parashar,' there is also a description for measuring rainfall. This measure
for rainfall is still in use today. “Adhak” refers to one hundred yojanas in length and three hundred yojanas in
height of the place where the rainfall is being measured.

“One “yojana” equals the span of one hand, which is four adhak or 6.4 cm”

According to Kautilya's Arthashastra, the measurement of rainfall is based on the yojana, and it also mentions
how much rainfall occurs in different parts of the country.

Grafting: Varahamihira describes two methods of grafting in his 'Brihat Samhita.' They are as follow:

1. Cut the rootstock tree and insert the cutting (scion) from another tree into the stem.
2. Cover the joint with soil and manure to secure the graft.

Varahamihira, an ancient Indian astronomer and scholar, also mentioned grafting techniques in his work,
“Brihatsamhita”. He recommended grafting trees with fewer branches during the Shishir Ritu (winter season)
and those with multiple branches during the Hemanta Ritu (late autumn) and Sharad Ritu (early autumn).

Varahamihira also provided guidelines for watering transplanted and newly planted trees. He advised watering
transplanted trees daily, both in the morning and evening, during the summer. During the cold season, watering
should be done every other day, and during the monsoon season, only when the soil dries out. This is evident
from the fact that India's land remained productive for thousands of years, while millions of hectares of land in
America have become barren within a few centuries.

The text cites examples from Dharampal's book “Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century” to
illustrate the admiration expressed by the British for Indian agricultural methods. At that time, India was a
leader in the world in terms of its well-developed agricultural tools and techniques.

The one-line sowing technique, which involves sowing seeds in a straight line, is considered a highly skilled
and useful invention in the field of agriculture. This technique was first used in Austria in 1962 and in England
in 1730. However, its widespread adoption in these regions took another 50 years. According to Major General
Alexander Walker, the practice of line sowing has been in use in India since ancient times. Thomas Hallcott, in
a letter written to the English Board of Agriculture in 1797, stated that the technique had been in use in India
since ancient times. He sent three pairs of the line-bar plow to the Board so that the English could copy it, as it
was more useful and cheaper than the English plow.

Mr. Walker writes, “In India, various types of grains are grown, possibly more than any other country in the
world, and a wide variety of nutritious foods from different communities are also prevalent here. In my
understanding, it is not clear what we can offer India. Because the foods we eat are available there, they are in
India. There are many special types of food there as well.

Biology: According to Indian tradition, the evolution of life in creation has occurred in stages. This expression
has been found in many scriptures. In the Srimad Bhagavatam, it is described:

सृष्ट्वम पुरमषि षिषिर्मन्यजयमत्मशक्त्यम िृक्षमन् सरीसृपपशून् खगदां शर्त्स्यमन्।

तैस्तैर अतुष्टहृदयः पुरुिां षिर्मय ब्रह्ममिलोकषर्ििां र्ुदर्मप दे िः ॥ ११८ – २८

“Having created various living beings like trees, creepers, animals, birds, aquatic creatures and fish by His
inherent power, and having thus satisfied Himself within His heart, the creator, Lord Brahma, then gave rise to
human beings to perceive the Supreme Being and experience bliss.” (11.28)

The fundamental energy of the universe was expressed in creation. In this process, various forms such as trees,
animals, birds, insects, worms, and fish were created. However, complete consciousness did not manifest
through these forms. Therefore, humans were created, who could directly experience this fundamental
principle.

10
Classification of Animals in Ancient Indian Tradition: Another point in the Indian tradition is the journey
of life from its inception to human beings, which involved speaking of 84 lakh species. Modern science also
believes that from amoeba to human beings, consciousness has spread among 1 crore 44 lakh species. It is
astonishing that our ancestors made this discovery thousands of years ago. Many scholars have classified these
84 lakh species.

All animals have been divided into two categories: Yonij (those with a womb) and Ayoni (those without a
womb). Some animals are produced from the union of both, while others develop spontaneously like amoebae.

In addition, animals are broadly classified into three groups:

1. Jalchar (Aquatic Animals): All animals that live in water.

2. Bhuchar (Terrestrial Animals): All animals that roam the earth.
3. Khechar (Aerial Animals): All animals that fly in the sky.

Based on their mode of origin, the 84 lakh yonis (species) are further classified into four types:

1. Jarayuj (Viviparous): Animals that are born from their mother's womb, such as humans and animals, are
called jarayuj.
2. Andaj (Oviparous): Animals that are born from eggs are called andaj.
3. Svedaj (Sweat-born): Tiny insects that are born from feces, urine, sweat, etc., are called svedaj.
4. Udbhij (Earth-born): Animals that are born from the earth are included in the udhbij class.

The Brahma Vaivarta Purana classifies different yonis based on their number:

1. Sthavar (Stationary): 20 lakh (2 million) types

2. Jalaj (Aquatic): 9 lakh (900,000) types
3. Karma (Amphibious): 9 lakh (900,000) types that move on both land and water
4. Pakshi (Birds): 10 lakh (1 million) types
5. Pashu (Animals): 30 lakh (3 million) types
6. Vanar (Monkeys): 4 lakh (400,000) types
7. Manav (Humans): Remaining types

Animals are generally categorized into two groups: 1. Domestic animals and 2. Wild animals. This
classification is also based on their physical structure. This classification has been mentioned separately in the
book 'Science and Art in Ancient India'. According to it:

1. Ek Shaf (single-hoofed) animals include: horses, donkeys, mules, and the Indian bison (a type of buffalo),
deer, and so on.
2. Dvishaf (double-hoofed) animals include: cows, goats, sheep, antelopes, etc.
3. Panch Anguli (five-fingered) animals, with claws, include: lions, tigers, elephants, bears, dogs, foxes, etc.

In ancient India, Dr. Vidyadhar Sharma 'Guléri' in his book 'Science in Sanskrit' describes the classification of
animals according to Charaka's classification. Charaka Rishi categorized animals based on their mode of birth:
by egg, by viviparity, by sweat, and by sprout.

Charaka Rishi also classified animals into four categories based on their mode of birth: Jarayuja (born from
the womb), Andaja (egg-born), Svedaja (sweat-born), and Udbhidaja (plant-born). (Charaka Samhita, Sutra
Sthana, 27/35-54). He also classified animals based on their diet and lifestyle as follows:

1. Prasaha (Those who eat by force): This category includes cows, donkeys, mules, camels, horses, leopards,
lions, bears, monkeys, wolves, tigers, hairy dogs living near mountains, baboons, cats, dogs, rats, jackals,
vultures, tigers, hawks, crows, shashdhri (a bird that catches and carries away squirrels in its claws), vultures,
owls, common house sparrows, the kingfisher snatches fish living in the water and flies away after piercing
them with its nails.

11
2. Bhūmiśaya (Land-dwelling animals): Snakes (white and black), Chameleon (with a patterned back),
Kakuli deer, Maluyasarpa (a special type of snake), Frogs, Horses, Seh (a type of antelope), Gandak (a type of
antelope), Kadali (a large cat resembling a tiger), Porcupine, Squirrel and Rat.

3. Anupadeśa (Animals living in watery regions): Wolf, Chamari cow (whose tail is used to make leather),
Rhinoceros,Wild buffalo, Nilgai (blue bull), Elephant, Deer, Wild boar and Sambar deer.

4. Vāriśaya (Aquatic animals): Turtle, Crab, Fish, Dolphin (a type of shark), Whale, Shell, Conch, Otter and
Crocodile.

5. Vārichārī (Water birds): Swan, Crane, Heron, Egret, Karandava (a type of swan), Pelican, Cormorant,
Sarus crane, Brahminy duck, Comb duck, Water hen, Goose, Kakadund (a type of white swan), Utkrosha (a
type of water bird),Pond heron, Chataka (cuckoo),Grebe, Nanda mukha (a type of water bird), Sumukha (a type
of water bird), Coot, Rohini (a type of water bird), Stork and Chakwa (a type of duck).

6. Jāngalapashu (Wild animals born on land and living in forests): Chital (spotted deer), Deer, Sharabha (a
large, eight-legged animal resembling a camel with four legs on its back), Charushi (a type of deer), Red deer,
Eṇ (black deer), Sambhar, Varapota (a type of deer) and Rishya (a type of deer).

7. Viṣkīra (Birds that scatter food with their beaks and feet): Lava (quail), Francolin, Snow francolin,
Chukor, Upachakra (a type of bird), Red jungle fowl, Wart-eater, Peacock, Rooster, Crow, Girivartaka (a type
of bird), Gonard (a type of bird), Kakar (a type of bird) and Barbet.

8. Pratuda(Birds that eat food by repeatedly pecking with their beaks or claws): Woodpecker, Black
drongo, Jīvañjīva (a bird that dies if it sees poison), Koel, Grey hornbill, Gopiputa (a type of bird), Priyātmaja
(a type of bird), Lādhyā (a type of bird), Babul,Vataha (a type of bird), Dinḍimānak (a type of bird), Jatayu (a
type of bird), Lohāpṛṣṭha (a type of bird), Baya weaver, Dove, Parrot, Sarang (chataka), Chirata (a type of bird),
Shaurika (myna), Kalavin̄ka (house sparrow), Chataka (Indian cuckoo), Bulbul and Pigeon.

Along with the above classification, Charaka has also given a detailed discussion of the meat of these animals
and its effects on Vata, Pitta, and Kapha along with its uses. The eggs of partridge, dove, peacock, sparrow, and
bulbul have also been discussed as food.

As in Sushruta's Sushruta Samhita, Panini's Ashtadhyayi, Patanjali's Mahabhashya, Amarasimha's Amarakosha,

Prashasthapaada Bhashya of Darshan etc., there is a detailed description of the classification of animals.
(Science and Crafts in Ancient India, p. 115 - 117)

Veterinary Science: In addition to other subjects, there is also mention of veterinary science in the Puranas.
There was a separate section of Ayurveda for the treatment of horses. It was named 'Shalhotra'. The general
introduction of horses, their types of gaits, their diseases and treatment are described in the Puranas. The Agni
Purana gives a detailed description of Ashvacalana and Ashvachikitsa. Along with elephant medicine, remedies
for elephant pacification have also been described. The Garuda Purana also mentions the Hastavidya treatise of
Rishi Palakapya. The Agni Purana also gives a detailed description of cow treatment.

Shalhotra Samhita in Ashvachikitsa: In the field of human medicine, the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta
Samhita are as important as the Shalhotra Samhita is in the field of veterinary medicine. The time of Shalhotra
can be estimated to be around 800 BC. His Samhita was also known as 'Hayurveda' and 'Turangasastra'. The
original text includes 12000 verses. It was divided into eight parts. Only a few parts

2.2 Metallurgy_____________________________________________________________________________

The purity of metals found at ancient civilization sites in India, such as Nalanda, Harappa, Mohenjo-daro,
Lothal, Taxila, Dholavira, Surkotada, Daimabad, and Kalibangan, is remarkable, with levels ranging from 95%
to 99%. This raises the intriguing question of how our ancestors achieved such a high level of refinement
thousands of years ago.

12
Ancient India, also known as “Sujalam,” was a land of immense wealth and prosperity. We have all heard
stories from our childhood about the abundance of gold and silver in our country. The accounts of foreign
travelers during the Vijayanagara Empire's golden age corroborate this, as they noted the abundance of gold and
silver being sold at vegetable prices in the Hampi markets.

Even earlier, when Alauddin Khilji first invaded Devagiri and defeated King Ramadeva Raya, the king
presented Khilji with a significant quantity of pure gold. This demonstrates that our ancestors were well-versed
in the properties of metals like gold, silver, copper, and zinc, and possessed the knowledge to refine them.

Surprisingly, few people in India are aware of the world's oldest gold mine, which is still in operation today.

Nestled in the northeastern part of Karnataka, India, lies the Hatti Gold Mines, a testament to the region's rich
mining history. Located in Raichur district, this ancient mine dates back to at least 2,000 years ago, as revealed
by carbon dating of two wooden logs found within its depths in 1955 by Australian Dr. Rafter. It is possible that
the mine's origins extend even further back in time.

A remarkable feature of the Hatti Gold Mines is its immense depth, reaching an astounding 2,300 feet when it
was first excavated around 2,000 years ago. Archaeologists believe that this incredible depth was achieved
using the 'fire setting' technique. This involved heating the rocks within the mine using intense heat from
burning wood, followed by a sudden dousing with water. The rapid temperature change caused the rocks to
crack and fracture, making them easier to break down and extract.

Further evidence of the Hatti Gold Mines' antiquity lies in the discovery of a 650-foot-deep vertical shaft within
the mine. This shaft stands as a remarkable testament to the skill and ingenuity of ancient miners, showcasing
their mastery of excavation techniques.

The Hatti Gold Mines raise intriguing questions about the technological advancements of our ancestors. Why
was gold the primary focus of mining activities at this site? Iron smelting technology, along with the necessary
furnaces, was also widely available during this era. This is evident from the enduring presence of the 'Iron
Pillar' near Qutub Minar in Delhi, which has remained remarkably rust-free despite being over 1,500-2,000
years old. Modern scientists are still grappling with the mystery of how our ancestors produced such corrosion-
resistant iron.

Standing tall at seven feet, this copper Buddha statue is reminiscent of the Iron Pillar, another marvel of ancient
Indian metallurgy. Dating back to the 4th century, this magnificent creation now resides in the British Museum
in London. Remarkably, the copper of this statue has retained its pristine shine over the centuries, defying the
ravages of time.

In the caves of the Ganga Valley, archaeologist Rakesh Tiwari unearthed evidence that pushed back the
timeline of India's metallurgical expertise. Excavations revealed that as early as 2800 BCE, Indians possessed
the knowledge to purify and refine iron, suggesting that our ancestors may have held this knowledge even
earlier. Today, we have tangible proof dating back at least 4800 years.

Similar discoveries have been made in Chhattisgarh's Malhar region. Excavations a few years ago yielded
numerous vessels and artifacts made from purified forms of iron and copper, dating back to 1800-1200 BCE.

Across South India, numerous furnaces dating back to 300 BCE have been unearthed, showcasing the expertise
of ancient Indians in refining iron and steel to their purest forms. The British later dubbed this technique the
'Crucible Technique.' In this method, a crucible (a container for melting gold or iron) is filled with a mixture of
pure iron, charcoal, glass, and other materials. The vessel is then subjected to intense heat, causing the iron to
melt and absorb carbon. This high-grade iron was later referred to as 'Wootz Steel' by Arab warriors.

The ancient text 'Rasaratna Samucchaya,' authored by Vagbhatta, delves into the world of metallurgy,
describing various furnaces essential for metalworking. It meticulously details furnaces like Mahagajaputa,
Gajaputa, Varahaputa, Kukkutapata, and Kapotapata, specifying the number of cow dung cakes required for

13
each and the resulting temperatures. For instance, the Maha-Gajaputa furnace demands 2000 cow dung cakes,
while the lower-temperature Kapotapata furnace requires only eight.

In today's era of modern furnaces, these fuel-based furnaces may seem like an outdated concept. However, it
was with these very furnaces that incredible structures like the Iron Pillar were created. Even with modern
technology, scientists today have been unable to replicate these tools.

Experiments to measure the heat generated by these ancient furnaces were conducted in modern times.
Furnaces were constructed as described in the texts, and the heat generated was measured, which matched the
descriptions in texts. Vagbhatta described four types of furnaces for temperatures above 900 degrees Celsius:

1. Angara Kosthi (Charcoal Furnace) 3. Gor Kosthi (Cow Dung Furnace)

2. Patala Kosthi (Underground Furnace) 4. Musha Kosthi (Rat Hole Furnace)

Of these, the Patala Kosthi bears resemblance to the 'Pit Furnace' used in modern metallurgy. In his treatise
titled “Brihat Vimana Shastra,” Bharadwajamuni described the construction of 532 types of blacksmith's
furnaces for melting various metals. The iron used to make the world-famous Damascus swords was sent from
India.

The use of copper in India dates back to ancient times. Evidence of copper usage in India has been found since
300/400 BC. Copper vessels from the Harappan period have been unearthed during excavations at several sites,
including Mohenjo-daro. There are also mentions and evidence of ancient copper mines in the Balochistan
region of present-day Pakistan. There are also references to ancient copper mines in the Khetri region of
Rajasthan.

Zinc, a versatile metal with a wide range of applications, has been an integral part of human civilization for
centuries. While its exact origins remain shrouded in mystery, evidence suggests that India played a pivotal role
in its discovery and development. It is a matter of great significance that the world's oldest known zinc mine is
also located in India.

This ancient zinc mine, called Zawar, is located in a village of the same name, 40 kilometers from Udaipur.
Zinc is still being produced from this mine today. Hindustan Zinc Limited is currently responsible for zinc
production.

It is said that the Zawar mine was operational in the 6th century BCE. The process of making pure zinc was
extremely skilled and demanding, as well as complex and technical. Indians had mastered this process.

Later, Nagarjuna, the author of Rasaratnakar, described the process of zinc production in detail. He mentioned
the use of distillation, liquefaction, and other processes. In this process, zinc ore extracted from the mine is
melted at a very high temperature (over 1000 degrees Celsius). The vapor that comes out during this process is
distilled and cooled, and zinc is obtained in solid form from this process.

Europe had no information about the mineral zinc until 1740 CE, and they did not know how to produce it. The
commercial process of zinc production in Bristol was similar to the Zawar process in India. This means that it
can be said that Europe started producing zinc using the same method after seeing the zinc production process
in India.

Thus, it can be said overall that Indian metallurgy has played a major role in the growth of the world's
industrialization. Around 1000 CE, when India was considered the global emperor of the industrial world, many
items made from various metals were exported on a large scale. Especially in the manufacture of zinc and high-
carbon steel (iron) items, we were far ahead of the rest of the world and we were giving the knowledge of this
subject to the world. It is enough for our metallurgy students to keep this in mind.

14
2.3 Astronomy_____________________________________________________________________________

Astronomy is called the “eye of the Vedas” because the workings of the entire universe are determined by time,
and the knowledge of time comes from the motion of the planets. Hence, astronomy has been a part of the
Vedangas since ancient times. The Rig Veda, Shatapatha Brahmana, and other texts contain many examples of
references to constellations, lunar months, intercalary months, seasonal changes, Uttarayana, Dakshinayana, the
celestial sphere, the glory of the Sun, the measure of a Kalpa, etc. For this, the Rishis used direct observation. It
is said that the Rishi Prajapati became blind while studying the Sun. Rishi Gritsamada spoke about the effects
on the womb of the Moon. The 40th mantra of the 18th chapter of the Yajurveda shows that the Moon is
illuminated by the Sun's rays.

There has been a method of observing astronomy using instruments. At the time of Aryabhatta, there was an
observatory in Pataliputra more than 1500 years ago, which Aryabhatta used to obtain many results.

Bhaskaracharya says in the Yantraadhyayaya Prakaran of the Siddhant Shiromani granth, “Knowledge of the
subtle parts of time is not possible without instruments. So now I will talk about instruments.” He has described
the Nadivalaya Yantra, Yashti Yantra, Ghati Yantra, Chakra Yantra, Shanku Yantra, Chaap, Pariidhi, Falak etc.

Shri Dharmapal has written the book 'Indian Science and Technology in the Eight tenth Century'. It gives the
essay 'Remarks on the Astronomy of the Brahmins' (published in 1790) by the famous astronomer John
Playfair. This article proves that astronomy was known in India more than 6000 years ago and its calculations
were used in the world. The essence of his article is that in 1787 M.L. Lomet, who was in the Siamese embassy,
brought a Panchang with him when he returned. The missionaries sent two Panchangs from India, one from
South India and the other from Varanasi. Another Panchang was sent by M. D. Leslie, which was from
Narsapur in South India. This Panchang did not fit into the understanding of the French mathematicians of that
time. So, they sent it to the Royal Astronomer John Playfair.

When Johann Playfair began his practice, he was struck by a remarkable fact that drew his attention: although
these calendars are at different locations, the principles on which they are based are the same. Another strange
thing that caught Playfair's attention is that the Yamoottara line in the Siamese calendar is at 184-15 west of the
Meridian (a line emerging from a hypothetical celestial point in the sky), and this line does not coincide with
the Meridian of Benares. This means that the origin of the Siamese calendar is not in Hindustan.

Playfair further writes, “One surprising thing is that all calendars mention a common era, which they consider
the beginning of the Kali Yuga, and describe the positions of the stars on the day of the beginning of the Kali
Yuga. They also calculate the passage of time during that period. It tells what the positions of the planets were
at that time. This seems quite astonishing. It describes where Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, Mercury, Venus, and others
were located. It seems very strange.”

Playfair then carefully examines and concludes, “Today, due to the availability of modern tools, the positions of
planets provided in the calendars prepared today and those provided in ancient calendars are equivalent within
the limits of experimental errors. How this could have been achieved, Playfair places before us two alternatives:

1. Brahmins developed a flawless and accurate method of calculation and were familiar with the law of
gravitational attraction of planets far and near.

2. Brahmins observed the sky using scientific methods. Playfair chooses the second option and accepts that
Brahmins observed and examined the sky clearly during ancient times. It is astonishing that they made such
calendars using their common means. To create them, geography, mathematics, and trigonometry were used.

Playfair makes two points:

1. It is proven that astronomy existed in India 3000 years before Christ, and the described positions of the sun
and moon at the beginning of the Kali Yuga were based on real observations.

15
2. It must have taken 1000-1200 years for such pure knowledge to develop and become prevalent. Therefore,
we can say that astronomy was developed in India based on direct experience around 4300 years before Christ.

Analysis by an impartial foreigner gives us the inspiration to do something further.

Shri Dharampal writes in his book that Sir Robert Barker, the then commander-in-chief of the British army in
Bengal, who later became a member of the British Parliament, shed light on a paper titled Bramins observatory
at Banaras (Banaras Observatory) written in AD 1777. He observed the observatory in 1772. At that time, the
condition of the observatory was bad because it had not been used for a long time. Even then, Shri Barker
carefully studied the instruments and tools that were added to the observatory. During his examination, it came
to his attention that these instruments were made about 400 years ago. The measurement, fitting etc. of all these
tools were absolutely flawless.

2.3.1 A Glimpse into Ancient Astronomy

1. Speed of Light: Once, Shri K.K. Shah, the then Governor of Gujarat, asked Prof. L. Sivayya, a physics
professor at Mysore University, “Did our ancestors know the speed of light?” Shri Sivayya was an expert in
both Sanskrit and science. He immediately replied, “Yes, they did,” and giving evidence, he said, “There are
two hymns in the first Mandala of the Rig Veda.”

र्नो न योऽध्वनः सद्य एत्येकः सत्रम सुरो िस्व ईशे षिश्वितो न्योषतः सूयो षिश्वांरर्ः
“In four ghadi, the sun travels alone on the heavenly path. O Sun, you are swift-moving and all-beautiful, the
giver of light and the illuminator of the world.”

In the commentary of these hymns, Sayanacharya writes a shloka describing swift movement, which describes
the speed of light.

योजनमनमां सहसे द्वे द्वशते द्वे च योजने। एकेन षनषर्िमर्ेन क्रर्र्मि नर्ोऽस्तु ते ।।
“Salutations to you, light, who travels 2202 yojanas in half a nimisha.”

Here, 1 yojana = 9 miles 160 yards Meaning: 1 yojana = 9.11 miles

1 day-night = 810000 half-nimishas Therefore, 1 second = 9.41 half-nimishas
Thus, 2202 X 9.11 = 20060.22 miles per half-nimisha And 20060.22 X 9.41 = 188766.67 miles per second
This is very close to the speed of light accepted by modern science.

2. The Earth's Support: “Father, what supports the Earth on which we live? “Lilavati asked this question to
her father Bhaskaracharya centuries ago. In response, Bhaskaracharya said, “My daughter Lilavati, some people
say that the Earth is supported by the serpent Shesha, a turtle, an elephant, or some other object. But they are
wrong. Even if we assume that the Earth is supported by something, and in this way, the cause has a cause, and
again its cause. This sequence continues, then in jurisprudence, it is called the defect of non-establishment.”
Lilavati said, “Father, even then the question remains that what supports the Earth? “Then Bhaskaracharya said,
“Why can't we believe that the Earth is not supported by anything... If we say that the Earth is supported by its
own strength and call it 'holding power', then what is the harm? “Lilavati asked, “How is this possible?
“Bhaskaracharya spoke of the theory. The power of things is very strange.

र्रुच्चलो भूरचलम स्वभमितो यतो षिषचत्रमितिस्तु शक्त्य ।। ५ ।।

“The power of a strange and varied object naturally resembles the moving and non-moving entities.”

Siddhanta Shiromani Goladhyay – Bhuvanakosha Further says:

आकृषष्टशक्तिश्च र्ही तयम यत् खस्थां गुरु स्वमषभर्ुखां स्वशक्त्यम ।

आकृष्यते तत्पततीि भमषत सर्े सर्न्तमत कि पतक्तियां रखे ।। ६ ।।
“The power of attraction of the earth by that through its own power, which keeps the moving and non-moving
entities in front of the great support, shines just like the wise protect it equally from all sides. “

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That is, the Earth has gravitational force. The Earth attracts heavy objects towards itself with its gravitational
force and falls on the ground due to attraction. But how can something fall when equal force is applied from all
sides in the sky? That is, the planets remain dependent in the sky because the gravities of different planets are
maintained.

Nowadays, we say that Newton was the first to discover gravity, but 550 years before him, Bhaskaracharya had
already shown it.

3. The Earth is round: Lilavati asks her father, “Father, the Earth looks flat to me all around, so why do you
say that the Earth is round?” Then Bhaskaracharya says, “Daughter, what we see is not always the truth. Draw a
large circle. Then take 1/100th of its circumference. It will appear to you as a straight line, but in reality, it is
not straight, it is curved. In this way we see a small part of the sphere of the vast Earth. This is why the Earth
appears flat. In reality, the Earth is round.”

4. The Earth is not stationary: In the West, until the time of Galileo in the 15th century, it was believed that
the Earth was stationary and that the Sun revolved around it. However, Aryabhata, who lived 1500 years ago,
described that the Earth rotates on its own axis, as explained below:

अनुलोर्गषतनोस्थः पश्यत्यचलर्् षिलौर्गां यद्वत् । अचलमषन भमषन तद्वत् सर् पषश्चर्गमषन लांकमयमर्् ।।
“Just as a traveller in a boat sees stationary rocks, trees, etc. on the shore moving in the opposite direction, so
too can the stationary stars be seen moving directly from east to west in Lanka.”

5. Sunrise-Sunset: Due to the spherical shape of the Earth and the difference in distances between lines in
different cities, sunrise and sunset occur at different times in different places. Aryabhata was aware of this. He
writes:

उदयो यो लांकमयमां सोस्तर्यः सषितुरेि षसद्धपुरे। र्ध्यमह्नो यिकोट्मां रोर्क षिियेऽर्ारमत्रः स्यमत् ॥
“What is sunrise in Lanka is sunset for the Sun in Siddhapura. Midday in Yavakota is midnight in the region of
Rome.”

6. Lunar and Solar Eclipse: when the Earth's large shadow falls on the Moon, it is called a lunar eclipse. In
the same way, when the Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun, it is called a solar eclipse.

छमदयषत शशी सूया शषशनां र्हती च भूच्छमयम ॥३७॥

“The moon obscures the sun and creates a great shadow.”

7. Distance between different planets: Aryabhata provided information about the distances of various planets
from the sun. These distances are consistent with modern measurements. Today, the distance between the Earth
and the sun is 1.5 x 10^8 km (150 million km). This is called an astronomical unit (AU). Based on this ratio, the
following table can be created:

Planet Aryabhata’s Measurement Current Measurement

Mercury 0.375 AU 0.387 AU
Venus 0.725 AU 0.723 AU

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 Mars 1.538 AU 1.523 AU
Jupiter 5.16 AU 5.20 AU
Saturn 9.41 AU 9.54 AU

2.3.2 Expansion of the Universe

Our ancestors also experienced the vastness of the universe. Nowadays, the unit of light-year is used to measure
the vastness of the universe. Light travels at a speed of 3 lakh km per second. The distance that light travels in
one year at this speed is called a light-year. According to modern science, our galaxy, which is called the Milky
Way, is one lakh light-years long and ten thousand light-years wide.

The Andromeda galaxy, which is above this galaxy, is 20 lakh 20 thousand light-years away from this galaxy
and there are crores of galaxies in the universe.

In the Shrimad Bhagavata, King Parikshit asks the great sage Shukdev, how vast is the universe? In its
definition, Shukdev mentions the expansion of the universe. Our universe is covered by a ten times larger
covering than this. Each upper cover is ten times and I know seven such covers. All together with this, the
entire universe in which atoms appear equal and in which there are crores of universes, is the cause of all
causes. This thing seems a bit incomprehensible to the intellect, but we believe that everything has been
generated and controlled by one power there, and one of the names of God, who is considered to be infinite
universes, is Anantkoti Brahmandanayak. This name shows the infinity of universes there, and it also gives a
feeling of being scientific.

In this way, from this brief observation, we can say that there has been a glorious tradition of timekeeping and
astronomy in India. This stream had been somewhat obstructed in the past centuries. Today, the preceptors of
the past are inspiring the present generation to carry forward this stream once again.

2.4 Textile Industry________________________________________________________________________

In an article published in 'Bhumiputra' on June 16, 1986, Vinoba Bhave described how the art of clothmaking
originated. The textile industry has its roots in cotton, which is derived from the cotton plant. Vedic tales
narrate that the sage Grishmadeva was the first to sow the cotton plant. From his experiment, he obtained ten
pounds of cotton. He then made yarn from this cotton. The problem that arose was how to make cloth from this
yarn. To solve this problem, he made a wooden takli (spindle). In Vedic language, raw thread is called tantu.
The excess part that remains while making tantu is called otu. In this way, the sage Grishmadeva gave us the
process of making cloth from cotton.

As time progressed, the industry evolved and expanded beyond cotton to include silk, wool, and other fibers.
Embellishments with gold, silver, and other metals, as well as dyeing, became common practices for enhancing
finished garments and sarees. Clothes were dyed in various natural colors to create a vibrant array.

At one time, Indian textiles were exported all over the world. The demand for Indian cotton fabrics, particularly
the muslin from Bengal, which was renowned worldwide as 'Dhaka muslin', was immense among ancient
Greek, Egyptian, and Arab traders. These traders sold these fabrics in various regions and cities of their
respective countries.

In the preface to his research paper, Pramodkumar Dutt writes about the uniqueness of Indian textiles and the
observations of various people regarding them:

“In the ninth century, two Arab travelers came here. They wrote that Indian textiles are so extraordinary that
such fabrics are not found anywhere else. These garments are so soft, clean, and beautiful that an entire roll can
pass through a ring.”

In the thirteenth century, Marco Polo made the remarkable claim that the production site of the most beautiful
and finest silk fabric found anywhere in the world is the coast of Coromandel and Masulipattanam.

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Many stories are prevalent about the fineness and delicacy of these garments. Once, Aurangzeb's daughter went
to court. Aurangzeb was very angry when he saw her daughter's attire and said, “Shameless! Where has your
shame gone that you are showing your body to the world?” His daughter replied, “What can I do, Father? This
garment that I am wearing is not just one, but seven layers worn one over the other.”

Tavernier, a French merchant who traveled to India in the mid-17th century, describes cotton garments as “so
beautiful and light that you cannot even feel them when you hold them in your hand. The beautiful embroidery
on the cotton is barely visible to the eye.” He further states that just like Calicut, Sikandar (in Bhawalpur
province) also produces such beautiful 'Calicut' (name of cotton cloth) that the wearer's body appears so clear
that it seems as if they are naked! Tavernier recounts another memory: when a Persian ambassador returned
from India, he gave a coconut as a gift to his sultan. The courtiers were surprised that he was giving a coconut
as a gift to the sultan? But when the coconut was opened, the courtiers were amazed. A 30-yard-long muslin
strip came out of it.

Mr. Wilkins gave Sir Joseph Banks a piece of Dhaka muslin. Banks says that this is the finest specimen of the
fineness of garments in recent times. Banks himself analyzed and measured the cloth and sent the following
details to the 'India House':

Weight of the piece given by Wilkins: 34.3 grains (1 pound = 7000 grains and 1 gram = 15.5 grains)
Length: 1 yard 7 inches
Threads: 198
Total length of thread: 1028.5 yards
That is, 29.98 yards of thread were made from 1 grain.
This means that these threads were 2425 counts. Even with today's modern technology, threads are not finer
than 500-600 counts.

At the request of the Secretary of State for India, Sir G. Birdwood wrote a book, 'The Industrial Arts of India'.
On page 83 of this book, it is stated that it is shown that in Jahangir's time, a piece of Dhaka muslin 15 yards
long and 1 yard wide weighed only 100 grains.

English and other European writers have given poetic metaphors like 'bulbul's eye', 'peacock's throat', 'moon
and stars', 'threads of air', 'flowing water', and 'twilight haze' to the muslin, cotton, and silk fabrics of this land.
The production of cotton cloth and muslin began in England in 1772 and 1781 respectively.

In 1835, Edward Baines wrote, “Indians have maintained unparalleled and incomparable standards in their
textile industry in every age. Some of their muslin garments seem to be made not by humans but by fairies and
moths.”

The English conspired to destroy the cottage industries where these fabrics were made; the thumbs of those
who wove these fabrics were cut off.

After the country's independence, there was hope that we would reconnect with our roots. The thumbs that had
been cut off would be restored, but even today the country lives in the aura of Western technology. There is a
need for reflection to change this.

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 3.
Kautilya's Arthashastra
Arthashastra (Economics) was written by Kautilya, who inspired Chandragupta Maurya to become king and
rule the state.

Kautilya's Arthashastra encompasses four branches of knowledge: philosophy (Anviksiki), the three Vedas
(Trayi), economics (Vartta), and political science (Dandaniti). It is also included in the eighteen branches of
knowledge (Ashtaadasha Vidya).

Kautilya, also known as Chanakya and Vishnugupta, composed this great treatise on economics at a time
when the form of government was monarchy and rulers were expected to not only protect their territories but
also expand their regional boundaries through war and victory.

Kautilya gave the 'theory of public administration' which includes division of work, unity in directions,
centralization of power and responsibility, priority of organizational interests over individual ones, discipline,
coordination, direction, leadership, supervision, surveillance and invitation, and value-based administration.

Kautilya also gave the organization and structure of the administrative system. This includes the king, the
organization of institutions and departments, other officials, local administration, etc.

Kautilya also talked about religious administration which includes recruitment, promotion, salary and wages,
training of public servants etc.

Kautilya also talked about the second administration which includes budgeting, accounting and auditing,
accounts and audit.

Apart from this, Kautilya gave the theory of Saptaanga, which shows the seven pillars of my state. These
include: 1. Swami (king), 2. Amatya (ministers), 3. Janapada (territory), 4. Durga (fort), 5. Kosh (treasury), 6.
Danda (army), and 7. Mitra (allies).

Kautilya also proposed the Mandala theory, which is a theory of interstate relations, that is, relations between
states.

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