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GRADE 12 HISTORY ESSAYS FOR 2021 TO 2023

[ PAPER 1 ESSAYS ]

1. VIETNAM: HOW A SMALL COUNTRY LIKE VIETNAM WAS ABLE TO WIN A

WAR AGAINST THE USA (1954 TO 1975) [ ESSAY NO.1 ]

• After World War II France tried unsuccessfully to regain her control over Vietnam.
• Unfortunately they suffered humiliating defeat at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.
• Thereafter a peace conference was held at Geneva.
• This culminated in the signing of Geneva accord by USA, France,USSR and China.
• The agreement reached was that Vietnam would be temporarily divided into Northern
Vietnam under communist Ho Chi Minh and South under the leadership of the capitalist
Ngo Diem.
• It was also agreed that elections would be held in 1956 which would result the unification
of the sections.
• However, after realising that Ngo Diem would not win the proposed elections were not held.
• USA would not allow Vietnam to fall under communism.

• Diem’s government became unpopular because of his repressive system (tyrannical)

government and the problem of land redistribution.
• Consequently in 1960 the National Liberation Front (NLF) was formed to challenge
Diem’s government.
• It became a Trojan horse(soft-ware intent to cause damage or destroy) which organised
guerrilla army known as Viet Cong.
• This army began a guerrilla warfare which resulted a civil war in South Vietnam.
• In 1963 Diem was overthrown and replaced by a number of corrupt military rulers who
were not supported by the ordinary people.
• The Viet Cong got support from the peasants because they gave them land and build
structures such as schools.
• In addition to this they also got support from Chinese and Soviet Union.
• The Viet Cong got supplies of weapons, food and troops from North Vietnam through the
route called Ho Chi Minh Trail.

• USA was surprised by the support received by Viet Cong from local citizens.
• They then became afraid Domino Theory (Domino Effect) which says that if one Asian
country falls under communism the rest will also follow the same system.
• As a results USA decided to take measures to contain this communism.
• The first step they took was to move the peasants into fortified villages called hamlets from
1961 to 1963.
• These villages would be developed economically, socially and politically.
• This was done in order to isolate the Viet Cong who got shelter from the peasants.
• Unfortunately this plan did not work for USA as most of the peasants were reluctant to move
to these new villages.
• This was caused by the fact that most peasants worshipped their ancestors and they did not
want to leave them behind. In addition to this the Viet Cong managed to occupy many
strategic hamlets and captured the peasants’ weapons.

• Lyndon B. Johnson, who succeeded Kennedy as president after his death in 1963, applied a
different strategy against Viet Cong.
• He then decided to increase America’s involvement in Vietnam to win the war quickly.

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• He justified his action by claiming that North Vietnam gumboots had attacked American
warships on two occasions in the Gulf of Tonkin.
• This made the Congress to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
• This resolution empowered the president to apply whatever strategy possible to protect
American forces in Vietnam.
• Consequently Johnson increased the number of soldiers in Vietnam.
• By 1967 there were about half a million American troops in Vietnam.
• USA realised that in order to defeat the Viet Cong they had to cut their supplies which was
from North Vietnam.
• As a result they used different strategies such as operation rolling thunder, search and
destroy policy and the use of chemical weapons.

• In operation rolling thunder their main objective was to destroy military and industrial
base of the Viet Cong.
• Unfortunately this strategy did not work as large area was used for farming.
• The number of bombs used during this operation was more than those used during the World
War II.
• This led to the deaths of thousands innocent civilians.
• On the other hand the Viet Cong were still able to launch surprise attack on South
Vietnamese towns and USA bases.
• Then USA introduced the policy of search and destroy the enemy.
• This became hit and miss policy as they were unable to identify the enemy.
• After these unsuccessful attempts USA decided to use chemicals called Agent Orange,
Agent Blue and napalm.
• Agent Orange was used to destroy the forest were Viet Cong soldiers were hiding.
• After failing with this attempt they applied Agent Blue to dry crops in order to starve the
Viet Cong.
• This method also failed. Finally they used napalm which burns intensely and ended up killing
large number of innocent people in Vietnam.

• In 1968, during Tet holiday Vietcong and USA agreed on cease fire.
• Vietcong used this opportunity to their advantage by launching surprise attack on about 100
cities and villages.
• USA and South Vietnam were surprised by this as they honoured the agreement.
• Viet Cong also attacked Saigon, capital city of South Vietnam, and managed to seize USA
embassy for six and half hours.
• In USA people were so shocked when seeing this on TV.
• Consequently USA came with full force in order to revenge against this attack.
• They went to the Hue and My Lai villages where a fierce battle was fought against Vietcong.
• Old people, women and children were shot and killed.
• Some women were even raped before were killed. Fanally USA managed to win the war.

• The Tet Offensive (Krushchev Offensive) made American public to be against the war.
• At the end President Johnson faced severe pressure which made him not to stand for re-
election during 1968 prudential election in USA.
• American public was demoralised by television news reports, newspaper and magazine
stories showing hostilities committed by USA troops on Vietnamese civilians.
• This intensified anti-war movements which made artists and students to protest against
the war in Vietnam. Consequently anti-war demonstration became rife in USA.
• For example, there were anti-war music concerts, protest marches, bumper stickers that
read Make Love Not War and young Americans burning their draft cards.
• Most Americans evaded serving in the immoral war by migrating to Canada.
• All these gave enough pressure to force USA to withdraw.

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• When canvassing for 1968 election, Richard Nixon promised Americans peace with honour
in Vietnam. His plan was to adopt a policy known as Vietnamisation.
• With this he was intending to arm and train Vietnamese so that they can fight the war on
their behalf.
• Thereafter, USA would gradually withdraw their troops form Vietnam.
• Despite the promises made, after winning elections Nixon attacked North Vietnam with heavy
bombing to cut off Viet Cong supplies from Ho Chi Minh Trail.
• To USA’s surprise, Laos and Combodia were captured by North Vietnam soldiers and
ended up using communism.
• As USA Congress refused to fund the war, in 1973 a cease fire was agreed upon by USA,
Viet Cong, North and South Vietnam.
• Finally USA troops were withdrawn from Vietnam.
• Despite this peace efforts USA sent supplies to Vietnam as the war continued for another two
years.
• In 1975 the Viet Cong defeated South Vietnam and captured Saigon. In 1976 Vietnam
was united under communist rule into a single republic.
• This meant that USA was unsuccessful on their mission to prevent communist takeover in
Vietnam.

2. THE BLACK POWER MOVEMENT IN USA . 1966 – 1971 [ ESSAY NO. 2 ]

• Black Power Movement was established because some African Americans were not satisfied
with non-violent method used by Martin Luther King Junior.
• The situation of black people in America was really shocking.
• For instance, blacks lived in poverty in the overcrowded ghettos.
• Crime was very high in their areas and police took long time to respond.
• Health and education facilities were very much poor and this led to high mortality rate and
unemployment.
• Police were also brutal when dealing with black people.

• When Black Power Movement was formed it rejected non-violent, racial integration and
assimilation.
• It believed in black pride and self-esteem.
• By rejecting racial integration Black Power wanted blacks to rely on themselves for liberation
not white people.
• They also encouraged self-defense and the use of violence in order to achieve equal rights.
• They hoped to restore their identity and culture that were destroyed during the times of
slavery.
• Despite difference with Civil Rights Movement they both had common goals, to get equal
political and civil rights.

• One of the people who played important role in the Black Power Movement was Malcom X.
• Malcom X joined the Nation of Islam in 1952 when he was in jail serving sentence for
burglary.
• This Muslim organization rejected racial integration. Malcom X promoted ideas of Black
Power Movement.
• Unlike Martin Luther King Junior, Malcom X believed that blacks have to use violence in
order to achieve equal rights.
• Consequently he got strong support from the urban African American youth who were very
militant.
• He also rejected racial integration to ensure that blacks don’t rely on whites for their
freedom.

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• Through his efforts membership of Nation of Islam increased from 500 in 1952 to 30 000 in
1963. He regarded whites as murderers and hypocrites.

• However in 1963 to 1964 Malcom X undertook a pilgrimage to Mecca.

• During his stay in Mecca he was able to interact with people from different racial groups.
• He then discovered that not all whites are evil people.
• On his return to America he changed his mind about racial integration.
• He was no longer militant like before.
• Later he broke out of Nation of Islam and formed his own organization called Organization of
African American Unity.
• This organization was less radical and also accepted white people.
• This made Malcom X to be unpopular as Black Nationalist. Consequently members of
Nation of Islam assassinated him. However his ideas continued to inspire most of the African
American youth to fight for equality and freedom by means of violent method.

• Another activist who played vital role in the struggle for equal rights in America was Stockey
Carmichael.
• Like Malcom X Carmichael encouraged the use of violence in order to achieve political and
civil rights.
• Initially Carmichael was a staunch supporter of Martin Luther King Junior who preferred
non-violent to achieve equal rights.
• As member of Civil Rights Movement he took part during the Freedom Ride in 1961.
• He was the chairperson of Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee.
• Carmichael changed his mind after James Meredith was shot when he was in a sole peaceful
march against fear.
• Carmichael decided that Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee should complete
James Meredith’s march.
• Unfortunately Carmichael was arrested. On his release he gave a speech using the slogan
Black Power.
• He then started to include Black Nationalism in his philosophy.

• Consequently Carmichael attempted to expel whites from Student Non-violent Coordinating

Committee.
• He did not succeed and this made him to break out of Student Non-violent Coordinating
Committee.
• He then wrote a book called Black Power.
• This book encouraged militancy, self-reliance and self-defence.
• It also encouraged blacks to fight for their independence and strive for nationalism.
• He favoured African dress and Afro-hairstyle.
• His slogan was ‘Black is beautiful’. He even started a campaign to split United State into two
states, one for blacks and the other for white people.
• He later joined Black Panther and promoted Black Power Movement as the speaker and
writer.

• Inspired by Macom X ‘s ideas, Bobby Seale and Huey Percy Newton formed a party called
Black Panther Party in Oakland, Califonia in 1966. T
• he main aim of this party was for self-defence against police brutality.
• Members of this party armed themselves with guns and patrolled their neighbourhoods in
order to monitor police activity.
• When a police man stopped and searched a black person, Black Panthers would go and
monitor the police with their guns in display.
• This made it impossible for the police man to do his work with ease.
• The action of Black Panther made black communities to feel safe from police.

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• Ultimately their action led to clashes with police in places such as New York, Los Angeles
and Chicago.
• Edgar Hoover, head of Federal Bureau of Investigation saw Black Panther as a threat to
internal security of the country.
• He therefore established Counter Intelligence Program to destroy Black Panther.

• Apart from self-defence Black Panther was also aimed at developing Black communities.
• For instance, they introduced Free Breakfast For Children Program in order to feed
thousands of hungry children.
• They also established clinics which gave children and adults free medical care.
• Children at schools were assisted through a program called Tutoring scheme.
• This program assisted in improving performance of black children at school.
• The money to fund these programs was obtained through donation from business people.
• Those who refused to donate their business were boycotted.
• These programs at least attempted to improve lives of black people in USA.

• Despite its short life Black Power Movement succeeded to achieve some positive goals for
African Americans.
• For instance riots that occurred in Watts, Newark and Detroit made the government to
introduce a commission that investigated the causes of violence.
• It was discovered that poverty, police brutality, poor housing, lack of education and
discrimination were some of the causes.
• As a result the government came up with programs and schemes to address those problems.
• Blacks were also able to participate in public affairs of the state.
• For instance, black mayors were elected in some of the cities in USA. Blacks were therefore
able to take pride in themselves as blacks and this promoted their self-esteem.
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[ PAPER 2 ESSAY ]

A. THE COMING OF DEMOCRACY IN SOUTH AFRICA, 1990 TO 1994 .

[ESSAY NO.1]

1. De Klerk Speech, February 1990

• On the 02 February 1990 F D De Klerk addressed the parliament indicating that he will unban
political organsations such as ANC, PAC and SACP.
• He also stated that he will allow the exiles to return and release political prisoners including
Nelson Mandela.
• This statement shocked most of the white people in the parliament.
• Indeed on the 11 February 1990 Nelson Mandela was released from Victor Verster prison in
Cape Town
• In March, immediately after Mandela was released, violence broke out in Sebokeng in which
demonstrators were protesting against local council rent.
• This led to the death of about eleven people who were shot by the police.
• As a result Mandela t suspended his scheduled meeting with National Party members.

2. Groote Schuur Minute, May 1990

• In May 1990 ANC delegation led by Mandela and National Party delegation led by De Klerk
met at Groote Schuur, De Klerk’s residence, in Cape Town.
• The agreement reached during these negotiations was known as Groote Schuur Minute.
• De Klerk’s government agreed to release all political prisoners unconditionally and to
allow all exiles to return.
• He also agreed to lift state of emergency and to remove repressive Apartheid laws.

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• The main obstacle, during this discussion, was that ANC refused to suspend armed
struggle.
• Instead of suspending armed struggle, Chris Hani and Ronnie Kastrils, leaders of Mk,
introduced a secret operation called Operation Vula.
• The main aim was to prepare themselves for a war in case negotiations fail.
• In June this operation was discovered and its top leaders were arrested
• However the arrested leaders were acquitted and later released.

3. Sebokeng massacre, June 1990.

• Another major obstacle towards negotiation was the continuing violence in Rand townships.
• For instance, an armed group of IFP supporters attacked residents at Sebokeng and killed
about 30 people.
• Most of those who were killed were members of ANC.
• Consequently Nelson Mandela complained about the involvement of the Third Force, a group
of whites who were assisting Inkatha Freedom Party.
• Due to this complaint, De Klerk established a commission led by Justice Richard Goldstone
to investigate in this incident.
• Its finding was that it was true that indeed members of Military Intelligence were involved in
these killings.
• Therefore, those who were found guilty were forced to retire and some were expelled from
their jobs

4. Pretoria Minute, August 1990.

• In August 1990 ANC and National Party held another bilateral talk in Pretoria to speed up
the process of negotiations.
• This led to the signing of an agreement called Pretoria Minute.
• The agreement reached was that government would speed up the process of releasing
political prisoners and giving indemnity to the exiles.
• Finally ANC agreed to suspend armed struggle.
• Despite this breakthrough there was still widespread of terrible violence taking place
particularly in Kwazulu Natal, Vaal Triangle and different townships.
• In order to stop these killings, in September 1990, twenty-four political parties signed an
agreement called National Peace Accord.
• Parties which signed this accord agreed to encourage their supporters not to cause violence
anymore.
• These two agreements, Pretoria Minute and National Peace Accord, paved a way for multi-
party negotiations.

5. CODESA 1, Dec 1990.

• In December 1991 nine-teen (19) political organisations met for the first time at World
Trade Centre, Kempton Park.
• Their meeting became known as Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA I).
• PAC and Conservative Party did not take part in these negotiations.
• During discussion Mandela and De Klerk did not agree on the issue of arm caches which
were in the hands of ANC.
• De Klerk wanted MK to be dissolved whereas Mandela indicated that he will dissolve it after
elections were conducted.
• Despite this obstacle the negotiators were able to sign an agreement called Declaration of
Intent.
• In this declaration, they agreed to work together for a peaceful democratic South Africa.
• However, IFP did not sign the declaration as their proposal of including their King Goodwil
Zwelethini in the negotiations was turned down.
• This meant that CODESA 1 failed to yield expected results that could lead to elections.

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• At the end CODESA I adjourned and left five groups to work-out on plans for next meeting
scheduled for May 1992.

6. Referendum, March 1992.

• During the break of CODESA 1, ANC and COSATU launched massive rolling mass action in
the form of strikes, marches and demonstration.
• The main intention of these campaigns was to pressurize National Party government to come
up with the date for elections.
• In March 1992 De Klerk conducted a white only referendum to get the mandate from his
people whether to continue with negotiations or not.
• People were supposed to vote either yes or no to negotiations.
• The outcome of the referendum indicated that majority voted in favour of continuation of
negotiations.
• This meant that De Klerk was given a green light to continue with negotiations.

7. CODESA 2, May 1992

• In May 1992 another multi-party negotiations, CODESA 2, was held at World Trade
Centre.
• During this time the dispute was over majority vote to take decisions, armaments in the
hands of MK and the right to veto needed by whites.
• National Party wanted decisions to be taken by 75% majority whereas ANC wanted 70%
majority vote.
• The only agreement reached was that SABC would be unbiased when broadcasting news.
• Once again multi-party negotiations, CODESA 2, failed to find breakthrough to a
democratically elected government.

8. Boipatong and Bisho massacre.

• While negotiations were busy continuing, on 17 June 1992 violence broke out between ANC
and IFP supporters in Boipatong township.
• This led to the killing of 49 people, most of which were ANC members.
• Therefore, Mandela suspected that police and the Third Force were involved in these killings.
• Consequently he walked out of the negotiations and this meant that negotiators have reached
the deadlock.
• By that time ANC embarked on rolling mass action to pressurise the government to
come up with the date for elections.
• For instance, in September 1992 about 70 000 unarmed ANC supporters marched to Bisho,
capital city of Ciskei.
• The main intention was to convince Oupa Gqozo to agree to the incorporation of his
homeland, Ciskei, into the new democratically elected South Africa.
• Unfortunately, when the marchers arrived at Bisho, police opened fire without warning and
killed 28 marchers and wounded about 200.
• This made South Africa to experience violence all over the country.
• Leaders became aware that solution should be reached quickly in order to avoid further loss
of human lives.

9. Record of Understanding, 26 September 1992.

• On 26 September 1992, Cyril Ramaphosa representing ANC and Roelf Meyer representing
NP held a secret meeting in which they signed an agreement called Record of
Understanding.
• The participants agreed that Zulu hostels would be fenced to prevent further violence and
all political prisoners would be released.
• They also agreed that date for elections would be 27 April 1994
• This paved a way for the second round of multi-party negotiations.

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• The name CODESA, which has failed several times, was replaced with a new one called
Multi-Party Negotiating Forum.
• Joe Slovo, leader of the Communist Party came up with a clause called Sunset Clause.
• According to this clause the Government of National Unity would be established after
elections.
• Jobs of white civil servants, soldiers and police, would be guaranteed for a period of five
years.
• All parties that would obtain five percent or more would be part of the Government of
National Unity.
• This sunset clause was aimed to convince the white to accept majority vote.

10. Assassination of Chris Hani, 10 April 1993.

• On 1 April 1993 multi-party talks resumed at World Trade Centre.
• While negotiations were in progress Chris Martin Thembisile Hani, the Chief of Staff of
Mk, was assassinated on 10 April 1993.
• He was murdered by Polish man, Janusz Waluz who was hired by Conservative Party
lleader Clive Derby Lewis.
• This incident almost plunged South Africa into a terrible civil war between whites and blacks.
• Nonetheless Mandela was able to contain black anger through his speech on television.
• The two culprits were arrested and taken to jail.
• Angered by this arrest, AWB and Afrikaner Volksfront stormed World Trade Centre on
25 June 1993.
• They crashed through the glass door with their armoured vehicle and destroyed equipments
that were being used during negotiations.
• These Afrikaners demanded their Volkstaat.
• However, Mandela and De Klerk were able to manage the situation and negotiations
continued.

11. St. James and Heidelberg Tavern massacre, 25 July and 31 December 1993
• On 25 July 1993 APLA, an armed wing of PAC, launched an attack on St. James Church in
Cape Town.
• This led to the deaths of eleven worshippers and 58 injured.
• Later, Gcinikhaya Makoma, member of APLA, was arrested for these senseless killings.
• Once again, on 31 December 1993, APLA launched another surprise attack at Heidelberg
Tavern.
• This time four people were killed and six injured.
• Amongst those who were killed there was a twenty three year old civil engineer student called
Lyndi Fourie.
• All these incidents jeopardised the process of negotiation.

12. Bophuthatswana battle, end of February 1994.

• By the end of February 1994 violence broke out when civil servants in Bophuthatswana went
on strike.
• These servants wanted their pension funds before Bophuthatswana could be incorporated into
the new South Africa.
• AWB decided to go and assist the Prime Minister Lucas Mangope.
• On arrival these whites started to shoot at any black person on sight.
• Angered by this, Bophuthatswana soldiers retaliated by firing at them and killed two AWB
members.
• Realizing that the situation was beyond his control, Mangope disappeared.
• Consequently there was looting and killings all over the country.
• At the end of the day more than 70 people were killed and more than 3000 wounded.

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• This marked the end of Lucas Mangope’s power as the leader of Bophuthatswana.

13. The Shell House massacre

• Once again violence broke out on 28 March 1994 when IFP supporters decided to march to
Shell House, the headquarters of ANC.
• They were protesting against the coming democratic elections in South Africa.
• Approximately 20 000 t0 30 000 IFP supporters, armed with traditional weapons marched to
Shell House in Johannesburg.
• Consequently, a clash ensued between the marchers and ANC security guards outside Shell
House.
• Shots were fired and eight people were killed.
• Ultimately this led to a violent chaos all over South Africa between ANC and IFP supporters.
• By the end of the day approximately 53 people were killed and 250 got injured.
• In order to restore peace, De Klerk, Nelson Mandela and Buthelezi held a peace summit.
• However, this summit failed because Buthelezi’s demand of postponement of election date
was rejected.

14. Democratic Elections, 27 April 1994

• Despite all these obstacles, on the 27 April 1994, the first democratic elections were held in
South Africa.
• These elections were administered by Independent Electoral Commission led by Justice Johan
Kriegler.
• Nine-teen political parties, including IFP, took part and ANC emerged victorious.
• Therefore Nelson Mandela was crowned the first democratically elected president.
• As per agreement, Thabo Mbeki and De Klerk became two deputy presidents of South Africa.
• Thereafter the Government of National Unity was established to govern South Africa for the
first five years.

B. WHAT WAS THE IMPACT OF THE COLLAPSE OF USSR IN 1989 ON SOUTH

AFRICA (ENDING OF APARTHEID) [ ESSAY NO.2 ]

• The collapse of USSR in 1989 had great impact in ending apartheid government in South
Africa.
• It also marked the end of the Cold War between USA and USSR.
• The end of communism in Eastern Europe and the fall of Berlin Wall affected most countries
in the world, particularly South Africa.

• This collapse was caused by reforms that were made Gorbachev in order to address economic
problems that were ravaging USSR.
• For instance he introduced perostroika with an intention of restructuring economy by
allowing free market and encouraging foreign investment in Russia.
• He also introduced glasnost with intention of encourage of freedom of speech and expression.
• By so doing he was intending to encourage the public to come up with advices on how to
improve the economy of Russia.
• He was unaware that this would ultimately bring an end to communism in Russia.

• Immediately when communism and Berlin Wall collapse in 1989, ANC and National Party
government in South Africa were heavily affected.
• For so many years, National Party government was able to use communist threat as a means
to perpetuate its repressive policy of apartheid on black people.
• She therefore claimed to be the bulwark against communism.

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• As a result countries such as USA and Britain supported South African government because
they were also ant-communism.
• They did these in order to protect their investments in South Africa.
• They were also threatened by the communist take-over in former Portuguese colonies such as
Angola and Mozambique.
• These countries were giving South Africa support despite pressure for economic sanctions
from UN and AU because of its apartheid policy.

• After the collapse of communism, De Klerk’s government found itself in the lurch. The
support that she used to get from the western countries was no longer there.
• The West started to support moves for peaceful and democratic changes in South Africa.
• This meant that South Africa would no longer be able to use communist threat in order to get
support from the West.
• Therefore South African government was forced to come up with radical changes that would
ultimately end apartheid.
• Indeed, immediately after his inauguration as the president F W de Klerk announced to the
parliament that he was intending to unban political organisation such as ANC, SACP, and
PAC.
• This announcement shocked most of the National Party members. He further announced that
political prisoners, including Mandela, would be released.
• De Klerk was compelled to do this as foreign pressure and internal pressure were mounting.
• His hope was that ANC would be weakened as its source of support collapsed.

• Indeed the collapse of Soviet Union also adversely affected ANC.

• Before 1989, ANC was relying on USSR for financial and military support.
• After the fall of Berlin Wall, ANC could no longer rely on the Soviet Union for support.
• This meant that ANC had to rethink about its policy of nationalisation of mines and big
industries.
• In order to get foreign investment ANC saw capitalism as the best step to take.
• This would advantage them as they could be able to get finance for delivery.
• In addition this would help to recover the declining economy and bring prosperity.
Nationalisation would scare foreign investors and disadvantage ANC.
• Finally ANC adopted mixed economy rather than taking nationalisation.

• Consequently, on the 2th February 1990 De Klerk announced the release of DR Nelson
Mandela and unbanned political parties such as ANC, SACP, and PAC.
• This was a historic moment for all South African people as it paved a way for the beginning
of negotiations between different political parties and the National Party government.
• Ultimately these negotiations led to the end of apartheid regime and the beginning of peaceful
democratic South Africa.

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