MODULE 1

Ballistics - science of moving projectiles. But ballistics isn't just about bullets it includes any projectiles and fragments of the
projectiles and firearms. “Ballien” or “Ballo” which means to “To throw”
Charles Waite & Phillip Gravelle- Founded the Bureau of Forensic Ballistics
- Sacco and Vanzetti robbery-murder case
Calvin H. Goddard - father of modern ballistics
- developed bullet-tracing system
-St. Valentine's day massacre
Philip O. Gravelle - he invented the bullet comparison microscope.
Roger Bacon- discovery of gunpowder, english monk and scrientist
Berthold Schwartz - a german monk man who first conceived the idea of gunpowder as a propeller to the firearm.
Black Powder – in german with application of gunpowder to the propelling of a missile in the early 1300s
Seville, Spain - the earliest recorded firearm attack in warfare happened in 1247.
1923 - Inception of of ballistics in crime scene investigation

MODULE 2
Direct motion - fast forward movement of projectile inside the gun barrel resulting from the expanding forces of gases
produced after combustion of the gunpowder.
Rotary motion – gyrating action (rotating/spinning) either right or left of the projectile while passing through the gun barrel.
Translational motion – straight line movement where every part of the projectile follows a parallel path and no rotation takes
place such as bouncing of a bullet after heating a resistant surface.
Gyroscope action - spinning effect that influence the stability and trajectory of elongated projectiles during flight.
rippling marks - to spin the bullets
Smooth core –
Yawing – tumbling action of the bullet

Interior / internal ballistics – motion and characteristics off the bullet while inside the firearm and it extends from breech to
muscle point.
Percussion – the tendency for the priming mixture to be crush ed the anvil causing its ignition.
Deflagration - causing the rapid and confined burning of the gunpowder at about 0.0000001 seconds - The rapid and confined
burning of the gunpowder.
Vent or flash hole – that connects the priming mixture and gunpowder causing the rapid and confined burning of the
gunpowder.
Obturation – ceiling of the barrel due to case expansion and bullet action.
Blowback – the small amount of expanded gas that would lick in between the body of the shell and the inner surface of the
chamber wall.
0.01 seconds – the fast the whole process of Internal ballistics take from time the firearm released its firing pin, striking the
primer, until before the bullet if the muscle of the barrel.

Transitional ballistics / intermediate ballistics – the study of projectiles behavior when it leaves the barrel and the pressure
behind the projectile is equalized. It involves flash and sound suppressors, recoil compensators.
Types of bullet/ shape of projectile:
- hollowpoint
- softpoint
- hemispherical

External / exterior ballistics - study of movement of the projectile after leaving the gun muzzle.
Attributes of exterior ballistics
Muzzle Blast - the noise created at the muzzle end of the barrel
Muzzle energy - energy generated at the muzzle point measure in foot-pound. And because of this there’s a recoil.
Trajectory - refers to the parabola like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves the muzzle until it hits the target.
- As the actual curve path taken by a bullet during its flight

Range/ actual range - the imaginary straight distance between the muzzle and the point of impact.
Accurate range – The distance within which the shooter can reliably hit a target of a specific size.
Effective range – maximum distance within which the bullets is expected to be lethal.
Maximum range - The farthest possible distance a projectile can travel from a specific firearm.
Maximum effective range - The farthest distance at which a projectile can still deliver its intended effect.

Velocity - the rate of speed of the bullet during its flight. Feet per second (ft/sec.)
Pull of gravity - This is the downward force exerted by Earth's gravity on the projectile, causing it to curve downwards in its
trajectory.
Air resistance – the force of the air and countered by the bullet in its flight, causing it to slow down.
Penetration – depth to which a projectile can penetrate a target material
Perforation – exit wound came from the bullet
Combustible gases - the gas come from the gunpowder

Terminal ballistics – effects of the impact of the projectile of the target.

Attributes of thermal ballistics
Terminal accuracy - the size of the bullet grouping on the target.
Keyhole shot - a spherical entrance would be created
Terminal energy - the energy of projectile when it strikes the target.
Terminal velocity – the speed of the bullet upon penetrating the target.
Terminal penetration – the depth of the bullet in the target.
✔Time of Flight: The total time taken by the projectile to reach its target.
✔ Angle of Departure: The angle at which the projectile leaves the muzzle.
✔ Angle of Impact: The angle at which the projectile strikes the target.
✔ Yaw and Precession: The rotational movements of the projectile around its long axis and its center of mass, respectively.

Benjamin robins – english man invented the ballistics pendulum, an instrument used to measure the muscle velocity of any
firearm.
- Father of the modern gunnery.
Alfred Lee Loomis - invented another instrument used to measure bullet’s speed is the “chronograph”.

MODULE 5
Shots ballistics – the study of shots from smoothbore firearms like shotguns and muskets.
Shotguns - smooth bore, fire multiple pellets, also it can fire a single slug.
Shotgun shell or shell – a single unit of ammunition for shotgun
Buckshot - a larger shots or pellets of shotgun
Drop shot or birdshot - small shot or pellets of shotgun.
Chilled shot - shotgun pellets made from lead or specially hardened
Gauge - the caliber of a shotgun, a numbers of pellets.
Choke - the degree of constriction on the end portion of the shotgun barrel to control the spread of pellets after leaving the
barrel
Dram equivalent - the measurement of the amount of gunpowder.
Combination gun - a type of break action shotgun that consists a two barrel, one shotgun barrel and one rifle barrel.
Drilling gun – a class of brake action guns that contains three barrel, two shotgun barrel of the same gauge and a rifle.
Cape guns – shotgun that has side-by-side variation or construction barrels.
Daniel Myron Lee Fever – the invention of the hammerless shotgun in 1878.
Winchester – the inventor of the earliest successful repeating shotgun the lever action Winchester M1887 in 1887 at the behest
of the Winchester repeating arms company.
Rodolfo Cosmi – first working prototype a semi-automatic shotgun in 1925, has 8 rounds magazine located in the stock.
Kinds shotgun according to the action type
Autoloading or semi-automatic – same as auto loading rifles in that the recoil action reloads the gun from the magazine
without any efforts on the part of the shooter.
Slide or Pump action – operates with the same manner as to slide action rifles, sliding the lever under the barrel.
Hinged or break open type – the manual insertion of the shells in the chamber by releasing some short of catch for the shotgun
hinges to open at the breech allowing the cartridge to be loaded.
Kinds of all shotgun according to featured type
Single barreled shotgun - loaded with single shotgun cartridge, closed, fired, and then unloaded by the shooter.
Double barreled shotgun – two bars arranged either side by side or one on the top of the other. Each barrel may have its own
trigger.
Triple barreled shotgun – two shotgun bars of the same gauge and I rifle barrel.
Four barreled shotgun - to smooth bore and to rifle barrels, Veirling
Sawn off shotgun – custom design and the barrel is usually shortened conceal the action.
Shotgun shell component – primer, projectile (slug or pellets), gunpowder/ propellant, tubular case (paper, plastic, metal) with
a metallic base of wads.
(Parts of shotgun shell)
Tubular case or shell case - case usually made up of paper, plasti,c or metal.
Metal base or brass head – containing primer, powder, or propellant
Wads – base wad, overpowder wad, filler wad, closing wad
Over powder and filler wad - serve to seal the gun bore to prevent the gas pressure from leaking around the shot charge.
Shot charge or pellets – shotgun projectiles
Buckshot – comparatively large lead balls form in molds, without hardeners alloyed with the lead.
Drop shot or birdshot - a smaller lead balls that are formed by pouring molten lead through perforated pans off selected size
located at the top of a shot tower.
Musket – ancient smoothbore muzzle loading military shoulder arm designed to fire a single round lead ball.
Antimony - chemical elements is added to lead to hardened hot pellets.

MODULE 5
Wound ballistics – study of the effect of projectiles on the human body.
Tissue quake – the damage of the tissue around the bullet spot produced by a “shock wave” when the bullet travels through the
body of the victim.
Terminal energy – this is the reason why there is a “tissue quake”
Gunshot wound (GSW) Open wound - one produced by the penetration of the bullets love within the tissue of the body.
(Three basic kinds of gunshot wound distinguished by proximity of the weapon)
Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, inch or two of the body.
Close discharge – 6 inches to 2 feet
Distant discharge – 2 feet or 3 feet
(Gunshot wound characteristic)
Muzzle pattern –
Scorching - caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles. Also known as burning or charring.
Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by powders at close range.
Tattooing (peppering/strippling) – caused by embedding off and burn and semi burn powder particles into the surface of the
target.
Dirt ring - heat of the bullet, deposited by some projectile which carry greases on them around the wound.
Pink coloration – caused by absorb carbon monoxide in the skin and flesh.
Contusion - caused by the impact of the projectile on the skin from reddish dark to bluish black.
(Test for the presence of the gunpowder residue)
Paraffin test or dermal nitrate test – test uses ”diphenylamine” or “ diphenyl benzidine introduced to a paraffin cast, which will
turn blue if there is a presence of nitrates. The oldest test to check residue on the hands.
- the oldest test the check residue on the hands, the hands were coated with paraffin or wax and the paraffin was tested with
DIPHENYLAMINE
Griess Test – press as a photographic paper on to the surface near the target, dance praise the paper with Sodium Rhodizomate.
The paper appears pink to violet color, nitrate is present.
Peter Griess – 1858 designed the test to measures the distance and angles.
Harrison gilroy test - test does not check the nitrates but rather for antimony, barium, and lead.
Marshall and Tiwari test - used to determine the firearms distance, both tests are for nitrates. Filter paper was soaked in
acetone and pressed on the target, if a deep yellow spotted nitrates are present.
Walker Test - a chemical test for the presence of nitrates in an burn or partially burned propellants. This test gives the
information about the range and the weapon was fired.

MODULE 6
Forensic ballistics – refers to firearms identification and investigation by means of ammunition fired through the firearm, the
science of analyzing firearm using in crimes
- This field of ballistic suggest a relationship to the courts of justice or legal proceedings
Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hall - pioneer in the field of forensic ballistics.
Forensic – as applied to ballistics or to any other subject, suggest a relationship to a court of justice and legal proceedings
Forum - Latin word means “marketplace” where people gather for public disputation and public discussion.
Ballistics fingerprinting – I the identification of the gun that fired a bullet from an analysis of the unique marks that every gun
makes on the bullet.
Firearm identification – a process of analyzing the bullet and cartridges cases left at the crime scene to determine if they came
from a particular firearm.
Field investigation - conducted by the first officer in the case in the field when they investigate a cases where in firearms have
been use.
Recognition – the process of identifying physical evidence at the crime scene.
Collection – the process of collecting pieces of evidence on the scene of the crime.
Marking – process of placing information on the physical evidence for identification.
Preservation - the investigating officer should exercise care and resourceful in curing the material that can be used to preserve
the physical evidence.
Transmittal – the investigating officer has to transmit this ballistic exhibit to their respective department and submit the same
to the duty desk officer.
Technical examinations - ballistics exhibits the job performed by the firearm examiner in the laboratory.
Legal proceedings / court trial – this is where the ballistics report of the firearm examiner and the ballistics exhibit the evidence
and presented during the trial of the case in the court of justice.

MODULE 7
Firearm - is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectiles by means of expansive force gases coming from burning
gunpowder
Firearm – refers to any handheld or portable weapon, deadly weapon
R.A no Act No. 10591 – an “act providing for comprehensive law on firearms and ammunition and providing penalties for
violations thereof” was signed into law on May 29, 2013.
Loose Firearm – refers to an unregistered firearm
Major parts – components of firearm refers to the barrel, slide, frame, receiver, cylinder, or bolt assembly.
Minor parts – firearm refers to the parts of the firearm other than the major parts which is necessary to effect and complete.
Antique firearm - 75 years old to the current date, not includes the replicas. Certified by the national museum of the
Philippines.
• Section 9. License issued to individuals –
Type 1 license - maximum of 2 registered firearms
Type 2 license - maximum of 5 registered firearms
Type 3 license – maximum 10 registered firearms
Type 4 license - maximum of 15 registered firearms
Type 5 license - must be certified gun collector to own more than 15 registered firearms.
For type 1 to 5 license - they need a vault or other security measures firearm shall be required.
Four types 3 to 5 license – the citizen must comply with the inspection and bond requirements.
Small arms – refers to firearms intended to be primarily designed for individuals use or that which is generally considered to
mean a weapon
Hand gun – a firearm intended to be fired from the hand
Pistol – a chamber integral with permanently aligned with the bore which may be self loading.
Revolver - with a revolving cylinder containing chambers for individual cartridges
Rifle – a shoulder firearms
Shotgun – made to fire a number of ball shots in a single projectile through a smooth bore.
Class A Light Weapons – refers to self-loading pistols, rifles and carbines, submachine guns, assault rifles and light machine guns
not exceeding caliber 7.62 mm
Class-B Light weapons - which refer to weapons designed for use by two (2) or more persons serving as a crew, or rifles and
machine guns exceeding caliber 7.62MM such as heavy machine guns, handheld underbarrel and mounted grenade launchers,
portable anti-aircraft guns, portable anti-tank guns, recoilless rifles, portable launchers of anti-tank missile and rocket systems,
portable launchers of antiaircraft missile systems, and mortars of a caliber of less than 100MM.

MODULE 8
(Classification of firearms)
Artillery - types of firearms that propel projectiles with more than one inch diameter
Small arms – firearms that propel projectiles with less than one inch diameter and can be handled move and operated by one
man.
Machine guns – type of firearm that is primarily design for military use. Have a automatically and semiautomatically.
Submachine Gun (grease gun) - a light, portable form of machine gun, a pistol size ammunition.
Shoulder arms - types of firearm that were normally fired from the shoulder.
Rifles - weapon design too far a projectile with more accuracy through a long rifle bore barrel.
Carbine - a short barrel rifle.
Muskets – ancient smooth bore and muzzle loading military shoulder arms design to fire a shot or a single round lead ball.
Shotgun - a smooth bore and breech loading shoulder arms design too far i numbers of lead pellets in one charge.
Handguns - firearms that are designed to be using one hand
Pistol –
Revolver – firearm with rotating cylinder serving as a chamber
Classification of firearms (according to interior barrel construction)
Smooth bore firearms – firearms that have no rifling, lands, and grooves inside their gun barrel.
Rifled bore firearms - that have a rifling or grooves inside the gun barrel.
(According to wounding power)
Low Velocity firearm – this firearm with muzzle velocity is not more than 1,400 feet per second
High-velocity / power firearm – this firearm with a muzzle velocity of more than 1,400 feet per second According to power
High-powered – those with big boars bigger in diameter including but not limited to caliber .40, .44, .45.
Low powered - include lesser in diameter such as a rim fire handgun
(Nature of the magazine)
Cylindrical revolving magazine firearm – the cartridge is located in a cylinder magazine that rotates at the rear portion of the
barrel.
Vertical or horizontal magazine - the cartridge is held one after another vertical or horizontal and also held in place by a spring
side to side or end to end.

(According to the manner of feeding)

Muzzle loading firearms – these are firearms on which the amination is fed through the muzzles. Ex. Muskets, mortars, & etc.
Clip loading firearms - firearms wherein a nation is held together on a clip as a unit, serving as its magazine. Ex. Garand Rifle
Magazine loading firearms - these are firearms that are fed by use of magazines. Ex. M16, M14, etc.
Breech loading firearms – firearms that are loaded on its breach. Ex. Howitzer.
Link or belt - weapons designed to receive cartridge in belt or link Ex. Caliber .50 Machine Gun, LMG M60.
(According to the firing mechanism)
Single action - is a weapon in which pressure on the trigger releasing the hammer that was manually cocked
Double action – trigger both cocks and release the hammer. This gun can be operated both through cocking the hammer and
squeezing the trigger directly or squeezing the trigger to cock the hammer.
Double action only (DAO) – this is the firearm in which the trigger system cocks and release release the hammer to fire the gun
after it shot, “hammerless firearm”
(According to the mechanical construction)
Single shot firearms – type of firearms designed to fire only one shot every loading.
Repeating arms – a type of firearms designed to fire several shots in one loading.
Automatic firearms - firearm that constitutes a continuous firing in a single press of trigger and holding the trigger.
Slide action type – firearms in which loading takes place by back and forth manipulation of the under and over firearms of the
gun. Ex. Pistols, shotgun.
Bolt Action type - firearms in which reloading takes place by manipulating the ball back and forth.
Lever type (brake type) - loading takes place by lever action on the firearms.
(Methods of operation / actuation of firearm)
Blowback system - system of operation for self loading firearms that obtains energy from motion of the cartridge case.
Locked breech system – Designed for a breach reloading firearms action.
Gas operated system – firearms that have a gas cylinder piston. Ex. Garand Rifle, M16 Armalite rifle.
Recoil operated – these are firearms that use recoil energy to operate.
Manually operated – firearms where in the cycle of operation is manually accomplished. Ex. Shotgun,
Rifles.
(Miscellaneous types of gun)
Freakish gun - a tool in which a firearm mechanism is attached to prevent easy identification.
Zip gun – homemade guns
Flare gun - design for tracing or sending signals or locating enemy troops
Gas gun – generally referring to all gas design from firing tear gas
Harpoon guns – spear in hunting large fish
Liberator – U.S government made the smooth bore gun used in europe during war design to fire an automatic colt pistol
cartridge caliber .45
Multi barreled gun – all types of gun containing a number of bottles
Paradox gun – a gun that contains land and grooves a few inch from the muzzle point.
Tools - are those device that resemble a gun design but are generally used for construction of furniture.
Traps – refers to guns used for trapping animals that are fired into the woods.

Module 9
AMMUNITION – refers to the loaded shells for rifles, musket, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, and pistols from which a ball,
shotshell, or other missiles may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosive.
- refers to a group of cartridges or to a single cartridge
CARTRIDGE – a completely unfired until consisting of the bullet (ball), primer (cap), cartridge case (shell), and gunpowder
(propellant)
RA 10591 - "Act Providing for a Comprehensive Law on Firearms and Ammunition and Providing Penalties for Violations thereof"
The word cartridge was derived from the Latin word "Charta" meaning - a "paper" and also from the French word "Cartouche"
meaning - a rolled paper.
KING GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS – of Sweden, is credited with inventing the first paper cartridge in 1635
(General types of Ammunition)
DUMMY (FAKE) MODEL - a type of ammunition that merely resembles the genuine one. It is a carefully made replica of a
cartridge, usually of tool steel and dimensioned to be used by the weapon's instructor and repairman when checking the
functioning of the weapon.
DRILL AMMUNITION (without gunpowder)- is a type of ammunition that is completely inert, without explosives, and is used in
mill training to practice loading and manipulation of the gun. It is sometimes called "dummy" although in the strict sense there
is a difference.
BLACK AMMUNITION (without a bullet)- ammunition without a bullet, containing gunpowder designed to generate a loud noise
to indicate firing. This type of ammunition is used for theatrical performances or filmmaking, training dogs, and military training.
LIVE AMMUNITION- is the term applied for the complete unit of the unfired cartridge
BULLETS The word "Bullet" was derived from the French word "Boulette" which means a small ball This term is generally used
when we are referring to projectiles fired from any small arms, which has a variety of forms, especially during the earlier history.
In a more technical sense, a bullet refers to a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from a firearm; it is sometimes
called shots or slugs.
LEAD TYPE - is a type of bullet that is basically composed of lead metal. Its use was due to its density; having a good weight is a
small size and easy for casting.
JACKETED TYPE - This is a type of bullet consisting of the regular lead core, coated with a copper alloy in order to prevent lead
fouling of the barrel, and is generally used in pistols and other high-power guns
BULLET/PROJECTILE/MISSILE/SLUG - A non-spherical projectile to be used in a rifled gun barrel
TIP - The extreme forward end of a bullet
MEPLAT - The blunt tip of some bullets, specifically the diameter of that blunt tip
OGIVE - The curved forward part of a bullet
NOSE - The forward end of a bullet, including the tip, the ogive, and the meplat (if present)
BULLET CANNELURE - The circumferential groove in a bullet is generally in a knurled or plain appearance for the purpose of
lubrication or identification, or to assist and crimping a bullet in the mouth of a cartridge case.
BEARING SURFACE - The portion of the outer surface of a bullet that makes direct contact with the interior surface of a gun
barrel.
BASE - The rear portion of the bullet
HEEL - The configuration of the intersection of the bearing surface and the base of a bullet
(TYPES OF BULLETS According to their Maximum Effect on their targets)
BALL TYPE - have soft cores and are used against personnel.
ARMOR-PIERCING - This is a type of military bullet designed to penetrate light steel armor. It has a hardened steel core of a
pointed, boat-tailed shape called tungsten, a very hard metallic element that can penetrate or even perforate vehicles and
other armored targets:
EXPLOSIVE BULLET - This is a small bullet containing a charge of explosive, which will detonate on impact
INCENDIARY BULLET - Type of military bullet used to cause a fire in a target, generally designed to use by aircraft armament in
order for the fuel tanks to ignite.
TRACER BULLET - a type of military bullet capable of leaving visible marks or traces while in flight giving the gunner the chance
to observe the strike of the shot or make adjustments in the event of a miss. The color of the fire produced by this kind of bullet
is bright red
EXPANDING BULLET - bullet such as hollow point (open point) and soft point design to fragment/expand upon impact. Also
called mushroom bullet
DUM-DUM BULLET - bullet made in India designed to inflict greater damage
BATON ROUND - wood bullet originated in Hongkong designed for riot and later replaced by a rubber bullet
Multiple Bullet-Duplex (2) bullets or Triplex (3) bullets in one cartridge
DISCARDING SABOT - also known as accelerator bullet, designed for greater velocity
SABOT is a centerfire rifle cartridge consisting of a copper jacketed bullet that is of a smaller caliber than the rifle it is fired in.
This smaller bullet is surrounded by a hard plastic sleeve or adaptor that allows it to be fired in a larger caliber firearm
FLECHETTE a number of the needle-like projectile in one cartridge.
FRANGIBLE - design for aerial shooting for practice.
STREAMLINE/BOAT - tail bullet-design to reduce drag.
WAD - Cutter Bullet is a cylindrical bullet design having a sharp shoulder intended to cut a target paper clearly to facilitate easy
and accurate scoring. This is designed for target shooting practice.
EXPLOSIVE contains a high charge of explosive designed to explode upon impact on the hard target. This is likewise known as a
fragmentary bullet
GLASER SAFETY SLUG is the specific bullet that is designed to break apart scattering numerous small Lead pellets throughout
the target. Each of the small pellets will create its own wound track and cause an enormous amount of bleeding.
GAS CHECK BULLET is used to prevent the melting of the base of the lead bullet intended to be fired at a higher velocity and
have its gases protected with small copper cups
HYDRA-SHOK is a type of expanding bullet used in commercial ammunition made by Federal Cartridge. They are meant to
provide more reliable expansion and deeper penetration
SPITZER BULLET is a European conical bullet that has no meplat. Meaning, this bullet has a tip that is purely pointed and
designed for a military rifle.

MODULE 10
Cartridge case – refers to the metallic or non-metallic tabular usually brass (70% copper and 30% zinc) designed to unite the
bullet, primer and the gunpowder into one unit.
Cartridge cases of all types are made by a machine operation known as “DRAWING”
(Types of Cartridge case)
Straight – a type of a cartridge case or shell which has a straight body usually found on cartridge used an automatic weapon
Tapered – a type of cartridge case similar to a flower vase
(Parts of Cartridge Case)
BOTTLE-NECK – type of cartridge case commonly found in ammunition for rifles
BASE - The bottom portion of the cartridge case contains the headstamp marking on the base of the shell containing the caliber,
manufacturer, and in some cases including the date, trade name, and batch number.
RIM - The part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement of the cartridge to the chamber.
EXTRACTING GROOVES - The circular groove near the rim of the shell designed for automatic withdrawal of the case from the
chamber.
PRIMER POCKET - The part of the shell that provides the means for the primer to be put in the central position. Its function is
extended to (a) hold the primer in place; (b) to provide means to prevent the escape of gas; (c) to provide a solid support for
primer anvil.
BODY - The cylindrical part of the shell that houses the gunpowder.
SHOULDER - The part of the cartridge case that supports the neck of the cartridge is evident in a bottleneck type.
SHELL CANNELURE - The cylindrical groove in the outer surface of the cartridge case is designed to secure the shell to the
chamber as well as prevent the bullet from being pushed down to the powder charge. In some instances, it is even being utilized
for identification.
NECK - The part of the shell that is actually occupied by the bullet. This is obvious in a bottleneck type of shell but not with the
straight type.
CRIMP - The cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell is designed for two purposes: One (1) is to hold the bullet and prevent
it from being pulled out from the shell and Two (2) to offer resistance to the bullet out of the neck to ensure burning of the gun
powder.
VENT OR FLASH HOLE - The hole at the bottom of the primer pocket is the passageway for the priming mixture to impart an
ignition to the propelled.
MOUTH - The part responsible for holding the bullet.
Pin-Fire It was invented by a Frenchman named Houllier (1836). A cartridge where a pin extends radially through the head of
the cartridge case into the primer. The firearm designed to be used in this kind of cartridge was a revolver type invented by
another French police named Monsieur Le Faucheux. As a result, the pin-fire cartridge was credited to him though he was not
the real inventor.
Rim fire It was invented by Louis Nicolas Auguste Flobert in1845 a French who developed the "bullet breech cap" which was, in
reality, the first rimfire cartridge. The rim-fire cartridge is so-called because the detonator (priming mixture) is placed anywhere
in the cavity formed in the rim of the head of the cartridge case.
Centerfire - was made by the Morse where the priming mixture or the primer cup is placed at the middle portion of the head of
the cartridge case. The firing pin impression can be found apparently at the center of the base of the cartridge. (There are two
(2) Primer Ignition Systems for centerfire cartridges:)
Boxer Type. This is one that has only a single, centrally located flash hole.
Berdan Type. These are cartridges designed to have two (2) flash holes.
Rimmed Cartridge Cases. These are cartridge cases having an extractor flange that is larger than the diameter of the cartridge
case body. Letter "R" is added after the case numbers in the metric system of caliber designation.
Semi-rimmed Cartridge Cases. These are cartridge cases having an extractor flange that is slightly larger in diameter than the
cartridge case body and also have a groove around the body of the case just in front of the flange. The metric designation for
these cartridges is "SR".
Rimless Cartridge Cases. These are cartridge cases having an extractor flange whose diameter is the same as that of the
cartridge case body and also have a groove around the body of the case in front of the flange. In the metric system of caliber
design, no letter is used for this type of cartridge case.
Rebated cartridge case. It has an extractor flange that is smaller than the diameter of the case. A groove around the body of the
case is present in front of the flange. The metric designation is "RB".
Belted Cartridge Case. It has a pronounced, raised belt encircling the cartridge case body in front of the groove in the body. The
diameter of the extractor flange is immaterial. The metric designation is "B".
PRIMER (also called CAP) Is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire type, containing a highly sensitive chemical
compound that, which when struck by the firing pin would "detonate or ignite". This phenomenon is known as "percussion"
Alexander John Forsyth - a Scotch Presbyterian minister, chemist and a hunter and a well-authority to firearm who is credited
for being the first to conceive the idea of using the detonating compound for igniting powder charges in small arms by
"percussion" and in 1807 he obtained a patent for this idea.
(Parts of the Primer)
Primer Cup Is the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming mixture, the disc, and the anvil.
Priming Mixture Is the highly sensitive chemical compound that ignites by the mechanical blow of the firing pin. Also called
percussion powder.
Anvil Is that portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs the blow of the firing pin causing friction that would
initiate ignition
Disc is a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order to protect it from moisture
Boxer Type Primer is invented by Col. Ellie Munier Boxer, a British Army officer, who identified that the Anvil is a separate piece
of metal in the primer and contains one vent or flash hole located at the center of the upper portion of the primer. Boxer primer
was patented on June 29, 1869.
Berdan Type Primer is introduced by Col. Hiram Berdan of the United States Army. He stated the fact that the Anvil is not an
integral part of the primer but of the cartridge case and has two vents or flash holes situated at both sides of the upper portion
of the primer. Berdan type was patented on March 20, 1866.
Corrosive Primer - contains potassium chlorate which when ignited, produces potassium chloride. Potassium chloride draws
moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun barrels.
Non-corrosive Primer - the advances in "primer chemistry over the years have produced new composition in which the
potassium chlorate has been eliminated by the substitution of other chemicals These newest primers are of the non-corrosive
type and have practically replaced the corrosive type.
(Typical Mercuric Primers)
Potassium Chlorate (45%) - acts both as an initiator and fuel
Antimony Sulfide (23%) - is the frictional element and fuel
Fulminate of Mercury (32%) - act as an initiator

MODULE 11
Gun powder – also called propellant or Power Charge) It is a mixture of chemicals of various compositions designed to propel
the projectile by means of its expansive force of gas when burned.
Deflagration - is the process of rapid and confined burning of the propellant.
ROGER BACON – an English monk and scientist, credited for the invention of gunpowder in 1248.
BERTHOLD SCHWARTZ (real name CONSTANTINE ANKLITZEN) – A German monk, recognized for the application of gunpowder
to the propelling of a bullet in early 1300.
CLASSIFICATION OF GUNPOWDER
BLACK POWDER - The first gunpowder to be discovered by Roger Bacon and Berthold Schwartz, the English and the German
monks respectively, is the oldest among the propellant with the following characteristics.
Three qualities / composition of black powder
Potassium nitrate / Saltpeter 75%
Charcoal 15%
Sulfur 10%
Quick flash – when ignited, it will burn itself without aid from the outside air rapidly.
SEMI-SMOKELESS POWDER - In the late 1890s and early 1900s semi-smokeless powder began to be used as a substitute for
black powder.
(Composition of semi smokeless powder)
Sulfur
Potassium nitrate
Charcoal
Nitrocellulose
Smokeless powder – The most powerful among the propellant. This type of powder is commonly used now in modern small UH
arms ammunition.
- Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine as the major ingredients, mixed with one or more minor ingredients such as centralite,
Vaseline esters, inorganic salts and etc.
Three ingredients / composition of smokeless powder
Nitrocellulose - 60 parts
Nitroglycerin - 35 parts
Vaseline - 5 parts

(MAIN CLASSES OF SMOKELESS POWDER)

Single-Based Propellant – contains only pure nitrocellulose.
Double-Based Propellant- are those having nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine as their major a ingredients, mixed with minor
ingredients such as; centralite, Vaseline phthalate esters, and inorganic salts. This is commonly used in handguns and rifle
cartridge’s
Triple-Based Propellant – a combination of nitroglycerin, nitro-guanidine, and nitroglycerine as ingredients. Commonly used in
artillery guns.
High Ignition Temperature Propellant – is a type of propellant in which the main constituent is from RDX(Royal Demolition
explosive) group of high explosives. This is a caseless cartridge.
CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH SCHONBEIN - First introduced the GUNCOTTON or NITRATED COTTON, a nitrocellulose-based material
and principal ingredient of smokeless powder in 1846. He also promoted its use as a blasting explosive.
PAUL VIEILLE – a French engineer working on behalf of the French government, invented a good smokeless powder for rifles in
1884 which is called POUDRE B, made from gelatinized guncotton ARAHO mixed with ether and alcohol.
ALFRED NOBEL – developed smokeless gunpowder called BALLISTITE in GREAT BRITAIN in 1887.
SIR FREDERICK ABEL and JAMES DEWAR – responsible for the modification of ballistite which eventually became known as
CORDITE.
HUDSON MAXIM – obtained a patent for smokeless powder in the USA in 1890.
GUNPOWDER RESIDUE ANALYSIS - The powder is never totally burned when a gun is fired. The residues are thrown out quite
some distance (as well as backward in a cloud-like formation).
Infrared photography – will usually reveal even the most minute traces of powder residue.
MUZZLE TO TARGET DISTANCE
A halo of soot around the hole is usually 12-18 inches.
A halo with specks usually 18-25 inches.
Specks only 25-36+ inches
(GUNSHOTS HOLES or WOUNDS CATEGORIES)
Contact wound – the muzzle point is directly touching the target when the gun is fired.
Close Range – when the gun is fired, the muzzle point is near closely at the target.
Distant-there is a vast range or gap between the muzzle and the target and brings great problems to the analyst in determining
the approximate muzzle to target distance.
Explosive – Is a stable material that upon proper stimulation rapidly changes from a solid or liquid into a hot, expanded gas.
TNT (trinitrotoluene) -Is one of the most commonly used high explosives in the world. Discovered in 1863 for use in the dye
industry, TNT is produced by reacting toluene with nitric acid in the presence of sulfuric acid.
Dynamite – Is a powerful explosive made by mixing the highly unstable liquid nitroglycerin with an absorbent, inert material
such as sawdust, wood pulp, or diatomaceous earth.
Bomb – Is a container filled with explosive, incendiary matter, or gas that can be dropped, hurled, or set in place to be
detonated by an attached exploding device.
Grenade – Is a small bomb filled with explosives or chemicals. It can be thrown by hand (hand grenade) or launched from a rifle
(rifle grenade) or a special grenade launcher.
Paraffin Test – The oldest test in existence (1933) and was designed to check for the residue on the hands.
Nitrates – are the most common unburned part of the gunpowder residue.
Griess Test (Peter Griess 1858) - Designed to assist with the measurement of distances and angles. The examiner presses aos
photographic paper onto the surfaces near the target, then sprays the paper with SODIUM RHODIZONATE and pink to violet
color appears if nitrates were present.
Harrison Gilroy Test - Do not check for nitrate at all, but for antimony, barium, and lead using the same paper color change
indicator.

MODULE 12
How the Barrel is Made? - All barrels, regardless of the type of weapon for which they are made, are being manufactured from
a solid piece of metal.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A BARREL STEEL
Machinability – The ability of the steel to be easily cut and shaped.
Durability – The ability of the steel to last a long time.
Strength - The quality or state of being strong.
Deliberate transfer marks – marks cause intention
Accidental transfer marks – marks cause accidental
(STEPS IN MAKING GUN BARREL)
Drilling – is the first step and the most difficult among the process. A Special Deep-Hole Drill is used through the center of which
the lubricating oil is forced under pressure.
Reaming – this is the next step to remove the scars and scratches left by the drilling operations in the entire length.
Rifling Process – putting of rifling in bore. The rifling in the bore may be produced by one of the following methods;
Broach Gang – a tool having a series of cutting edges of slightly increasing height used to cut the spiral grooves in a barrel. All
grooves are cut with a single pass of the broach.
Broach Single – A non-adjustable rifling cutter that cuts all the grooves simultaneously and is in a series of increasing dimensions
until the desired grooved depth is achieved.
Button – a hardened metal plug called a “button” affixed to a long rod with a rifled cross-section configuration. Similar to the
broaching system the “button” is pulled or pushed through the barrel and twisted only once forming all spiral grooves to the
desired depth and twist in a single pass.
Hook Cutter – A cutting tool that has a hook shape and only cuts one groove at a time. Several passes are made through a
groove, removing only a little metal each time, until the desired groove depth is attained.
Scrape – A cutting tool that cuts two opposing grooves at a time. This method is practically the same as the hook-cutter type,
but it uses a different form of cutting edge.
Swage (hammer forging) – An internal mandrel with a rifling configuration which forms rifling in the barrel through external
hammering.
ElectroChemical Rifling – is formed by wet-etching the interior part of the barrel underus an electric current which dissolves the
metal to create grooves in the barrel.

(TYPES OF RIFLINGS (LANDS AND GROOVES))

Steyer Type (4 RG=L) Carbine Type (4RG2X).
Smith and Wesson (5RG=L)
Colt (6LG2X)
Browning (6RG2X)
Webley(7RG3X)
Winchester(6RG3x)
Army Type(4RG3X)
Lapping – This is the polishing operation in which a lead plug closely fitting the inside of the barrel is drawn back and forth on a
rod carrying with it a polishing compound.
Chambering Process – This is the final step in making a gun barrel. Chambering or cutting away of the breech end of the barrel
where the cartridge or shotgun shell is to fit.
BREECHFACE MANUFACTURE - Another stage of firearm manufacturing that is very important in identifying the firearm is the
finishing operations on the breech face of the weapon.

MODULE 13
BULLET AND SHELL IDENTIFICATION - To find out the real identity of the shells and bullets and to determine whether they are of
the same origin.
Physical examination - which is purely intended to determine the class characteristics with or without the aid of a microscope.
Microscopic examination - will be used to compare further the congruence and or similarity of scratches or markings made by
the firearm.
Class Characteristics – are those properties or attributes of firearms which can be determined even before the manufacture of
the gun.
- Before the final match with the aid of the microscope is being conducted by the firearm examiner for the congruency of the
individual characteristics of the two specimens under comparison.
Class Characteristics of Firearms are;
Bore diameter (caliber or gauge) - is the diameter to which the bore was reamed. The distance measured between two
opposite lands inside the bore is in hundredths or thousandths of an inch. Most express in either caliber in inch or in
millimeters.
The number of lands and grooves – the number of lands and grooves inside the barrel of a given firearm are always the same or
equal. It may run from 3 to 8, but the most modern firearms are five and six.
Width of the lands – is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, grooves, width, and number. The lands are the
remainder of the circumference after subtracting all the groove’s width.
Width of the Grooves – is measured as the shortest distance between the two dies or edge of grooves.
The direction of Twist – rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to the left or to the right which causes the bullet to
rotate as it passes through the bore, in order to ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight.
Pitch of Rifling – it is the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves. It refers to measure of the distance advanced by the
rifling in order to make a complete turn inside the barrel.
Rate of Twist – is the expression for one complete turn of the rifling on a certain length of the barrel. We say the twist rate is
1:12 when there is one complete spiral groove in 12 inches of the barrel.
Fast Twist – When the number of inches of the barrel required for a complete turn is small, like 1:7;
Slow Twist - When a greater number of inches in the barrel is necessary to have one complete turn, like 1:14;
8. Depth of the Grooves – the groove’s depth is measured on a radius of the bore. Grooves are usually a few thousandths of an
inch deep, which is equal to the height of the land.
Lands - are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.
Grooves – are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.
The following are the Class Characteristics of Firearms;
Steyr Type – is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right twist, and the width of U the lands and grooves are
equal. (4 RG-L)
Carbine type - Rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the grooves is two (2) times the width of the lands.
(4RG2X)
Smith and Wesson – rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right-hand twist, the width of the land, and Grooves are equal. (5RG=L)
Colt – a type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width of the grooves is twice (2) the width of the lands.
(6LG2X)
Browning – a type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right-hand twist, the width of the grooves is twice the width of the
lands. (6RG2X)
Webley – Rifling has seven (7) lands and grooves, right-hand twist, the width of the groove is three times larger than the lands.
(7RG3X)
Winchester – Rifling has six (6) lands and grooves, right-hand twist, the width of the grooves is three times larger than the width
of the lands. (6RG3X)

MODULE 14
Individual Characteristics - are meant for those characteristics which are being determined only after the firearm was already
been manufactured
TWO TYPES OF MARKINGS (INDIVIDUAL)
Impression type – those markings caused by direct pressure contact. (ex. Breech face mark).
Striated mark – those markings caused by sliding contact. (ex. Minute striations on the cylindrical
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS
Land Marks - marks left on a fired bullet caused by its contact to the elevated portion (lands) of the bore of the firearm. It
appears as slight depressions or scratches on the cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.
Groove Marks – marks found on a fired bullet caused by the grooves of the barrel which is the same number as that of the
landmarks.
Skid Marks – Marks that are generally found on a fired bullet from a revolver. It is more or less located at the anterior portion of
the fired bullet due to its forward movement from the chamber to the barrel of the gun before it initially rotates.
Stripping Marks – marks found on that bullet fired from a “loose-fit” barrel wherein the rifling are already been badly worn-out.
Worn-out – can be caused by either chemical reaction brought about by rust (corrosion) or through excessive use (erosion).
CORROSION - Chemical wear and tear of the inside of the barrel due to rust formation or chemical reaction by products of
combustion during firing.
EROSION - Mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to mechanical abrasion or sliding friction.
Shaving Marks - marks commonly found on a bullet fired from a revolver caused by its forward movement to the barrel that is
poorly aligned to the cylinder.
Slippage Marks – marks found on fired bullets passing through either on the oily or oversize barrel.
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS
Firing Pin Mark – mark generally found at the base portion of the cartridge case more specifically near the center of the primer
cup in a centerfire cartridge or at the rim cavity of a rim-fire cartridge
Breech Face Mark – mark found at the base portion of the shell caused by the backward movement to the breech face of the
block of the firearm.
Extractor Marks – usually found in a striated form, are those created by the extractor of most auto-loading or repeating
firearms.
Ejector mark – mark generally found on cartridge case fired from an automatic firearm.
Shearing Mark – sometimes called “Secondary Firing Pin mark” found in the primer near the firing pin mark.
Magazine Lip Mark – marking found at the two sides of the rim cause by the magazine lips during the loading of the cartridge
into the magazine for firing.

MODULE 15
PRELIMINARY FIREARMS INVESTIGATION (C.S. SEARCH) PROCEDURE AT THE CRIME SCENE
Steps to be followed upon arrival at the crime scene:
1. Recording - The investigator begins the process of recording pertinent facts and details of the investigation the
moment he arrives at the crime scene. (He should record the time when he was initially notified prior to his arrival).
He also writes down the identification of persons involved and what he initially saw.
2. Searching for Evidence - Each crime is different, according to the physical nature of the scene and the crime or offense
involved. Consequently, the scene is processed in accordance with the prevailing physical characteristics of the scene
and with the need to develop essential evidentiary facts peculiar to the offense. A general survey of the scene is always
made, however, to note the locations of obvious traces of action, the probable entry and exit points used by the
offender(s), and the size and shape of the area involved
The following are the different methods of search:
 Strip Search Method – Applicable when the shooting incident took place in a small closed area. In this method, the
area is blocked out in the form of a rectangle.
 Line/ Wall Method – This is an elaborate modification of the strip search procedure. This procedure can be effective,
particularly in large areas, but it is also hazardous in terms of evidence destruction.
 Double Strip Method – Applicable when shooting incidents took place in a bigger area. The double strip or grid method
of search is a modification of the Strip Search Method. Here, the rectangle is traversed first parallel to the base then
parallel to the aside.
 Wheel Method – In this method of search, the area is considered to be approximately circular. The searchers gather at
the center and proceed outward along radii or spokes.
 Spiral Method – In this method, the three searchers follow each other along the path of a spiral, beginning on the
outside and spiraling in toward the center.
 Zone Method – In this method, it is recommended in unusually wide areas where a searcher or group of searchers are
assigned to each zone or sub-zone.
3. Collection of evidence - Great care should be exercised when collecting physical evidence. Be sure that you “don’t
MAC” the evidence. MAC means M – mutilate the evidence, A- alter the very nature of the evidence, and C-
contaminate the evidence.
How to collect firearm(s) at the scene of the crime - At the scene, the firearm should be picked up by the investigator using a
handkerchief or small string, or small wire inserted through the “trigger guard” of the firearm.
  Be sure that in picking up the suspected firearm, the muzzle point of the barrel is not pointed towards the person
picking it up, nor it is pointed to anyone in the vicinity.
 It is a revolver and is in the full cocked position, there’s always the danger of a little amount of jamring” when picking
up as the gun might fire, causing additional shooting or accident.
4. Marking of Physical Evidence - Like fired bullets, fired shells, firearms or other objects or items is very significant on the
part of the investigator that he can readily identify this evidence during the trial of the case in court at the witness
stand. If this physical evidence cannot be readily identified during the trial, they become “inutile thus serve no
evidentiary value at all. Identification is easily determined by means of a “mark” or label which has been placed on the
physical evidence.
The following steps are used when marking physical evidence or ballistics exhibits:
 Use a distinctive mark such as the initials of the recovering officer.
 Record the mark used and the position of the marks present on the object.
 Record the serial number or other distinctive marks present on the object.
 Mark the object itself, taking care not to damage or alter it.
 Always mark the container in which the object is placed even the object itself is already marked.
 When tags are used, mark the corresponding entry in the tag and attach it securely to the object
The field investigator can do this by the use of STYLUS, SCRIBER, SHARP KNIFE, or any pointed instrument. In cases wherein
the nose or anterior or anterior portion of the fired bullet is badly damaged or deformed, the markings should be placed at the
base portion of the bullet.
How and where to mark fired BULLETS
 Fired bullets should be marked with the following: (Initials of the Recovering Officer, Date of Recovery, and Order or
Manner of Recovery)
 Fired Bullets should be marked on the following parts: (Nose, Anterior, and Base)
How and where to mark fired CARTRIDGE CASES
Fired cartridge case should be marked with the following: (Initials of the Recovering Officer, Date of Recovery, and Order or
Manner of recovery)
Fired cartridge case should be marked on the following parts: (Inside, near the open mouth or Outside, near the open
mouth)
How and where to mark SUSPECTED FIREARM
The suspected firearm, besides noting down its pertinent features in connection with the collection of the physical
evidence, should be marked with the following: (Initials of the Recovering Officer, Date of Recovery, and Order or Manner of
Recovery)
Preservation of Physical Evidence - Physical evidence like firearms, fired bullets, fired shells, and the like, should be properly
preserved for future identification and presentation during the litigation of the case. Fired bullets and fired shells, should be
wrapped in tissue paper and sealed in a pillbox, matchbox, vial, or any similar container. The container should also be properly
labeled
5. Wrapping or packaging materials - The investigating officer should exercise care and resourcefulness in securing
wrapping or packaging materials that he can use to preserve his physical evidence. He should always bear in mind the
value of preserving the evidentiary value of his ballistics exhibits
6. Transmittal of the Physical Evidence - Once the officer has collected and marked all the physical evidence, he has to
transmit these ballistics exhibits to their respective departments and submit the same to the DUTY DESK OFFICER or to
the duly designated receiving officer in their office.

MODULE 16
What is the importance of fired bullet/shell in firearms identification?
 By means of fire bullet/shell you can determine the particular barrel or breech face of firearm used.
 A recovered bullet/shell can tell the type, caliber, and make of firearm from which it was fired.
 Can determine also the condition of the firearm use
Shell identification
1. The breech face and the striker of every single firearm leave microscopically individualities of their own. The
firearm leaves its “fingerprint” or “thumb mark” on every cartridge which is fired
2. The whole principle of identification is based on the fact that since the breechface of every weapon must be
individually distinct, the cartridge case which it fires is imprinted with this individuality.
3. The imprints on all cartridges fired from the same weapon are the same and those cartridges fired from different
weapons must always be different.
What are the possible equipment and materials needed in conducting the examination?
 Caliper/Micrometer
 Camera
 Engraver/ electric gun marker or scribe
 Personal protective equipment
 Scale/balance
 Stereo microscope and/or comparison microscope
 Various light sources suitable for the examination of ammunition and/or ammunition components
 Various tools necessary for disassembly of ammunition. Some of these may be specialty tools.
What are the procedures for the examination and documentation of ammunition and/or ammunition components?
1. Test Preparations – Use appropriate personal protective equipment when handling evidence contaminated with
chemical and/or biological hazards.
2. Documentation – Document the examination. Acceptable forms of documentation include, but are not limited to,
worksheets, laboratory notes, sketches, photographs, or a combination thereof. Documentation shall be prepared
contemporaneously with the examination.
3. Evidence Handling – Document the condition of the evidence packaging as received and mark the packaging in
accordance with laboratory protocols. Mark the evidence for identification in accordance with laboratory protocols.
Care should always be taken to ensure no markings interfere with or damage areas of interest, such as those that bear
toolmarks suitable for comparison.
4. Initial Examination – Conduct a preliminary examination of the ammunition and/or ammunition components and
document the condition as received. If severely damaged, no further examination may be possible. For items that are
 suitable for further examination, proceed with the steps in Physical Examination that are appropriate to the item type.
Document the presence of any foreign or trace material adhering to the ammunition/ammunition components.
Collect and preserve any pertinent material in accordance with laboratory policy.
5. Physical Examination and Documentation – Document the following specimen, as appropriate: Unfired Ammunition,
Fired Cartridge Cases, Fired Shotshell Cases, Fired Bullets/Projectiles
6. Test Reports – The test report shall include a description of any ammunition and/or ammunition components that are
examined, as appropriate. The information included in a test report may be limited by the quality of the evidence.
Technical Examinations of Ballistics Exhibits - It is the job performed by the firearm examiners in the laboratory which includes
the following: marking of physical evidence, test-firing of evidence firearm, photomicrography by using bullet comparison
microscope, making of the report as to the result of the examination and preparation of comparative chart.
1. Marking of physical evidence – Physical evidence bullets, cartridge cases, and suspected firearms once submitted by
the requesting party will be physically examined to determine its markings or initials made by the investigator for
identification purposes.
2. Test firing of evidence firearms – The firearm is to be test-fired before a bullet recovery box to obtain test bullets and
test cartridge cases for comparison with the evidence bullets and evidence cartridge cases respectively. To have a
reliable and concrete result of the comparison, there are three ammunitions needed. Each of them has a specific
purpose so to obtain the desired reliability of the output of comparison. The first ammunition is preliminary, the
second is confirmation, and the third is for the conclusion. Before firing, the cartridge will be marked at the side of the
case and on the nose portion of the bullet with a letter “T” (Test) followed by the last two digits of the Serial Number
of the firearm and the order of the test firing to be made (e.g.) T-38-1) to distinguish the number 1 test from the
number 2 or 3, as the case may be.
3. Photomicrography (bullet comparison microscope) – After the recovery of the test bullets and test cartridge cases,
they will be placed with the evidence bullets and evidence cartridge cases under the bullet comparison microscope in
side by side position “Juxta Position” and later to have an accurate result of the comparison, both specimens be
adjusted at the center to be overlapped by the hairline structure to facilitate “Intermarriage Comparison”, that is to
make two specimen as one.
 Juxta Position – that is the two objects, evidence bullet or shell and test bullet or shell are examined and compared: at the
same direction, at the same magnification, at the same image, at the same level or plane or the placement of the evidence
specimen and test-fired specimen in side by side position.
 Intermarriage – refers to the position of both evidence and test-fired specimen, wherein half of the same image of
evidence specimen and half of the same image of the test-fired specimen are merged into one image.
What to compare?
1. Evidence Specimen
2. Test/Standard Specimen
Evidence Specimen refers to the questioned specimens which can either be ballistic evidence (related to firearms) or allied
matters (not related to firearms) that are usually placed in the left objective in the comparison process. If ballistics evidence, the
most common to be recovered for comparison is either bullets or shells.
Evidence bullets - are those recovered from the scene of the crime when the field investigation is being Conducted.
Evidence cartridge cases - are those recovered from the crime scene or from the cylinder or chamber of the firearm with the
markings on the base portion that is in contact with the breech face of the firearm that touches the rear portion of the shell in
firing position.
Test Fired Specimen - refers to standard specimen placed on the right objective in the comparison process. It is to be obtained
after the test firing of the firearm once recovered and collected from the scene of the crime as evidence. This standard is used
to compare with the questioned to find out whether the latter fired from the evidence firearm.
Test bullets - are those recovered from the bullet recovery box for comparison with the evidence bullets under the bullet
comparison microscope.
Test cartridge cases - are those recovered after test-firing of a suspected firearm for comparison with the fired or evidence
cartridge cases under the bullet comparison microscope.

MODULE 17
Evidence/ Questioned Specimen – it refers to the questioned specimen which can either be ballistic evidence (related to
firearms) or allied matters (not related to firearms) that are usually placed in the left objective in the comparison process. If
ballistics evidence, the most common to be recovered for comparison is either bullets or shells.
 Evidence bullets - are those recovered from the scene of the crime when the field investigation Is being conducted.
 Evidence cartridge cases - are those recovered from the crime scene or from the cylinder or chamber of the firearm
with the markings on the base portion that is in contact with the breech face of the firearm that touches the rear
portion of the shell in firing position
Test Fired / Standard Specimen – refers to standard specimen placed on the right objective in the comparison process. It is to
be obtained after the test firing of the firearm once recovered and collected from the scene of the crime as evidence. This
standard is used to compare with the questioned to find out whether the latter fired from the evidence firearm.
 Test bullets - are those recovered from the bullet recovery box for comparison with the evidence bullets under the
bullet comparison microscope.
 Test cartridge cases - are those recovered after test-firing of a suspected firearm for comparison with the fired or
evidence cartridge cases under the bullet comparison microscope.
Test Firing – The firearm is test-fired before a bullet recovery box in order to obtain test bullets and test cartridge cases for
comparison with the evidence bullets and cartridge cases.
Making Standards
 A suspect firearm is test-fired into a water-filled tank or bullet recovery box
 The spent projectile is recovered from the bottom of the tank or inside the bullet recovery box
 The fired casings are collected off the floor of the room these known standards are used to compare to unknown
Evidence.
Different levels received condition of a Bullet
• Pristine (great for comparison) – A bullet is impressed with the rifling markings of the barrel when it emerges from the
weapon.
Methods of Conducting Test Firing
  Water Bullet Recovery Tank - Test bullet is fired in a closed container filled with water. The muzzle of a firearm is
placed on the open tube at the end of the container and a bullet is fired. The water recovery tanks were fabricated
locally. The tanks were typically oriented horizontally and measured approximately ten feet long and five feet high.
Water filled the tank to just below the firing port. The firing port was angled to facilitate shooting diagonally from the
top edge of one end of the tank to the bottom of the opposite end. Indoor vertical tanks are generally not used as they
are impractical.
 Bullet Catcher Collection Chamber - The chamber of the Bullet Catcher is filled with ballistics or cotton, which are
commonly used in bullet retrieval chambers. Ballistic fibers are nonflammable, so there is no risk of rife.
The traditional cotton box is usually constructed of wood or one-eighth to one-quarter inch thick metal plates. The box
is typically approximately ten feet long and eighteen inches high and wide, with a hinged lid on the top and a firing port
at one end. The box is filled with cotton waste material that decelerates bullets fired through the port.
The advantages of this type of bullet recovery apparatus are
 Simple
 Inexpensive
 Easily assembled from readily available materials using in-house agency resources.
The following is a general description of the process to be performed and documented for function and bullet recovery test
firing: Bullet Recovery
1. Properly mark cartridge case and bullets.
2. Determine the appropriate recovery medium (water, cotton, etc.).
3. Load firearm with one marked cartridge.
4. Place the firearm into the recovery system firing opening 5. Announce intention to fire.
5. Discharge the firearm.
6. Repeat steps 3-6 until a number of test fires required (by laboratory policy) are complete.
7. Recover bullets and cartridge cases

Techniques of Examination to be conducted after acquiring test specimen

 Physical Examinations
 Microscopic Examinations
 Findings/Conclusion
Test fired specimen – It is to be obtained after the test firing of the firearm once recovered and collected from the scene of the
crime as evidence. This standard is used to compare with the questioned to find out whether the latter fired from the evidence
firearm.
Bullet recovery box – This can be used to recover bullets from all pistols and rifles to be examined. The box is filled with cotton
waste material that decelerates bullets fired through the port.
Evidence bullet – These are recovered from the scene of the crime when the field investigation is being conducted. This
evidence is usually examined for the identity of the firearm used.
Pristine - These condition of the bullet is great for comparison purposes. It is a bullet impressed with the rifling markings of the
barrel when it emerges from the weapon.
Evidence Specimen – This evidence is referred to the questioned specimens which can either be ballistic evidence or allied
matters. This evidence is usually placed in the left objective of the comparison microscope.

MODULE 18
Marking of Physical Evidence - Like fired bullets, fired shells, firearms or other objects or items is very significant on the part of
the investigator that he can readily identify this evidence during the trial of the case in court at the witness stand.
How and where to mark FIRED BULLETS - Fired bullets should be marked with the following: (Initials of the Recovering Officer,
Date of Recovery, and Order or Manner of Recovery).
Fired Bullets should be marked on the following parts: (Nose, Anterior, and Base, Ogive)
How and where to mark fired CARTRIDGE CASES - Fired cartridge case should be marked with the following: (Initials of the
Recovering Officer, Date of Recovery, and Order or Manner of Recovery)
Fired cartridge case should be marked on the following parts: (Inside, near the open mouth or Outside, near the open mouth).
Neck)
How and where to mark SUSPECTED FIREARM - The suspected firearm, besides noting down its pertinent features in
connection with the collection of the physical evidence, should be marked with the following: (Initials of the Recovering Officer,
Date of Recovery, and Order or Manner of Recovery).
Marking a Test Fired Specimen
 Test Firing – The firearm is test fired before a bullet recovery box in order to obtain test bullets and test cartridge cases for
comparison with the evidence bullets and cartridge cases, respectively.
 Electric Gun Marker - Used in the laboratory for marking fired bullets, fired shells, and firearms submitted for examination.
 Stylus - Instrument was used by the investigators to mark certain metal evidence such as fired bullets, Fired shells, and firearms.

MODULE 19
BALLISTICS REPORT WRITING - After a forensic specialist completes his analysis of a sample, he must summarize his findings and
conclusions in a written report, which another specialist review and either verify or disputes.
When a firearm is submitted for examination, it is important to note whether the condition of the firearm is serviceable or not.
The examination of pellets is the hardest examination because of the absence of the land and groove marks.
The usual findings include
1. The gauge of the shotgun as determined by the presence of the wad which shows the gauge
2. Kind of shot shells
Purposes of Writing an Investigation Report
1. To provide a permanent record of information obtained in the course of an investigation.
2. To communicate the information obtained in an investigation.
3. To provide other investigators with a basis for the continuation of an investigation.
4. To enable the supervisor-officer to review the work of the investigator in determining whether the investigation is
properly developed or not;
 5. To provide the proper authorities with a permanent record of facts of the crime: the perpetrator, names and
addresses of witnesses; the nature and location of physical evidence; and other matters pertaining to the crime
The Important Principles in Report Writing
1. Accuracy - is achieved by relating the information, which was gained through physical senses to an investigation.
An Investigator should be able to distinguish the following:
 Fact from hearsay
 Fact from opinion
 Fact from the conclusion
2. Completeness – is achieved by narrating the facts discovered during the course of the investigation. When in doubt, the
investigator must report the following:
 What information is lacking?
 What efforts should be made to obtain the information?
 Why was the information not obtained?
 What must be done to obtain the lacking information?
3. Brevity – is achieved by excluding from the report the unnecessary details, but at the same time achieving completeness by
including all relevant, pertinent, and essential information. A lengthy report does not mean the investigator did a good
job.
4. Impartiality – is achieved by, as a rule, reporting facts without any addition or deduction. The investigator should not
conceal any information and should remain unbiased in the course of an investigation or examination.
5. Fore - refers to the front part of the report; is achieved by arranging the contents of the report in such a way that it is easy
to identify any section, part, or items of the materials presented and their visual arrangements.

MODULE 20
BALLISTICS SCIENTIFIC EQUIPMENT
1. Bullet Comparison Microscope – The Bullet Comparison Microscope is the most important scientific equipment in a typical
Ballistics Laboratory.
2. Stereoscopic Microscope – It is generally used in the preliminary examinations of fired bullets and fired shells to determine
the relative distribution of the class characteristics or for so-called orientation purposes.
3. Bullet Recovery Box – This is the equipment used in test firing the evidence firearm to recover test-fired bullets and test-
fired cartridge cases for comparison purposes under the bullet comparison microscope.
4. Helixometer – This is the type of instrument used in measuring the “pitch of riflings” of firearms. This instrument is generally
used in highly advanced ballistics laboratories or commercial agencies.
5. Caliper - This is an instrument used in making measurements such as bullet diameter, bore diameter, barrel length, and
other se important details.
6. Micrometer – Similar in use as calipers. The lands and grooves on a bullet are measured in thousandths of an inch or in
millimeters. One way to measure individual rifling impressions is to use an instrument.
7. Analytical or Torsion Balance – This is used for determining weights of bullets or shotgun pellets-for possible determination
of type, caliber, and make of firearms from which they were fired.
8. Onoscope – A small instrument sometimes used in examining the internal surface of the gun barrel.
9. Taper Gauge – Used primarily for determining the bore diameter of firearms.
10. Electric Gun Marker - Used in the laboratory for marking fired bullets, fired shells, and firearms submitted for examination.
11. Chronograph – Used primarily for determining the speed of the bullet or the muzzle velocity of the bullet
Alfred Lee Loomis - invented the Aberdeen Chronograph for measuring comb muzzle velocities.
Bullet comparison microscope - This is the most important scientific equipment used in a typical laboratory. This instrument is
specially designed to permit the firearm examiner to differentiate between two fired bullets or two fired shells, by
simultaneously observing their magnified image in a single microscopic field.
NEW WEAPON ON THE WAR ON CRIME
IBIS – a computerized identification system that stores ballistics information on bullets and cartridge cases submitted as
evidence in connection with a crime.
Bulletproof – is a field-proven automated bullet image analysis system. It captures the image of the microscopic features found
on the surface of a fired bullet in a highly repeatable manner.
Brass catcher – an automated cartridge case image analysis system. It incorporates the exacting forensic science software
required to extract the marking of signature from an expended cartridge case, similar in operation to Bulletproof.
Drugfire – developed by the Federal Bureau of Investigations and Mnemonic Systems Inc. Is a new computerized technology
that will allow the Forensic Firearm Examiner to associate previously unrelated firearms involved in different cases.

MODULE 21
Preparation of comparative charts - While the microscopic examination of all physical evidence is being conducted, it is
imperative for the firearm examiner to photograph both specimens (evidence and testfired).
Legal Proceedings/Court Trial - It is where the Ballistics Report of the firearm examiner and the Ballistics Exhibits such as;
firearms, fired bullets, fired cartridge cases, and allied matters are presented during the trial of the case in a court of justice.
Findings - are the basis of the conclusion. A conclusion cannot be made without the findings. A good conclusion is always based
on good findings. For conclusive findings, there must be at least three (3) tests that should be compared.
Conclusion - is the opinion gathered from the finding. This is the end result of the examination and should be taken seriously as
it involves the life and liberty of the suspect.
In the comparative microscopic examination of the evidence bullet/shell with the test-fired bullet/shell, a firearms examiner will
arrive at one of three conclusions;
1. Identification - signifies a match between two ammunition components (bullet, shell) or a match between ammunition
components and firearm with respect to its class and individual characteristics.
2. Exclusion - represents a non-match between the examined items of evidence either class or individual characteristics.
 3. No Conclusion - indicates that the ammunition components could neither be identified nor eliminated as having been
fired by a particular weapon based on the quantity and quality of microscopic markings.
Prominent - When the test fired bullet has markings that standing out or projecting beyond a surface or line readily noticeable.
Consistent - When the impression or striation found on the evidence bullet or cartridge case appearing in every test bullets and
cartridge cases.
Significant - It Is when the markings have meaning or capable of being interpreted by the Firearms Examiner or ballistician.

MODULE 22
General Order No.07-A – inclusion of other government agents to the authorization order.
General Order No.22 – laid down the guideline on the classification of firearms.
Presidential Decree 1866 - Codifying the laws on illegal/unlawful possession, manufacture, dealing in, acquisition or disposition,
of firearms, ammunition, or explosives or instruments used in the manufacture of firearms, ammunition or explosives, and
imposing stiffer penalties for certain violations.
- States that a civilian is allowed ownership of only one long arm and one short arm, this ruling was “relaxed” during the time
of former President Estrada.
Ferdinand Marcos - signed Presidential Decree 1866 on June 29, 1983, providing for the general rules on possession,
manufacture, and trade of firearms and ammunition as well as the corresponding penalties for violations.
The Revised Administrative Code (RAC) of 1917, particularly Section 877 to 906 - provided the first legal definition of a firearm
and granted the Police Constabulary regulatory powers over it. This law provides that the barrel of any firearm shall be
considered a complete firearm.
National Emergency Memorandum Order No. 6, issued in 1990, requires the re-registration of all civilian firearms, the
inventory of all government-issued firearms.
Executive Order 171 (2003) issued by Former President Arroyo, however, reversed the EO 164 ruling on the matter of gun
caliber but was silent on the number of guns that may be owned by civilians.
Republic Act 8294, amended PD 1866 and was signed into law on June 6, 1997, and Republic Actual 9516 (Illegal possession of
explosives), signed on December 22, 2007. RA 8294 increased the penalties for illegal possession of firearms, and included in the
definition of unlicensed firearms” those with an expired license and/or those with a license but are used without authorization
in the commission of a crime.
Republic Act (RA) No. 10591, otherwise known as “An Act Providing For A Comprehensive Law on Firearms and Ammunition
and Providing Penalties For Violations Thereof,” was signed into law by the President of the Philippines on May 29, 2013.
Loose firearm - refers to an unregistered firearm, an obliterated or altered firearm, a firearm that has been lost or stolen,
illegally manufactured firearms, registered firearms in the possession of an individual other than the licensee, and those with
revoked licenses in accordance with the rules and regulations.
What is a Paltik firearm?
 Ghost gun
 Unregistered with no serial number