Poetics by Aristotle (384-322 B.

C)
Important Questions:
1. Theory of Imitation. 2. Theory of Tragedy (Ideal Tragic-Plot) 3. Tragic Hero
4. Plot and Characters 5. Catharsis (Tragic-Pleasure, Pity and fear)
1-Aristotle’s Theory of Imitation
Plato’s use of the Term:
The term “Imitation” has been used by Plato in his “Republic” before Aristotle. Aristotle gave
new dimensions and comprehension to the term. Plato distinguishes between The Useful Arts
(medicine and agriculture) and The Imitation Arts (Poetry). According to Plato, “Idea” is the
truth or reality. What we see or feel through our senses is just a reflection of reality.
The Imitation or reflection of the world is twice removed from reality. Such imitation is a
shadow of the shadow. A carpenter makes a cot, so, the wooden cot is not a reality rather an
imitation of the idea which was in the mind of the carpenter. In the same way, the world is a
material copy of the idea in the mind of GOD. When a poet presents this world in his poetry, he
actually copies the copy of reality. Therefore, he calls poetry “a mother of lies” and suggests in
“Republic” to banish the poets with from his state with garlands, perfumes and respect.
Aristotle’s concept of Imitation:
i. Aristotle explains that art is not a slavish copy of the objects of the world. Poetry is not an
imitation. It is the imitation of the “Ideal Reality”. It is a creative reproduction of the external
world. The process of poetic imitation involves creative imagination and intellectual faculty
of the poet. Poetry searches for the universal and the ideal. The poetic truth is not
momentary, it is permanent and universal. For Plato, the object of art is the universe while
for Aristotle, the object of art is man. When Aristotle says, “Art imitates Nature”, it means
human nature with all its feelings and emotions.
ii. Poetry and Music: Aristotle states that art is not just the imitation of the external world. In fact,
art mirrors human nature with the help of the objects of the external world. As music is not
merely an imitation of sounds rather expresses the human emotions, in the same way, poetry
expresses human heart with the help of the material objects.
iii. The Medium of Poetic Imitation: Aristotle explains that art is a mode of imitation. Arts are
different from each other owing to their medium. The medium of a painter is color and form
while of a poet is rhythm and harmony. A musician’s medium is also rhythm and harmony so
poetry is nearer to music than painting. However, it is different from music because of its
language.
iv. The Object of Poetic Imitation: According to Aristotle, the object of poetic imitation is “men in
action”. They may be better or lower than the average men in real life. Tragedy and epic deal
with the men better than those in real life. Comedy and satire imitate the men worse than
those in real life. It is noteworthy that Aristotle does not give importance to the characters
exactly found in real life.
v. The Manner of Poetic Imitation: Because of manner, Poetry is not only different from other
arts but also keeps its own types. Narrative Poetry means when a poet speaks in his own
 person and expresses his emotions. Epic Poetry means when the poet narrates the story and
then assumes a form of character. Dramatic Poetry presents the story in form of an action
involving several characters, as in real life. iv.
Imitation of Ideal-Universal Truth: According to Aristotle, the process of poetic imitation
is actually an act of creative vision. It brings something new out of the real and actual. It
deals with the ideas unrealized. It transforms material into art. It creates art out of the
confused and chaotic everyday life. The function of a poet is not to present what has
happened. His function is to imply what is possible according to the law of probability and
necessity. So, poetry is different from history. It is more philosophical than history; therefore,
it is concerned with the universal, not with the particular.
Limitations of His Concept: Aristotle comments that the poet should not speak in his own
person. Aristotle says that the tragic characters should be better than the average men and the
comic should be worse than those in real life. But it is not valid when we study
Shakespearean Tragedies and comedies.

2 . Aristotle’s Concept of Tragedy

Important Note: It is important to note that Aristotle was aware of only Greek Tragedy
that was different from modern Tragedy. Today, Tragedy means a story with an unhappy
ending but the Greek Tragedy was serious in tone while its end might be happy. In Greek
language, “Tragedy” means a “goat-song” It is said that goats were given as a prize to
those who wrote the best plays in their dramatic festivals. There were staged four plays
during the dramatic festivals of Greece; three plays were generally serious while one was
“Satyr” (comic). So, tragedy was one of the three plays before the satyr play for the
Greeks.

Definition: In his “Poetics”, Aristotle defines “Tragedy” saying; “A Tragedy is the imitation
of an action that is serious and also, as having magnitude, complete in itself; in language
embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, each kind brought in separately in the parts
of the work; in a dramatic, not in a narrative form; with incidents arousing pity and fear,
wherewith to accomplish its catharsis of such emotions”.

Analysis: In his definition, Aristotle discusses the imitation, medium, object, manner,
function and emotional effects of tragedy. This definition touches three areas. First, being
serious, tragedy is different comedy. Secondly, being dramatic, it is different from Epic.
Thirdly, tragedy is different from poetry because of its medium i.e. songs and dialogue. It is
noteworthy that the term “imitation” is not slavish copy of the objects of the world for
Aristotle.
1. Action (Discussion of Plot-Features): Aristotle does not define the word “action” but we
can say that it is the progress of an individual from one to the other position at which he
either dies or changes according to the new situation. In a Tragedy, action is plot, that is,
logical sequence of incidents. It shows either the wisdom or the morality of a character.
Aristotle has discussed the following features of a plot:
 2. Completeness: The action must be complete which means it must have a beginning, middle
and end. Beginning means there should not be any need of some information about the play
before its beginning. Middle means it should change the course of play and the course of
action. The end should be logical.
3. Magnitude: Magnitude means the size of the plot. It must have such length as it may
develop a character completely. It should neither be long nor short.
4. Embellishment: Embellishment means the verse and the songs. Verse is used in dialogues
while the chorus sings the songs. However, the songs are not the essential part of a plot or
tragedy.
5. Catharsis: The Function of Tragedy: Aristotle has used the term “Catharsis” only once in
“Poetics” and it is the most confusing term. There are three interpretations of this term:
Purgation, Purification and Clarification. Clarification is the most suitable explanation of the
word catharsis that refers to the tragic pleasure through tragic learning.
6. Elements: “Quantitative” and “Formative” elements are the parts of Tragedy. Prologue,
Episode, Exude, Choric and Song are Quantitative Elements. However, they are not relevant
to modern drama. Plot, Character, Thought are Formative Elements. They are also called
internal aspects. Diction, Spectacle and Songs are external aspects. Diction and Song are the
Medium, spectacle is the Manner while plot, character, and thoughts are the Object of
tragedy.
7. Kinds of a Plot: According to Aristotle, a plot is either Simple or Complex. A complex plot
keeps reversal and recognition. A simple plot keeps nothing like this. Reversal means the
change in the fate of the hero while recognition means discovery of the change in the fate of
the hero. He idealizes complex plot. Aristotle emphasizes upon the organic unity of the plot.
He regards “Probability” and “Necessity” as the most important aspects of a coherent plot.
He states that nothing should be like impossible in the plot. . He condemns episodic plot.
8. Dramatic Unities: Aristotle states unities of action and time in his “Poetics”. Unity of
Action means the action of the tragedy should reach a single end. There should be single
action, no plurality of action. He lays more stress on this unity than the other. Unity of time
means the tragedy should be completed within the limits of a single revolution of the sun.
Aristotle does not mention unity of place.
9. Character: Aristotle describes four features of characters/characterization:
i. Goodness: Better than ordinary life.
ii. Appropriateness: Features according to status.
iii. True to Life: Showing actual human nature.
iv. Self-Consistency: Speech and action according to the nature of the character.
10. Tragic Hero: According to Aristotle, the tragic hero should be neither perfectly good nor
bad. He should be highly renowned; misfortune should come out of his hamartia (error of
judgment) that should arouse pity and fear.
11. Tragic Pleasure: Aristotle states that tragedy brings pleasure by arousing the feelings of pity
and fear. Such rise is never harmful. As learning gives pleasure in the same way tragedy
enhances our understanding and imparts tragic pleasure.
Limitations:
No doubt, the concept of tragedy by Aristotle is a great achievement but later experience
proves some limitations. First of all the idea of tragic hero has got a greater scope that was
limited in Aristotle Tragedy. Internal and external conflict has not been discussed by
 Aristotle. His discussion does not mention “Tragic Villain” as Marlowe and Shakespeare
have given such characters in their plays. However, his ideas regarding reversal, Recognition
and Hamartia are still valid.
2. Discuss the Tragic / Aristotelian tragic Plot.
Take and write down the following points from the question of Tragedy

Action/Plot Tragic Pleasure

Completeness Kinds
Magnitude Three Unities
Embellishments Character
Catharsis Tragic Hero
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3-IMPORTANCE OF PLOT AND CHARACTER
Controversy: According to Aristotle, Plot, Character, Thought, Diction, Spectacle and
Songs are six formative elements of tragedy. He gives the plot a great importance and regards
it as the soul of tragedy. In his opinion, a plot is the first principle of tragedy. He declares, “A
tragedy is impossible without the plot. So it is necessary to know in what sense Aristotle
prefers the plot to the character.
Plot and Character: According to Aristotle, tragedy is an imitation of action which is a
process of change from happiness to misery. It is logically connected with a number of
incidents. Characters are the agents who perform the action. They reveal themselves through
their speech and action. Whatever they do is due to incidents. These incidents throw them
from happiness to misery. In this context, if the statement of Aristotle is viewed, there will
remain no controversy. If someone regards “Tragedy without Character” as “the absence of
character”, it will totally be illogical. Aristotle does not give the statement in this sense. In
fact, a plot is just like a stimulus which forces the character to act and the very action takes
him from happiness to misery. From this point of view, it is clear that if there are characters
but no incidents, it means there will be no action as well as change from happiness to misery.
Elements of Character: It is clear that Aristotle does not use the word “character” in the
sense of persons. He uses the term in the sense of “the bent of mind” that works in a certain
situation. Aristotle uses two words Ethos (Ethics) and Dionoia (Wisdom) to show the inner
self of a character. Both refer to “the bent of mind”. Through these elements we discover a
character. Such discovery proves whether a person is good or bad; wise or fool. It is a reality
that such discovery is possible only in the presence of some incidents. So, we can say a plot
brings forth the inner self of a character, and this is the point where Aristotle states that a
tragedy is possible without a characters but impossible without a plot.
Conclusion: It is noteworthy when Aristotle says a tragedy is possible without characters, it
does not mean he regards it as an ideal tragedy. He wants a poet create an ideal tragedy. Plot
as an impetus for the characters is fundamental. It is unfortunate that Aristotle has not
discussed “conflict” which develops both character and plot. However, artistically speaking,
plot is the necessity of the drama.
 4-Catharsis/ Tragic Pleasure / Functions and Emotional Effects of Tragedy
Controversy: In the 4th chapter of “Poetics” Aristotle states that the function of tragedy is to
arouse pity and fear wherewith to accomplish its catharsis of such emotions. Aristotle has
mentioned the term only once and given no explanation. The word “catharsis” has three
meanings: Purgation or Purification or Clarification. The critics have been trying to interpret
this term keeping in view its meanings. All agree that Tragedy arouses pity and fear. The
problem is how the arousal of these emotions leads to “Tragic Pleasure”.
Explanations of Catharsis: Following have been the explanations of the term Catharsis by
critics:

i. As Purgation (related to Audience)

ii. As Psychological (related to Audience)
iii. As Ethical (related to Audience)
iv. As Purification (related to Audience)
v. As Clarification (related to Play)

1. Purgation – A Medical Term: (related to Audience)

Catharsis has been interpreted in medical term, meaning “Purgation”. In medical
sense, purgation means the partial removal of excessive humors. Health depends upon
the balance of humors. So, purgation does not mean the removal of pity and fear
rather it means tragedy reduces such emotions to a healthy and balanced level.
Medically, these are two explanations of this term by the critics:
(A). Like curing the Like: Some critics like Milton and Twining explain its process in
the light of “Homeopathic Treatment” which believes like cures the like. Plato opines a
crying child can be slept by singing a song (noise cures noise). So, the rise of pity and
fear reduces the excessive rate of these emotions in the audience.
(B). Unlike curing the Unlike: In the neo-classical period (1700-1789), the term
“Catharsis” was explained in the light of “Allopathic Treatment” which believes unlike
cures the unlike. It means tragedy by arousing tender feelings of pity and fear gives
purgation to other emotions like anger and pride of the audience.
2. Psychological Explanation: This explanation is also closely related to “Purgation
Theory”. Herbert Reads regards Catharsis as “Emotional Relief”. I.A Richards says that pity
is an impulse to advance (to console with the victim) and fear is an impulse to step back (for
self-defense). Both these give an emotional balance. It is the same point which the critics of
“Purgation Theory” emphasize upon.
3. Ethical Explanation: Ethical explanation is like “Purgation Theory”. It regards the
tragedy gives light to soul which adopts a more philosophical attitude to life and
suffering. When a spectator sees huge disaster in the play, he forgets his own emotions.
Another view is that tragedy hardens our emotions in the same way as the sight of death
hardens the soldiers.
 4. Purification Theory: (Moral, not Medical): Some critics reject the “Purgation Theory”.
Humphrey House says that Catharsis does not mean medical but moral conditioning.
Tragedy controls pity and fear, then directs them to the right aim in the right way.
5. Clarification Theory: Critics of clarification view say that learning gives pleasure.
Aristotle himself says in “Poetics” that pleasure in imitative arts is connected with
learning. Pleasure does not come from joy alone. Even the pictures of dead bodies can
give pleasure if we infer some learning out of them. It is a paradox that ugly things can
give pleasure. The same case is with tragedy. The function of tragedy is to give pleasure.
From this point of view, Catharsis is related to the incidents of the tragedy, not to the
emotions of the audience.
Conclusion: Purgation and Purifications Theories are concerned with the psychology of the
audience. They do not explain what tragedy says or is. They just explain what tragedy can do
with the audience. They speak in terms of “Experimental Psychology”, not in terms of
“Literary Criticism. They treat “pity and fear” as something in the audience, not as something
in the play. It is important to note, Aristotle wrote his “Poetics” about the play, not about the
audience. “Catharsis” is a part of tragedy, not of audience, hence, these theories are
imperfect. Clarification theory answers all the concerned questions. It discusses “Catharsis”
as a part of the play. It puts fourth discovery which gives learning to the audience. Such
learning becomes a source of tragic pleasure. This is the picture of Catharsis; however, last
word on Catharsis has not been said yet.
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5-The Concept of the Tragic Hero

Introduction: According to Aristotle, the objects of poetic imitation are “men in action”.
They may be better or lower than the average men in real life. The process of poetic imitation
involves creative imagination and intellectual faculty of the poet. Tragedy and comedy both
reflect such process. Tragedy and epic deal with the men better than those in real life, while
comedy and satire imitate the men worse than those in real life. It is noteworthy that Aristotle
does not give importance to the characters exactly found in real life. When Aristotle says,
“Art imitates Nature”, it means human nature with all its feelings and emotions.
Main Features of a Tragic Character: According to Aristotle, there should be following
four features of characterization or a tragic character: Goodness, Appropriate, True to Life
and Consistent. So, they should also be present in an ideal tragic hero.
i. Goodness of characters is a foundation for the sympathy in the reader or audience. A character is
good if his words and actions reveal a good purpose behind them. Entirely wicked character
cannot win the sympathy of the audience. In the same way, the most virtuous can never be
able to win pity and fear.
ii. Appropriate means the character should be true to the features of his particular age, profession,
class, sex or status. It means the character should be type along with his individual traits. For
example, a slave by birth can never show heroism.
iii. True to Life means the character should be true to life. It is possible only if we identify
ourselves with the character. It means the character should be a normal person or of
intermediate sort. Only then he will be convincing.
iv. Consistency means the uniformity of the behavior in a character. He must be consistent in his
behavior from beginning to end. There should be probability and necessity in his words and
actions if change comes. We can say he should act in such a manner as we can logically
expect from him in some particular situation. Moreover, his actions and words should be
according to his situation, status and caliber.
The Ideal Tragic Hero: According to Aristotle, the ideal tragic hero should stand between
complete villainy and complete goodness. The fall of a villain from prosperity to misery will
not arouse pity and fear rather it will satisfy our sense of justice. The fall of a complete good
person will shock us as we cannot identify ourselves with him.
i. An Intermediate Sort: The Tragic Hero should be like us but with some moral elevation. He
should be neither a Saint nor Satan. He should be a more intense person with deeper
feelings. He should have heightened powers of intellect and will. We should easily identify
him with ourselves to feel pity and fear. His fall should be because of his some error of
judgment (Hamartia), not of vice or depravity.
ii. Well-Reputed: The Tragic Hero must be a person of a lofty and eminent position in society.
This is so because Aristotle was familiar with only Greek tragedy that was about a few royal
and distinguished families. In modern tragedy, this is no more practical as the tragedy with
even a common man can arouse pity and fear. However, Aristotle’s principle is fair in the
light of “the higher the state, the greater the fall” or “the death of a beggar is unnoticed.” It is
noteworthy, Aristotle nowhere says the hero should be a king or royally descended. It is in
fact the hand of the Renaissance critics.
iii. Hamartia: Hamartia means some error of judgment. It is not a moral failing or tragic-flaw as
A.C Bradley regards. Hamartia is an error or miscalculation. It may arise in three ways:
i. It may arise from ignorance of some material fact or circumstances.
ii. It may be due to hasty or careless view of a situation.
iii. It may be due to the error committed voluntarily, though not deliberately.
It is also noteworthy that Oedipus Rex offers all three types of Hamartia. Aristotle’s concept
of the tragic hero is acceptable. However, his vision is limited as tragedy is possible with
Saints as Eliot and Shaw have shown. It is also possible with villains as Renaissance writers,
especially, Marlowe and Shakespeare have presented. His concept of Hamartia is still valid
even today.
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