MATERIAL SCIENCE LECTURES

BPHY:3111
This course is meant to introduce students to important concepts of material science. It covers
areas of
 General types of materials
 Physical properties of commonly used materials
 Engineering properties of some materials
 Plastics and rubber
 Thin film deposition techniques
Types of materials
Materials can be classified as natural and artificial materials. The natural materials are those
found to exist in the surrounding like clay, wood, metals etc while artificial materials are
manmade originating from the laboratory or factory processes like plastics, rubber and alloys.
Materials take the form of solids, liquids and gases. However in this course the focus will be on
solid materials.
There are over 50000 materials which are important and used in construction of different types
of structures, devices, machines and engines. Solid materials can be categorized into metallic
such as steel ,copper and aluminium and non-metallic materials such as wood, plastics and
concrete. Some materials are pure in the sense that they are composed of the same types of
atoms such as copper and aluminium while others are composite materials made of a mixture
of two or more types of atoms such as steel which is an alloy made of iron and carbon atoms or
are compounds like lime, clay etc .
An alloy is a composite material of homogeneous mixture of two or more metals. It could also
involve a metal and non-metal material mixture or metalloid element to impart/ give specific
properties to resulting material. The resulting material could be made stronger or made more
resistant to corrosion or even have a lower melting point. Metallic element of gold can combine
with copper to produce red gold alloy, gold and silver can combine to produce white gold alloy,
silver and copper can combine to give sterling silver alloy; copper and zinc can combine to
produce brass while copper ant tin can combine to produce bronze. Iron can combine with non-
metal carbon to form steel alloy. Iron can also combine with silicon to form silicon steel.
Duralumin is an alloy made from mixture of aluminium and copper. Alloys retain the general
properties of metals such as thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, ductility, opacity and
luster.
Metalloids are a set of elements that exhibit properties that is between that of metals and non-
metals. They are shiny, brittle and can conduct electricity and heat though not as well as
metals. They are hard, and have high melting point. They can be used to form alloys. The
commonly accepted metalloids are boron[B], silicon [Si], germanium [Ge], arsenic [As],
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antimony [Sb], tellurium [Te] and polonium[Po].They are particularily used to produce semi-
conductors. They have uses in optoelectronics, pyrotechnics and electronics in general to make
electronic components. Polonium is a major source of neutrons in nuclear reactors and
therefore highly valued. There are also substances that contain metallic bases but do not
behave like metals. Typical examples are aluminium oxide, berrylium/ aluminium silicate and
sodium chloride
Soil Material
Soils is the most abundant material that covers the earth’s surface and it contains all the
natural occurring materials in the their raw form. It allows for growing plants that provide
timber we use in all sorts of construction work and it contains ores which contain different
types of materials like metals and non-metals like lime.
There are six types of soil; clay soil, loam soil, sand soil, silt soil, peat soil and chalky soil. The
clay soil have the smallest size particles with very smooth feelings between the fingers. They
are tightly packed together and has high water storage capacity. Clay is sticky when water is
added to it and can be molded into any shape. Sand or sandy soil is the result of weathering of
granite, limestone and quartz rocks into small particle size much larger than that of clay. Sand
has very poor water retention capacity. It is very useful material in the production of concrete
blocks or columns in construction sector. Silt is a type of soil with smaller particles than that of
sand particles. It is the result of fragmentation of rocks and other minerals. It is found most of
the time along river and lake shores. The particles are very loose and do not hold water. Loam
soil on the other hand is a combination of sand, silt and clay soils with humus. Humus is made
of particles of decomposing organic materials and animal dungs. Peat or peaty soil is composed
of mainly of carbonized vegetative materials saturated with water. It is very dark black and in
dry form can be used as fuel and burns like wood. It is found in swampy or marshy areas. It
provides a good source of fuel. Chalky soil is a basic soil. It has a high component of calcium
carbonate and hence has pH of 7-8. It holds very little water. This is a soil with high proportion
of lime. It therefore provides the source of lime which is also a very useful material in the
production of cement
Clay Material
Clay is a typical type of soil that is not only very important for planting food crops but also
used in construction of structures, in pottery, water treatment, pharmaceutical production food
preparation etc. Clay is obtained from fragmentation or wearing down of igneous or
metamorphic rocks into tiny particles that is moved and deposited down valleys by water and
the wind.
Clay is formed by clay minerals which are groups of silicate compounds that predominate the
soil sample. They are similar in chemical and structural composition to the primary minerals
from the earth rocks from which they originate. The primary minerals include quartz, mica, and
feldspar. Quartz is crystalline tetrahedral compound of silicon oxide [SiO 4].It is the most
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abundant mineral behind the feldspar mineral. In its pure form it is used as a glass transparent
gem. It also has the ability to exhibit piezoelectric effect i.e produces electric charges by
twisting its structure. Quartz is found in sandstones, igneous and sedimentary rocks. Mica is
another mineral composed of hydrous potassium, aluminium silicate . It is a phyllosillicate in
form of 2-D sheets or layer structures found in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock
types. Feldspar is another rock forming silicate minerals that can also be found in igneous, and
metamorphic rocks. It has alumina [Al2O3 ] and silica [SiO2]. There are potash[potassium] and
soda[sodium] feldspar depending on the predominant alkali metal in the mineral. The general
formulae are K2O*Al2O3.6SiO3 and Na2O*Al2O3.6SiO3 The primary minerals change to produce
secondary compounds or minerals phyllosilicates of si-tetrahedral [SiO4] and Al,Fe,Mg
octahedral [AlO6] compounds. These compounds form
 Kaolinite mineral rich clay composed of 1:1 layers of phyllosilicates of Al octahedral and
Si-tetrahedral compounds chains. This can result from decomposition of feldspar. It has
Al2Si2O5[OH]2 aluminosilicate. This clay is easy to mold and has fine texture. It is white
and does not expand.
O O O O

Si 4+ Al 3+

O O O O O 0

 Illite mineral clay deficient of alkali metals with less Al substitution for Si. It has 2:1
layers of [Si-tetra, Al-octahedral,Si-Tetrahed] chains. It expands less in presence of water
and therefore shrinks. It is abundant clay found from decomposition of mica and
feldspar predominant in marine clay
 Smectite or montmorillonite if formed by alteration of igneous rocks rich in Ca, And Mg.
The weak linkages by[Na+, Ca2+] results in high swelling and shrinkage of clay
containing this mineral

.Clay in its dry solid form is hard, brittle and non-plastic. Most clay materials are grey but could
have other colours due to impurities in them such the redish colour being due to presence of
iron oxide.The general types of clay are:-
 Earthen Clay which has high plasticity and is often grey or brown but when fired can still
be scratched
 Ball clay is the most plastic with limited impurities and large amount of kaolinite and
quartz with about 25% of mica. It is white greyish.

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  Stone ware clay is of moderate plasticity, hard and non porous. It is white brown with
high kaolite, small quartz, mica. illite, smectite
 Fire clay is refractory clay used as additive to increase firing temp of stoneware clay
 Porcelain clay is pure kaolin with least plasticity to lower firing temperature
Bonding of atoms of Materials
The modern concept of matter classifies it as condensed and gaseous. Liquids and solids constitute
condensed matter. In solids, the atoms or molecules are fixed in positions where they simply vibrate
about equilibrium positions.

The properties of solids such as the stiffness and strength is determined by the bonds holding
the atoms together and the way the atoms are packed together. This applies to both metals
and non-metals like clay or ceramics.
The manner in which atoms and molecules are bonded and packed to form solid structures
determines the physical properties of the materials. The two bonds that hold atoms/molecules
together in solids are primary bonds and secondary bonds The primary bonds are metallic,
ionic, and covalent bonds. These are relatively strong bonds that can melt at between 1000
and 4000K. The secondary bonds are relatively weaker and are van der Waals and hydrogen
bonds. They can melt between 100 and 500K.
Metallic bond arise from electrostatic attraction between conducting electrons held in
conduction band that form a cloud of delocalized electrons and the positively charged metal
ions. The atoms in the metal structure share their outermost electrons amongst their positively
charged ions[cations].The electrons form a cloud that are not fixed to individual positive sites of
the atoms creating the cations. Typical metals are copper, aluminium, gold ,silver and iron.This
bond makes them have shinny luster, be malleable, ductile and have good thermal and electric
conductivity.
Electrons Cations

The electrons that wander freely are responsible for heat transfer as well as conduction of
electric current in metals
Ionic bond joins metal atoms to non-metal atoms. The electron from the metal atom is
transferred to the non-metal atom leading to the formation of positive metal ion[cation] and
negative non-metal ion[anion]. The attractive electrostatic force between the cation and anion
holds the compound formed together. The typical example of ionic bond is found in sodium
chloride.{NaCl Na+ Cl-]. Material that are held by ionic bonds are soils at STP, have high melting

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points and show high strengths. They do not show high conductivity in solid state but good
conductivity while in solution.
Covalent bond is formed where two atoms share their valence electrons to achieve stable state.
The stable state is when the valence orbital has 2n2 i.e 2,8,etc electrons
H
O
H
Water is a typical compound where the atoms are held by covalent bonds. The hydrogen lacks
one electron to make its valence electrons complete and stable while Oxygen lacks two
electrons to make o its valence have 8 electrons. Organic materials made of carbon compounds
are held by covalent bonds where the carbon- carbon and carbon-hydrogen form the covalent
bonds
H H H
C C C
H H H
Materials held by covalent bonds show low melting point, do not conduct heat and electricity,
not soluble in water but are strong.
Hydrogen bond [H-bond] is primarily electrostatic in nature. It is found to be between hydrogen
atom in covalent bonding material that has electronegative atom. It is due to dipole-diploe
interaction between the hydrogen atom and the atom which is electronegative. Hydrogen bond
exists between the hydrogen atom in a water molecule and the oxygen atom. Due to charge
displacement the Hydrogen becomes positive while oxygen becomes negative forming a dipole.
The electrostatic attraction between the positive end of the dipole and negative end constitutes
the hydrogen bond.
H+ H+
O H+ O
H+ O H+

The hydrogen atom attaches itself to the oxygen atom in the hydrogen bonding.
The hydrogen bond is very weak compared to covalent bond but stronger than the van de
Waals bond.

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The van der Waals bond is the weakest bond which is a short range electrostatic force of
attraction between uncharged molecules arising from transient electric dipoles. The fluctuating
polarization of two atoms or molecules close together gives rise to this type of bond. The
electron density around the nucleus may have transient shift resulting in charge repulsion and
attraction depending on the charge distribution in neighbouring atom or molecule
Attraction

Repulsion
This force acts within a range of about0.4-0.6 nm and is due to fluctuating polarization of
molecules or atoms.
Amorphous and crystalline materials
Some materials have the molecules or atoms arranged in regular repeated pattern constituting
crystalline materials while others have the basic particles arranged in random pattern
constituting amorphous materials. Examples of amorphous materials include glass, rubber, and
plastics. The amorphous material have low toughness but high strength. Most metals in solid
state show crystalline structure just as sodium chloride solid.

Solids have well ordered molecular, atomic or ionic arrangement. Solids can therefore be classified as
crystalline with orderly arranged (long range order) and amorphous with randomly oriented
atoms/ionic arrangement.

A crystal posses long range order and symmetry made up of identical unit cells which give it its
overall shape.

A cell can therefore be considered as the building block of a crystal. It has the same symmetry as
the entire crystal. When we arrange the unit cell in 3D, we get the bulk crystal. In other words it
can be described as the smallest volume which when repeated in all direction gives the crystal its
structural shape. The three edges a, b, c along the axis and angle between them α, β and γ is
termed as lattice parameters. In 3D it is better to consider a parallelepiped as unit cell.The
parameters determine the shape of the crystal structure or unit cell. The primitive cell is the
minimum volume unit cell with one atom contained in it. The non-primitive unit cells have more
than one atom within the cell.
There are seven types of crystalline unit cell shapes defined by the orientation of the axes, their
lengths and angles between the axes
1. Cubic is the common simple type of crystal unit cell shape. It has three axes that
intersect at right angles of equal lengths i.e a=b=c

C
b

6
 a
This shape gives octahedron of 8 edges or simply a cube typical of silver, gold and
diamond atomic arrangement. Each of the atoms at the edge is shared by 8 unit cells
and therefore the unit cell contains one atom.

2. Hexagonal shape which has 4 axes with 3 of same length in same plane and intersect
each other at 600.The 4th axis intersects the 3 at right angle.It has flat top and bottom
and 6 sides or edges

a a
The shape includes double pyramids, double sided pyramids and 4sided pyramids. Typical
of apatite and Beryl structure
3. Tetragonal shape has 3 axes. The main axis can be short or long. It 8 sided prism or
rectangular based double 4sided prism. This shape include strapezohedron

Typical example for this shape is pyrite crystal

4.Trigonal or rhombohedral shape is one where the angles and axes are similar to that of
Hexagonal .

ɣ
β
α

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 5. Orthorhombic shape has 3 axes at right angles to each other of different lengths.. It
contains pyramids, double pyramids, rhombic pyramids

C
b a≠b≠c
a
The example of this shape include colite, topaz danburite
6. Monoclinic shape has 3 axes of different lengths where 2 are at right angles to each
other and the third is inclined. It has pinacoid and prism with inclined faces.

c
α b a≠b≠c , α≠90 0
a
Typical examples of this shape are gysum, petalite
7. Triclinic shape has 3 axes inclined to each other but all of same length.

c
b a a=b=c but angles not equal to 90 0
Typical examples include feldspar, kyanite
Solids are characterized by incompressibility, rigidity and mechanical strength. This indicates
that the molecules, atoms or ions that make up as solid is closely packed. Thus in solids we ...
will have a well ordered molecular, atomic or ionic arrangement. ..
Based on the lattice parameters a, b, c, α, β and γ seven different types of lattices systems are
possible in three dimensions. They are triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal,trigonal ...
or rhombohedral, hexagonal and cubic. ..

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Seria
Lattice Systems Simple Base-centered Body-centered
l No:

1 triclinic(none)

2 monoclinic(1diad)

orthorhombic(3
3
perpendicular diads)

4 rhombohedral(1 triad)

5 tetragonal(1 tetrad)

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 6 hexagonal(1 hexad)

7 cubic(4 triads)

In the given figure below, simple cube is a primitive cell. No.of atoms per unit cell is one for
it. The second one is non primitive which is body centred cubic. Each cell unit has 1/8x 8 +1 at
Looking at arrangements of atoms within the grains of the solids, in 2-D gives atomic planes and
stacking the planes on top of one another in 3-D gives us the picture of the crystal.

FCC

(a) Close-packed atoms CPH

One on top

(b)Close packed in 2-D

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 Directions of the planes in (b)
Looking at the close packed arrangement of atoms above gives face centred cube[FCC] and
close packed hexagonal [CPH] structures.
The FCC has one atom at each corner of the cube with one atom at each surface. This
constitutes a unit cell structure.The simple close packed unit cells are the face centred cube,
[FCC],e.g Cu,Al,Ni,Pb Fe above 911OC KCl,NaCl,MgO, FeO; the body centred cube [BCC ] e.g Fe
below 9110C,Molybdenum, tantalum, tungsten and the close packed hexagonal[CPH] e.g Zn,Mg
Ti.These have directional bonding of the atoms.
The polymers are materials that have long chains of molecules linked by cavalent bonds. The
chains randomly repeat themselves in 3-D.They are therefore non crystalline or armophous
material. The three unit cells are as shown below.

(a) Face centred cube (b) Body centred cube

(c) Close packed hexagonal cube

Engineering Materials
Materials often used for constructional purposes are called engineering materials. They are
classified as below

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 Metals & Alloys Non-metals
Ferrous Metals Non-ferrous Thermoplastics Thermosets Elastomers
 Cast Iron  Aluminium[Al]  Acrylic  Phenolic  Rubber
 Wrought Iron  Copper[Cu]  Nylon  Polymide  Polyurethene
 Steel  Zinc[Zn]  Polythlene  Polyster  Silicone
 Titanium[Ti]  Polycarbonate
 Tungsten[W]  PVC
 Magnesium[Mg]
 Chronium[Cr]

The main constituents of ferrous metals is iron. Pig iron is the name given to iron ore which
contains many other materials. When excavated it is not suitable for any mechanical use unless
melted and converted into cast iron, wrought iron and steel.
Cast iron is obtained by melting pig iron with lime and coke. The carbon content of cast iron is
between 2-5%. It is common to mix pig iron with scrap iron during the melting process. The
cast iron is brittle,not ductile nor malleable when subjected to shock load . It easily cracks but
does not rust.It can withstand high level compression but weak when subjected to tensile load.
Its density is 7.5x103 kg m-3 and melting point is 1200oC. It is useful for making engine and motor
blocks.
Wrought iron is obtained when pig iron is melted with most carbon and other impurities are
removed. It contains about 99.5% iron with less than o.1% silicon,0.001% Sulphur,0.07%
phosphorous, 0.03% manganese. This type of iron is malleable and ductile. It has high tensile
strength and strong under compression but as steel. It can easily be s cast, welded to give tough
joints. It melts at high temperature. It can be heated to become pasty and plastic. It is the type
of iron that has replaced the use of mild steel and for producing roof sheets and ornaments.
Steel is an alloy of carbon with carbon which increases the strength remarkably but reduces its
ductility. Steel is designated by A ISI using 4 digits. The first 2 digits denote alloying elements
and the last 2 denote4 the carbon content. Steel that has carbon alone is called plain carbon
steel classified as low carbon, medium carbon and high carbon steel.
The low carbon steel or mild carbon steel has up to 0.1% carbon. This steel is not heat
treatable.It is used to produce iron sheets, automobile bodies, iron rods wires pipes chains
shafts and hammers The mild carbon steel contain between0.05-0.25% carbon. This steel has
higher strength than low carbon iron.It is used to produce beams angle bars ,boilers. When
nobium[Nb], vanadium[V], titanium[Ti] are added to form carbides. It makes the steel much
stronger. Addition of copper and phosphorous for softening steel against corrosion but use of
manganese to strengthen blades. The mild steel are ductile and machineable. They are tough
and more elastic but not affecte4d by salt. They corrode quicker

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Medium carbon steels contains between 0.25-0.5%carbon. It can be heat treatable for high
yield point to make it much stronger but less ductile for use in railway wheels, rails, connecting
rods
High carbon steel have above 0.5% carbon content. They are much harder and stronger than
mild steel. The tensile strength is above 600MPa. The can have small amounts of Nickel[Ni},
chromium[Cr]. Molybdenum [Mo] to toughen blades and drill.This high carbon steel have
granular structure. They are tough and elastic than mild steel, easier to harden and weld but
difficult to forge and weld. They are permanently magnetized. They can withstand vibrations
Copper is nonferrous metal. It is ductile and has a high electric and thermal conductivity. Its
hardness increases by reducing its grain size or alloying it. Copper isresistant to corrosion. The
alloys formed by copper are brass [ copper
+zinc],bronze[copper+tin],cupronickel[copper+nickel]
Aluminium is widely used metal which is light compared to steel. It is ductile and malleable. It
has high electric and thermal conductivity. It is also corrosive resistant
Properties of solid Materials
The atomic structure of solids are such that they are kept in a state of minimum energy. To
distort the structure work has to be done to distort the structure. Work=Force exerted x
displacement. When a load is applied to the solid it distorts it and the atoms/molecules tend to
resist the effect of the load to make it return to its original state of minimum energy. The stress
which the solid experiences is equal to the force per unit cross-sectional area perpendicular to
F
the force. Stress=σ = where F is the force and A is cross-sectional area perpendicular to F.
A
Stress leads to distortion or deformation. When the load is applied steadily, it constitutes dead
load, when the load fluctuates with time as is being applied, it constitutes live load and when it
is applied suddenly, it constitutes shock load. Loads on materials stretch, compress get the
material to be warped[twisted]. The degree or intensity of the distortion is called the strain .
The intensity of the stress within the solid is expressed by the type of force applied. The force
could be tensile, compressive or shear. The tensile force[along the axis pulls the atoms apart;
compressive presses each atom against each other [along the axis] while shear force makes the
atoms slide across each other[tangential.]

Tensile Compressive Shear

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The amount of distortion measured by the strain which is the ration of change in dimension to
original dimension due to application of the load. In the case of shear stress it is equal to angle
of distortion caused. The strain is elastic when the distortion disappears when the stress is
removed and is plastic when the distortion remains when the stress is removed
There are six types of stress experienced by a solid and they are:-
 Residual stress produced in solids by manufacturing processes that leave them stressed.
For example welding can leave pieces in state of stress
 Structural stress is produced in solids because of the weights they support. These can be
found in building foundations and frameworks and machine parts by virtue of forces
exerted on them.
 Pressure stress is induced in vessels containing pressured materials. The loading force is
provided by the same force providing the pressure
 Flow stress occurs when a mass of flowing fluid induces a dynamic pressure on the
conduit channel. The force of fluid striking the wall acts as the load force. It can be
unsteady stress if the flow fluctuates.
 Thermal stress is caused by temperature gradient in a material. The temperature
difference causes expansion and subjects the material to internal stress. Thermal
stress=EαΔθ where E is young’s modulus,α is coefficient of thermal expansion and Δθ
temperature change. This occurs when a material operates at a high temperature and
then cooled, it will have developed thermal stress.
 Fatigue stress is due to cyclic application of stress by vibration or thermal cycles the
material undergoes.
When a ductile material is subjected to a tensile load and the graph of the force is plotted
against the extension of the solid a graph of the shape below is obtained.
Elastic limit
Load/N Limit of proportionality Plastic region
Work hardening
Yield point

Permanent set Extension/m

Up to limit of proportionality F=kx. Up to elastic limit F may not be proportional to x but
material regains its original dimension when F is removed, Beyond the elastic limit, a
permanent distortion called permanent set is produced. The material is longer than original
length by amount equal to the set. At yield point, there is a significant change in the structure of
the material occurs by slipping of atoms over each other after which the material continues to
extend even when the load is removed. This is where the material shows plastic behaviour.

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Beyond the plastic region, the materials begins to harden when the material begins to narrow
forming a neck before it breaks. It gives the breaking force.
The choice of a material depends on various mechanical properties. The first is the strength of
the material. It is the mechanical load the material can withstand before it can break. It could
be tensile strength which is the force requires to break the material under tensile force.It could
be compressive strength which is a measure of the force required to break the material under
compression.
The other property is the ductility of the material which is a measure of the ability of the
material to undergo plastic deformation. The ductility D of a material is the % of elongation or
% in reduction in cross section at breaking point. It is easier to use elongation because it difficult
to measure area at breaking point. Ductility depends on temperature.D[LT]<D[RT]<D[HT] where
LT is low temp,RT is room temp and HT is high temp.
Toughness of a material refers to state of a material to withstand adverse condition or rough
handling. It can quantitatively be determined by finding the energy it can absorb at the time of
failure against fracture. You draw the graph of stress against strain and get the area below the
graph up to the point of failure.
Stress

Area

Strain

High fracture toughness means it absorbs or has high capacity to absorb energy against
failure.
Brittleness of a material is a measure of the material to withstand a load without plastic
deformation. It is the load which cracks the material without showing plastic deformation. A
brittle material has a low fracture toughness. The area under stress vs strain for brittle
material< area below ductile material. The fracture toughness depends of temperature.
AHT>ART>ALT where HT for high temp,RT for room temp and Lt for low temp hence toughness
increases with temp.
Hardness of a material refers to resistance of the material to withstand mechanical
deformation.
Plasticity of a material refers to the ease of shaping or molding a material without it breaking.
Clay for example plastic.

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Another property of material is its malleability which refers to its capacity to be extended or
shaped with hammer for example into a sheet or a roller into thin sheet. A rock or stone is not
malleable but brittle instead.
Elasticity refers to a property of a material to resume its shape or dimension after being
stretched or compressed. Elastic deformation occurs when change of shape or dimension
occurs at low stress and recovers after the stress is removed.
Resilience of a material gives the ability of a material to absorb energy without undergoing any
shape change. It is the area under the stress vs strain graph up to the elastic limit. This is
actually the elastic resilience.
Fatigue of a material can be obtained by finding the stress against loading cycles under loading
mechanism with time. The fatigue of a material is more dangerous than a creep developed in a
material.
Elastic modulus refers to the ratio of stress to strain of a material within elastic limit of the
behaviour of the material. The modulus can be Young’s modulus if the stress is either
compressive or tensile. It can be rigidity or shear modulus, if the stress is tangential causing
change of shape[twisting]. It can be bulk modulus[ mostly for gases and liquids], if the stress
causes change of pressure. These moduli give an idea of whether the material shows tensile
elasticity, rigidity of shape and volume elasticity
F
F L ΔL F ɣ ɣ Δv
F A
F/ A F/A ∆P
Young’s modulus E= Shear modulus G= Bulk Modulus K=
∆ L/L γ ∆V /V
Nominal stress refers to the ratio of linear force to original cross-sectional area while the true
stress is got by dividing the load by actual cross-sectional area as the load is being applied.
Under linear stress there can be linear strain as well as lateral strain. The linear strain is along
the axis of the rod while the lateral strain is along the radius. The ratio of the lateraπΔL/L.
For a cylindrical rod the volume V=πr2L which gives ΔV= πr2 ΔL+ 2πrLΔr. If change of volume
after distortion is zero, then Poisson’s ratio is ½ if the rod is stretched.
Note that thermal stress can be produced when a metal cools by Δθ and if the thermal linear
coefficient of expansion is α, then the contraction ΔL=LαΔθ. The stress F/A=EαΔθan be

The Young’s modulus of a solid can be obtained using flexural method where the solid is placed
across two knife edges and deflection caused by a mass hung midway is measured.

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 A B

M
If the distance between A and B is L and deflection of the midpoint is x, then the young’s
3
Mg L
modulus E is given by the expression E= 3 where b is the breadth, t is the thickness of
4 xb t
the rectangular solid.
We can also get the value of E using the cantilever method where the solid is fixed at one end
and the load is applied to deflect it as shown below
F
A B C

If AB=L and BC=a, then the vertical deflection of the free end c is x, we can write the
3
FL
E=
expression to get young’s modulus as 3 a where I is the moment of inertia of the
3 Ix[1+ ]
2L
3
4FL
E=
solid that depends of geometrical shape. If the rod is a rectangular one 3 3a
xb t [1+ ]
2L
For a cylinder shell under a shear, we can get expression for its rigidity or shear modulus
F
r
A θ dr F
L ɣ BӪӪ
F
F
The rigidity modulus is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. The strain in this case is angular
distortion.
The area of the shell on which tangential force F acts is A=πr dr giving the stress as =F/A and the
strain is ɣ=AB/L. But AB/r=θ or ɣ=rθ/L. G=FL/πr2θdr
The couple of the force or torque τ=2RF=2Gπr3dr/L. For a solid cylinder of radius a

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 a 3 4
2 Gπ r θdr πG a θ
τ =∫ which gives τ = =cθ. We know that cθ=IӪ where I is moment of inertia
0 L 2L
and periodic time T=2π[I/c]0.5 Therefore the periodic time of oscillation of cylinder is

T =2 π
√ 2 LI
πG a 4
Hardness of a solid material refers to the resistance the material offers to creation of a dent on
the surface of the material. There are three methods of measuring the hardness of solid and
these are Brinel hardness test[HB],Vicker’s hardness test[HV] and Rockwel hardness test
The Brinel hardness [BH]test uses iron ball of tempered steel of known diameter pressed
vertically with a force of defined magnitude for a defined period of time between 2-8
seconds.The diameter of the steel ball D, diameter of the dent made d and the force applied F
2F
are used to calculate Brinel hardness BH =
πD ¿ ¿
The Vicker’s hardness[HV] uses a diamond indenter of pyramidal shape with square base with
angle of 1360 between opposite surfaces. A force of 10-1000N is applied for 10-15 seconds. The
depth of the indentation is found using a measure of the average measure of the diagonals to
give area of sloping surfaces to calculate depth of the indentation. The value of HV=F/ area of
indentation
The Rockwell hardness test uses diamond cone or steel ball.
Rubber and Plastics
Plastics make an important contribution in provision of materials for different uses. Plastics are
made from petroleum products known as monomers. The monomers combine chemically in
process called polymerization to form polymers called plastics. The resins are softened and
molded into different articles. The thermosets are produced from thermoset resins this type of
plastics cannot be remolded when heated. The examples of thermoset plastics are polyamide,
Bakelite, polyester and phenolic. The other type of plastic is the thermoplastic. They can soften
and can be re-molded into shapes. It can be used to make dishes, roofing materials and
containers Examples of thermoplastics are acrylic, nylon, polythene polycarbonate and
polyvinyl chloride [PVC]
Elastomers are plastics that behave like rubber and rubber belongs to this type of plastics,
example of elastomer are natural rubber and artificial rubber. This includes polyurethane and
silicon. The natural rubber is made from the sap of hevea brasiliensis tree. The sap called latex
can be improved by adding some chemicals to it by process called vulcanization. The elastomers
from petroleum products can be synthesize into rubber. Synthesized rubber cannot be
vulcanized. Rubber and elastomers show high elasticity. They are used to make tires, shock
absorbers, tubes, insulators and shoe soles.

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Plastics can be classified into
(i) PET-polyethylene terephthalate. These are clear plastics that are used to make water
and juice bottles. They can melt at temp 122-137 0C.This type of plastic can be recycled
but difficult to decontaminate
(ii) HDPE- high density polyethylene. This plastic is translucent, stiff and hard wearing. It is
used to make milk jugs, waste bins and shampoo bottles. It is re-cycle able. It can melt
125-1320C.
(iii) PVS- polyvinyl chloride This is a clear, flexible plastic used to make trays, food foils and
frames. It can melt at 75-1100C. It is re-cycleable
(iv) LDPE-low density polyethylene. This is translucent plastic used to make shopping bags,
garment wrinks, sacks. It can melt at 103-1100C
(v) PP-polypropylene It is translucent and hard used to make basins, buckets, bumpers. It
can melt at 158-1680C.
(vi) PS-polystyrene. This is translucent material which is not re-cycleable. It is used to make
toys, cosmetic containers and trays. It can melt at 100-1200C.
(vii) The other types of plastics are clear and include acrylic, polycarbonate and nylon. It is
used to make baby feeding bottles. It can melt at 88-1250C

Diffusion of Solid atoms

Atoms in solids are able to diffuse. Diffusion is the movement of atoms where they are
concentrated in one region and move to where they are less according to Fick’s first law of
diffusion. The diffusion occurs by 2 mechanisms interstitial diffusion and vacancy diffusion.
Atoms in solids have spaces or interstices between them and small atoms dissolve in the crystal
can diffuse around by squeezing between the atoms or even jump if the have enough energy
from one interstice to another. Carbon which is smaller can diffuse through iron. Atoms like
C,O,N,B and H can diffuse in most crystals. The vacancy diffusion occurs comparably for large
atoms wait for a vacancy to occur before they diffuse. For example zinc can diffuse in brass or
copper
Atoms in solids are able to diffuse where they are concentrated to region where they are less
according to Fick’s first law of s diffusion.
dc
J=−D where J is the number of atoms diffusing down concentration gradient per unit area
dx
called flux of atoms;c is the concentration of atoms as number of atoms per unit volume and D
is the diffusion coefficient for the solid type in unit of m2 s-1.
Assume zinc is diffusing across a boarder in copper
Zn Cu

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The zinc atoms in the left will move across to the right according to Flick’s law where
−Q / RT
D=D 0 e This is where Q is energy per mole, R=Nak where Na is Avogadros number and k
Boltzmann constant with k=1.38x10-23 J per atom per kelvin and D is the number of atoms
diffusing down concentration gradient per second per unit area
Thin Film Deposition
This is a technology where a thin film of material of one molecule or more nanometres to about
100 micrometres is deposited onto substrate surface to be coated. This is the technology used
to produce mirrors by depositing silver on glass surface. This technology is also used to produce
semi-conductor components, devices, solar panels compact discs and disc drives.
Film deposition can be achieved by use of chemical vapour deposition [CVD] and physical
vapour deposition[PVD]. The chemical deposition uses chemical reaction which produces
volatile fluid that is deposited on a required surface to be coated.
Physical vapour deposition is where material is released from a source and deposited on a
substrate using mechanical, electrochemical or thermodynamic processes. Electrolysis is one
example where electrochemical reaction induced by electric charge flow allows a material to be
deposited on a surface. The comly used PVD are thermal evaporation and spluttering.
Thermal evaporation is where a solid to be used for coating is heated and the substrate to be
coated is placed in a vacuum chamber. The vapour cloud rises to strike the substrate surface
and diffuses onto it
Substrate

Vapour cloud
Vacuum pump

Spluttering involves bombarding a target material with high energy particles to be deposited on
a substrate. The substrate is placed in a chamber containing inert gas such as argon. The
cathode is attached to the target to be deposited. Atoms are spluttered by collisions with argon
carrying particles to be deposited as thin film.This method is used for metal and oxide film
formation. The system is made of a vacuum chamber that has high voltage anode of the
material to be deposited and the cathode on which substrate is attached. The chamber has
inert gas such as argon.

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 Anode[substrate] Spluttering gas[argon]
Vacuum
Cathode[target material]
The argon gas is ionized by the high pd between the anode and cathode and is accelerated to
bombard the target cathode material to rip off the atoms which are projected to the substrate.
The ions bombard the substrate to form a condensed layer on it. It is by this process that the
thin film is formed on the substrate.
THE END

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