PARTS OF SPEECH

Parts of speech
Sentences are made of words. Any number of words can be used in a sentence (  1 ). We
can combine words with each other in many ways to make new sentences (  2 ).
Grammar describes how this is done. Each word in a sentence belongs to a particular set
or class, depending on how it is used. These classes are called parts of speech.
All sentences begin with a capital letter and end in either a full stop, a question mark, or an
exclamation mark. When we describe the use of these marks, e.g. commas, semicolons, full
stops, brackets, and so on, we are talking about punctuation.
The term clause is used to describe a group of words that contains a verb, the subject of
that verb, and, often, some other words such as an object (  3 ).
A sentence can contain one or more clauses (  4 ). Many sentences consist of no more
than a single clause. Single clause sentences are called simple sentences (  5 ).
A clause always contains a verb (  6 ). A sentence, however, does not always have to be
a clause (  7 ). See p. 228 for more about clauses. A phrase is just a group of words ( 
8 ). The term is usually kept for words which go together naturally.
Many words can refer to one thing only or to more than one. We use the term singular and
plural for this. A more general term is number. Pronouns and nouns can be singular or
plural in grammatical number See p 140.
When we want to identify the speaker or the person spoken about in grammar, we use first
person to mean the speaker, second person to mean the person who is spoken to, and third
person to mean the person who is spoken about (  9 ). For example, we talk about ‘first
person plural’ or ‘third person singular’.
Continued

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 EXAMPLES
Parts of speech
1 He left us.
The man in the corner lowered his newspaper.
Whenever I see Tammy I go quite silly.
Until tomorrow then.
Yes.

2 I can help you. Can I help you?

3 I live in Sussex. …where I live

Jessica lived in Crowborough at first.
He was living in Rome that year.
… when he had eaten breakfast.

4 I can help you if you will let me.

Whenever you need to talk to someone, just pop in and see if I’m here

5 He arrived on Friday.
My brother loves his skateboard.

6 run walk
think believe

7 Certainly not Until tomorrow then

Yes. Why?

8 the other day my friend Henry

in spite of over the hill
would have been walking

9 Pronouns singular plural

1st person I we
2nd person you you
3rd person he, she, it they

Nouns the man the men

a girl two girls

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PARTS OF SPEECH
Parts of speech (ctd)
A verb informs us about an action or a state of being. Ordinary verbs are called main verbs
(1). A main verb is sometimes called a ‘doing word’. A special group of verbs are called
auxiliary verbs (2). These combine with main verbs to form different tenses.
A noun is a word that labels a thing or an idea (3). Nouns are sometimes called ‘naming
words’. If we do not repeat the same noun in a sentence or a paragraph we can replace it
with a pronoun. A pronoun is a substitute for a noun phrase or a noun (4).
An adjective gives further information about a noun. Adjectives help us describe or pick
out which particular thing among many is being referred to (5). Adjectives are
sometimes called ‘describing words’.
A determiner is used to point more precisely to the person, thing, or idea to which
reference is being made. Among the determiners are definite and indefinite articles and
prossessives (6).
An adverb gives information about the way that an action is performed or when and where
it takes place(7). Some adverbs can only be used to modify adjectives (8), or to
introduce a sentence (9). Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding -ly.
A preposition is one of a small group of words that can be used with nouns and verbs.
Prepositions give information about position or movement (10). When a preposition is
used in front of a noun, the two together do the work of an adverb (11).
A conjunction joins two or more words or clauses to each other. Conjunctions are
sometimes called ‘joining words’.
Many words can act as more than one part of speech. It is not unusual for an English word
to be a noun in one sentence and a verb in another sentence (12).

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 EXAMPLES

Parts of speech (ctd)

1 come go think
want economize believe

2 I am thinking She has seen the film already

I can help you We might need to

3 table book ugliness

time animal thing

4 Gary rather liked Sue so he asked her out

The boys were hungry so they made tea early.

5 a man a tall man

their kettle their rusty old kettle
the cat the little tabby cat

6 the cat a man

my aunt their kettle

7 She ran quickly down the path.

The onlooker chuckled softly. (onlooker = khán giả, chuckle = cười thầm)
He lifted the box gingerly. (gingerly ['dʒindʒəli] = thận trọng, rón rén)

8 A rather tall man This cake is quite nice

It was fairly good. It is a very hot day.

9 Certainly, the harm has been done.

Honestly, I can’t help it.

10 on the bridge over the rooftops

in the morning at the gates

11 He is coming now. He is coming in the morning.

I found him there. I found him near the gates.

12 Jamal scored several runs.

She runs half a mile each morning.
I am in the play which is on in the village.
Chris and Doug play golf together on Fridays.

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PARTS OF SPEECH
Parts of the sentence
Sentences consist of a number of standard parts , using different parts of speech. The most
important parts are:
A. the subject, which is either a noun phrase (see p. 120) or a pronoun (see p. 180).
Normally the subject comes before the verb phrase in a sentence (1).
B. the verb phrase, which includes the main verb and which may have auxiliary verbs
to go with it (2). See also pp. 20-64.
C. the object, which is a noun phrase or a pronoun (3). Not all verb need an object.
Normally, the object, when there is one, come after the verb phrase. Some verbs may
also need an indirect object (4). See also p. 202.
D. an adverbial or adjunct, which is an optional part of the sentence.
This may be:
- a single word, an adverb (5)
- an adverbial phrase, a group of words that functions as an adverb (6)
- an adverbial clause, a group of words including a verb, which functions as an
adverb (7).
Though some adverbials have a fixed position, most can be added to a sentence in
several places: at the beginning in the verb phrase, or at the end (6). Any number of them
can be added, limited only by the sense of the sentence.
E. a complement. With certain verbs, such as be and seem, a complement takes the
place of an object, A complement can be either an adjective or a noun phrase.
Complements provide further descriptive detail about the subject (8). See also p.
204.

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 EXAMPLES
Parts of the sentence.
1 The girl had been swimming.
The new teacher came in
They had finished
2 The girl had been swimming.
The new teacher came in
They had finished
She uses her sailboard quite a lot.
Rajiv was reading a new novel.
She is riding someone else’s horse.
3 She used her own sailboard
Rajiv was reading a new novel.
Earl found it.
4 Hamish gave me a party invitation
Ruth found Jill a nice bunch of flowers
5 Suddenly, it rained heavily.
6 In the autumn, it gets very boggy (lầy lội).
It gets very boggy in the autumn.
It certainly rains heavily in the autumn.
7 I’ll cut some for you when I’ve poured the tea.
When I’ve poured the tea, I’ll cut some for you.
Eric played while Moira sang.
8 He became a new man with his promotion.
Andrew is an apprentice motor-mechanic.
He felt rather silly when he heard the news.
They became good friends despite the mistake.

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PARTS OF SPEECH
Direct and Indirect Objects
The object of a sentence (if there is one) normally comes after the verb phrase. Whether
there is an object or not depends on the meaning of the verb (1)
For example, if you want to talk about what someone is doing, you might say ‘He is
writing’, but if you want to talk about what his activity is directed towards, you might say
‘He is writing a book’.
An object that follow a verb in this manner is called the direct object (2). Some verbs
also have another sort of object called an indirect object.
An indirect object names the person for or to whom something is done. It is usually needed
with verbs like give, find, owe. For example, with give, we need to name both the thing
given and the person to whom it is given (5).
Verbs differ in that some must always take a direct object, some never take a direct object,
and others sometimes take one and sometimes don’t, depending on the meaning.
When a verb has an object, it is called transitive (2). When it does not have an object it
is called intransitive (3). Some verbs may be either transitive or intransitive (4).
When a verb has both an indirect object and direct object it is called ditransitive (5).
A direct object is needed when the meaning of the verb requires something to give it a
focus. This is why it is sometimes said that a direct object complements a verb.
*Some verb must have an adverbial as well as a direct object, for example to specify a
place (6)

7
 EXAMPLES
Direct and Indirect Objects
1 She was riding.
She was riding her horse
Eric was writing
Eric was writing a letter.
2 Gerry found a pen.
Our cat doesn’t like milk.
3 Lynn fainted.
Patrick screamed.
Soon, everyone was shouting.
4 Ann was reading (a letter)
Kim was milking (her goats)
5 Eric owes Tom five pounds.
Ron gave Lyndsey a box of chocolates.
Susan bought her rabbit some more food.
6 He placed the parcel on the chair.
She put the umbrella in a corner.

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THE VERB PHRASE
Verbs
Verbs are words that allow us to talk about such things as activities, processes, state of
being, and stages of mind (1). Verbs divide into two major groups, according to the way
they are used in a clause. Those in the larger group are called main verbs. The remainder
are auxiliary verbs.
Verb phrase
A verb can be a single word or a group of associated words (2). When a verb phrase
consists of a single word it is called a simple verb. Many verbs in English are made by
combining an auxiliary verb and a main verb; this is called a compound verb.
 When we want to talk about everything to do with a verb, we use the term verb
phrase.
Main verbs
These are the verbs that we use to indicate actions and states. Most of the verbs in English
are main verbs. They are also called lexical verbs. Main verbs are divided or classified in
several ways:
- according to whether they refer to states (3) or actions (4)
- into regular and irregular verbs according to the spelling of their forms (5)
- according to whether or not they are followed by an object (6). That is, whether
they are transitive or intransitive. See p.12.
Auxiliary verbs
These verbs are used in combination with main verbs in order to allow us to talk about
different times or periods of time, different degree of completion, and different amounts of
certainty or doubt. There are several types of auxiliary verb. The primary auxiliaries help
express time, and the modal auxiliary help to express certainty and doubt. See pp. 26-64.

EXAMPLES
Verbs
9
1 This basket holds quite a lot
John was reading Paulette’s assay.
Fiona is preparing a talk for next week’s class.
Helen feels much happier now.
I forgot that it was your birthday.
Paul owned several old motorcycles.
2 he walks he is walking
he had walked he can walk
he has been walking
he might have been walking

3 I can really taste the herbs in this omlette.

This scarf belongs to me.
I detest his brand of intolerant politics.
She always liked stick insects
I already feel that I have known you for ages.
4 Three boys were kicking a ball around the field.
We were strolling across a wide meadow
For six hours, Stuart drove across open desert.
5 regular: talk, talks, talking, talked
irregular: swim, swims, swimming, swam, swum.
irregular: go, goes, going, went, gone
6 I can read
We both read the same newspaper.
Don’t tell me
We both ran away
Sue found a bracelet.
I saw my best friend on Friday.

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THE VERB PHRASE
Tense
Verbs enable us to talk about actions and states. They also allow us to talk about the time
when the action or state takes place.
 We use the term tense to talk about the complete form of the verb phrase and the
time scale it expresses.
All main verbs have two simple tenses, the Simple Present (1) and the Simple Past
(2). In these tenses the verb is used on its own without any auxiliary verbs.
English verbs also have compound tense forms. In these tenses the main verb is
accompanied by one or both of the auxiliary verb be and have. See p. 76 for more on
tenses.
Aspect
The compound tenses of the verb express:
- two tenses, present and past.
- two aspects, progressive and perfect.
 We use the term aspect to talk about continuing actions (3), (4) versus
completed actions or states (5) (6). Simple tenses do not have aspect.
When we add an auxiliary to main verb to form a compound verb it is because we want to
talk about:
- the continuity of an action, by using a form of the auxiliary be + -ing. This is called
the progressive aspect (7)
- the completion of an action by using a form of the auxiliary have + a past participle,
usually -ed. This is called the perfect aspect (8).
The two aspects of the verb can be joined so that we can talk about the duration and the
completion of an action in the same verb phrase (9)
See pp 72-74 for more on tense and aspect.
Continued

11
 EXAMPLES
Tense
1 I walk 2 I walked
she sings she sang
they come they came
you bring you brought
3 I am walking 4 I was walking
she is singing she was singing
they are coming they were coming
you are bringing you were bringing
5 I have walked 6 I had walked
she has sung she had sung
they have come they had come
you have brought you had brought
7 I am still studying French
He was living in London all that year.
James is helping out with the typing for a week.
Gloria and Roy were looking for a new flat at the time.
8 I have studied French for four years.
He had lived in London for a year before coming to Sussex.
James has helped out before.
Gloria and Roy had found their flat by then.
9 I have been studying French for four years.
I had been living in London for four years when I met him.
James has been helping us this week.

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THE VERB PHRASE

Tense (ctd)
English verbs are either simple (one word), or compound (several words). Each grouping
is is called a tense. The tenses allow us to refer to different ways of thinking about the
time of an action or a state of being.
Simple Tenses
Simple tenses show moments in time, timeless states, and habitual or repetitive actions
(1). The Simple Present and the Simple Past of regular verbs are formed by using the
base form of the verb. See pp 80-82.
Progressive Tenses
Progressive tenses show duration or continuity (2). The Present Progressive and the
Past Progressive are formed from either the present or the past tense of the verb be + the
present participle of the main verb. See pp 84-86.
Perfect Tenses
Perfect tenses show that an action is completed but has some relevance to the present
time (3). The Present Perfect and the Past Perfect are formed using respectively
either the present or past tense of the verb have + the past participle of the main verb.
See pp 88-92.
Perfect Progressive Tenses
Perfect progressive tenses show duration, completion, and present relevance (4). The
Present Perfect Progressive and the Past Perfect Progressive are formed using
respectively either the present or past tense of the verb have + the past participle of be +
the present participle of the main verb. See p.94.

Other verb forms

Other verb combinations are used for positive or negative statements or to express
degrees of time and probability (5). An important use is to talk about future time (6)

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 EXAMPLES
Tense (ctd)
1 It tastes good
Julia keeps a diary
Adrian kept a diary once
She hears voices in the night
Rob usually walks to school
Yesterday he went by car

2 It is raining hard this morning

It was raining at breakfast time yesterday, too.
She is eating a hamburger but not It is tasting good.
He was listening to the radio but not He was hearing it well

3 Ken here has walked the Pennine Way.

He told us he had attempted it before but the weather was too wet.
He has never visited me.
She had missed the train.

4 I have been working hard in the garden all day

My mother has been helping me
Both my sisters have been working all day.
I had been working in Italy that summer before going to college.
Bill, who had been acting as an instructor, was promoted to manager.

5 I like freshly ground coffee.

Do you like instant coffee?
I do not like instant coffee
Do you serve hot chocolate?
May I have some coffee?

6 You will be in Edinburgh before you know it.

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 They will probably meet us at the station.

THE VERB PHRASE

Types of Main Verb
Verbs of action
Most verbs describe an action such walking, running or reading. When we need a verb to
describe a new activity, English grammar allows us to adapt other parts of speech or to
invent a new woed. Recently adapted or invented verbs include windsurf and gazump (1)
 All the tenses can be used with action verbs
Verbs of state
Some verbs are used to talk about states of being or states of mind (2)
These include:
- verbs of the senses, e.g. feel, hear, see, smell, taste
- verbs of emotion, e.g. adore, fear, hate, like, love, want, wish
- verbs of mental activity, e.g. agree, believe, expect, forget, mean
- verbs of possession, e.g. belong, own, possess
 Verbs of state are not usually used in progressive tenses. When they are used in
progressive tenses, they change their meaning (3).
There are some uses of the verb be that allow you to choose between a state or an action
meaning. The word used as the complement makes an important difference (4)
The verb seem has a very limited number of adjectives that can be used as its complement
(5)

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 EXAMPLES

Types of Main Verb

1 John is running for the train
Margit has just bought a new camera
She is putting on an exhibition of her photographs
Russell has seen the film already
The play was broadcast on Radio 3
Chris and Debbie were windsurfing all afternoon
They were gazumped by a buyer with more money.

2 I feel unhappy.
I hate quarrels
These flowers smell nice.
Rob wishes he had not agreed with the plan.
We mean you no harm.
That car belonged to us once.

3 I’m just feeling to see if the bone is broken

We were tasting some interesting New Zealand wines.
She is expecting another child.

4 Bob is being silly but not Bob is being tall

Rupert is being nasty but not Rupert is being intelligent.

5 Ron seems happy but not Ron seems tall

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THE VERB PHRASE
The forms of Main Verbs
English verbs have up to five different forms. These are:
1 the base form, e.g. pull
2 the 3rd person singlar, Simple Present tense, e.g. pulls
3 the Simple Past tense, e.g. pulled
4 the past participle, e.g. pulled
5 the present participle, e.g. pulling
 Regular verbs are all formed in the same way, by building on form 1, the base form.
This is the form you normally find in a dictionary. Most verbs are regular.
 Irregular verbs have different relationships between the other forms and the base
form, especially in forms 3 and 4. See pp. 24-25
Form 1: The Simple Present tense has all but one of its forms the same as the base form.
Form 2: When the Simple Present tense has a 3 rd person singular subject, the verb is formed
from the base form + -s
Form 3, the Simple Past, and form 4, the past participle, are formed from the base form + -
ed
Form 5, the present participle, is formed from the base form + -ing.
A special variation of the base form is the to infinitive. There are a number of uses of a verb
where both the words to + the base form must be present.
 The term ‘infinitive’ is traditional. The base form is sometimes called the ‘bare
infinitive’

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 THE VERB PHRASE

The Forms of Main Verbs

There are the following exceptions to the rule that the 3 rd person singular is formed from the base
form + s:

Verbs ending in -o, -ch, -sh, -ss, -x, -z or -zz add -es to make the 3rd person singular, e,g.

torpedo he torpedoes

catch he catches

focus he focuses

push he pushes

miss he misses

box he boxes

buzz it buzzes

Verbs ending in -y after a consonant change y to I and add -es, e.g.

carry he carries
fly he flies
worry he worries
Verbs ending in -y after a vowel do not change. They only add -s, e.g.
say he says
stay he stays
There are some exceptions to the rule that the present participle is the base form + -ing. All
verbs that contain a short final vowel in front of a final consonant double the consonant
before -ing, e.g.
sob sobbing
bid bidding
flog flogging
run running
stop stopping
get getting

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put putting

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