Chapter 3

Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

3.1 Introduction

The designer of an aircraft engine must recognize the differing requirements for
take-off, climb, cruise, and maneuvering. The relative importance of these being
different for civil and military applications and for long- and short-haul aircrafts. In
the early aircrafts, it was common practice to focus on the take-off thrust. This is no
longer adequate for later and present day aircrafts. For long-range civil transports
like Boeing 747, 777, 787 and Airbus A 340, A380 (the world’s truly double-deck
airliner), A350 XWB (extra wide body), the fuel consumption through some 10 or
more flight hours is the dominant parameter. Military aircrafts have numerous
criteria like the rate of climb, maneuverability for fighters, short take-off distance
for aircrafts operating from air carriers, maximum ceilings for high altitude recon-
naissance aircrafts like SR-71 Blackbird aircrafts. For civil and military freighter
airplanes, the maximum payload is its main requirement.
In all types of aircrafts, the engines are requested to provide efficiently the thrust
force necessary for their propelling during different flight phases and at different
operating conditions including hottest/coldest ambient temperature and rainy/
windy/snowing weather.
This chapter resembles a first window for air breathing engines. It starts by a
derivation for the thrust force or the propelling force generated in the direction
opposite to the flow of air entering the engine in accordance with Newton’s laws of
motion. Consequently, all jet engines including rocket motors belong to the class of
power plants called reaction engines. It is the internal imbalance of forces within
the gas turbine engines that give all reaction engines their names. The propulsive
force developed by a jet engine is the result of a complex series of actions and
reactions that occur within the engine. The thrust constituents and the different
factors affecting the thrust are next explained. Some of these factors are related to
the engine, others are related to the medium in which the engine operates.

© Springer-Verlag London 2016 161

A.F. El-Sayed, Fundamentals of Aircraft and Rocket Propulsion,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4471-6796-9_3
162 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

The performance of jet engines is evaluated through the following efficiencies:

propulsive, thermal, and overall. The propeller efficiency of turboprop engines is
also evaluated. Fuel consumption is properly evaluated through a parameter
identified as the thrust-specific fuel consumption, which is the ratio of fuel flow
rate into the engine to the generated thrust. Thus different jet engines may be
compared. The range of aircraft is a combined engine/aircraft parameter where
the fuel consumption through the engine is coupled to the aircraft’s lift and drag
forces.

3.2 Thrust Force

Thrust force is the force responsible for propelling the aircraft in its different flight
regimes.
It is in addition to the lift, drag, and weight represent the four forces that govern
the aircraft motion. During the cruise phase of flight, where the aircraft is flying
steadily at a constant speed and altitude, each parallel pair of the four forces are in
equilibrium (lift and weight as well as thrust and drag). During landing, thrust force
is either fully or partially used in braking of the aircraft through a thrust reversing
mechanism. The basic conservation laws of mass and momentum are used in their
integral forms to derive an expression for thrust force.
As described in example (2.1) and Fig. 2.4, the thrust generated by a turbojet is
given by the relation:

T ¼ m_ a ð¼1 þ f þue % uÞ þ ¼Pe % Pa þAe ¼3:1þ

where
Net thrust ¼ T
The other types of thrusts are
Gross thrust ¼ m_ a ð¼1 þ f þue Þ þ ¼Pe % Pa þAe
Momentum thrust ¼ m_ a ð¼1 þ f þue Þ
Pressure thrust ¼ (Pe % Pa)Ae
Momentum drag ¼ m_ a u
Thus: Net thrust ¼ Gross thrust – Momentum drag
Or in other words, Net thrust ¼ Momentum thrust + Pressure thrust –
Momentum drag
If the nozzle is unchoked, then Pe ¼ Pa, the pressure thrust cancels in Eq. (3.1).
The thrust is then expressed as

T ¼ m_ a ð¼1 þ f þue % uÞ ¼3:2þ

3.2 Thrust Force 163

Fig. 3.1 An unmixed two-spool turbofan engine

In many cases the fuel to air ratio is negligible, thus the thrust force equation is
reduced to the simple form:

T ¼ m_ a ¼ue % uþ ¼3:3þ

The thrust force in turbojet engine attains high values as the exhaust speed is high
and much greater than the flight speed, or: ue/u ( 1.
In a similar way, the thrust force for two stream engines like turbofan (Fig. 3.1)
and prop fan engines can be derived. It will be expressed as

T ¼ m_ h ð¼1 þ f þueh % uÞ þ m_ c ¼uec % uþ þ Aeh ¼Peh % Pa þ þ Aec ¼Pec % Pa þ ¼3:4þ

where
m_
f ¼ m_ hf : fuel to air ratio
m_ h : Air mass flow passing through the hot section of engine; turbine(s)
m_ eh ¼ m_ h ¼1 þ f þ : Mass of hot gases leaving the engine
m_ c : Air mass flow passing through the fan
ueh: Velocity of hot gases leaving the turbine nozzle
uec: Velocity of cold air leaving the fan nozzle
Peh: Exhaust pressure of the hot stream
Pec: Exhaust pressure of the cold stream
Aeh: Exit area for the hot stream
Aec: Exit area for the cold stream
The specific thrust is defined as the thrust per unit air mass flow rate (T=m_ a ),
which can be obtained from Eq. (3.4). It has the dimensions of a velocity (say m/s).
For turboprop engines (Fig. 3.2), the high value of thrust is achieved by the very
large quantity of the airflow rate, though the exhaust and flight speeds are very
close. An analogous formula to Eq. (3.4) may be employed as follows:

T ¼ m_ c ð¼1 þ f þue % u1 Þ þ m_ 0 ¼u1 % u0 þ ¼3:5þ

164 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Fig. 3.2 Turboprop engine

where m_ 0 is the air mass flow sucked by the propeller, while m_ c is a part of the air
flow crossed the propeller and then entered the engine through its intake. Here, u0,
u1, and ue are air speed upstream and downstream the propeller and gases speed at
the engine exhaust. The exhaust nozzle is normally unchoked.
Example 3.1 Air flows through a turbojet engine at the rate of 50.0 kg/s and the fuel
flow rate is 1.0 kg/s. The exhaust gases leave the jet nozzle with a relative velocity
of 600 m/s. Compute the velocity of the airplane, if the thrust power is 1.5 MW in
the following two cases:
1. Pressure equilibrium exists over the exit plane
2. If the pressure thrust is 8 kN

Solution
1. When the nozzle is unchoked, pressure equilibrium exists over the exit plane.
Then, thrust force is expressed as
ð "
T ¼ m_ a þ m_ f ue % m_ a u

Thrust power ¼ T ½ u
ð "
Thrust power ¼ m_ a þ m_ f ue u % m_ a u2
1:5 ½ 106 ¼ ¼51þ¼600þ u % 50 u2
50 u2 % 30, 600 u þ 1:5 ½ 106 ¼ 0
3.2 Thrust Force 165

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
30, 600 * 103 936:36 % 300
or u¼
100

Thus, either u ¼ 558.26 m/s or u ¼ 53.74 m/s

2. When the exit pressure is greater than the ambient pressure, a pressure thrust (Tp)
is generated. The thrust equation with pressure thrust is then
ð "
T ¼ m_ a þ m_ f ue % m_ a u þ T p

Thus, the thrust power is

ð " $ð " %
T ½ u ¼ m_ a þ m_ f ue u % m_ a u2 þ T p ½ u ¼ m_ a þ m_ f ue þ T p ½ u % m_ a u2
1:5 ½ 106 ¼ ð51 ½ 600 þ 8000Þ ½ u % 50u2 ¼ 38, 600 u % 50 u2
50 u2 % 38, 600 u þ 1:5 ½ 106 ¼ 0
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
38, 600 * 103 1490 % 300 38, 600 * 34, 495
u¼ ¼
100 100

Thus either u ¼ 731 m/s or 41 m/s

Example 3.2 A fighter airplane is powered by two turbojet engines. It has the
following characteristics during cruise flight conditions:
Wing area (S) ¼ 49.24 m2
Engine inlet area Ai ¼ 0.06 m2
Cruise speed Vf ¼ 243 m/s
Flight altitude ¼ 35,000 ft
Drag and lift coefficients are CD ¼ 0.045, CL ¼ 15 CD
Exhaust total temperature T0 ¼ 1005 K
Specific heat ratio and specific heat at exit are σ ¼ 1.3, Cp ¼ 1100 J/(kgK)
It is required to calculate:
1. Net thrust
2. Gross thrust
3. Weight
4. Jet speed assuming exhaust pressure is equal to ambient pressure if Pe ¼ Pa
5. Static temperature of exhaust Te
6. Exhaust Mach number Me

Solution
At 35,000 m altitude, the properties of ambient conditions are
Temperature T ¼ %54.3 + C, pressure P ¼ 23.84 kPa, and density 0.3798 kg/m3
The mass flow rate is m_ ¼ ρa V f Ai ¼ 0:3798 ½ 243 ½ 0:6 ¼ 55:375 kg=m3
166 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

1. During cruise flight segment, the thrust and drag force (D) are equal. Thus for
two engines and (T) is the net thrust of each engine, then

2 T ¼ D ¼ ρV 2 ACD =2

T ¼ 0:3798 ½ ¼243þ2 ½ 49:24 ½ 0:045=4 ¼ 12, 423 N ¼ 12:423 kN

2. Gross thrust ¼ Net thrust + Ram drag

T gross ¼ T þ m_ V f ¼ 12, 423 þ 55:3 ½ 243 ¼ 25, 879 N ¼ 25:879 kN

3. Since Weight ¼ Lift, thus L ¼ W.

Moreover, lift and drag are correlated by the relation:
CL ¼ 15 CD ¼ 0:675

L ¼ W ¼ 15D ¼ 30T ¼ 37, 2690 N ¼ 372:69 kN

4. Assuming negligible fuel flow ratio, and since Pe ¼ Pa, then the net thrust is
expressed by the relation:
ð "
T ¼ m_ V J % V f

T 12, 423
VJ ¼ Vf þ ¼ 243 þ ¼ 467:3 m=s
m_ 55:375

5. Exhaust static temperature is expressed by the relation:

V 2j
¼467þ2
T e ¼ T 0e % ¼ 1005 % ¼ 905:9 K
2Cp 2 ½ 1100
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
6. Sonic speed at exit ae ¼ σRT ¼ 1:3 ½ 287 ½ 905:7 ¼ 581:3 m=s
V
Exhaust Mach number is Me ¼ aje ¼ 0:804

Example 3.3 It is required to calculate and plot the momentum drag as well as
momentum, pressure, gross, and net thrusts versus the flight speed for a turbojet
engine powering an aircraft flying at 9 km (ambient temperature and pressure are
229.74 K and 30.8 kPa) and having the following characteristics, Ai ¼ 0.24 m2,
Ae ¼ 0.26 m2, f ¼ 0.02, Ue ¼ 600 m/s, Pe ¼ 87.50 kPa.
The flight speed varies from 500 to 4000 km/h. Consider the following cases:
The air mass flow rate is constant and equal to 40 kg/s irrespective of the
variation of flight speed.
3.2 Thrust Force 167

A. Air mass flow rate varies with the flight speed

B. Repeat the above procedure for altitudes 3, 6, and 12 km considering a variable
air mass flow rate and a constant exhaust pressure of Pe ¼ 87.50 kPa
C. Repeat the above procedure for altitudes 3, 6, 9, and 12 km considering a
variable air mass and a variable exhaust pressure given by the relation:
Pe/Palt ¼ 1.25

Solution
A. The mass flow rate is constant and equal to 40 kg/s at altitude 9 km
The momentum thrust (Tmomentum) is constant and given by the relation

T momentum ¼ m_ a ¼1 þ f þU e ¼ 40 ½ 1:02 ½ 600 ¼ 24, 480 N

The pressure thrust (Tpressure) is also constant and calculated as

T pressure ¼ Ae ½ ¼Pe % Pa þ ¼ 0:26 ½ ¼87:5 % 30:8þ ½ 103 ¼ 14, 742 N

The gross thrust (Tgross) is constant and equal to the sum of momentum and pressure
thrusts

T gross ¼ T momentum þ T pressure ¼ 39, 222 N

The momentum drag for flight speed varying from 500 to 4000 km/h is given by the
relation:

U ¼km=hrþ
Dmomentum ¼ m_ a U ¼ 40¼kg=sþ ½ ¼ 11:11 ½ U ¼Nþ
3:6

It is a linear relation in the flight speed U. Flight speed in momentum drag relation
and continuity equation will be substituted in km/h.
The net thrust is then (Fig. 3.3)

T net ¼ T gross % Dmomentum ¼ 39, 222 % 11:11 ½ U ¼Nþ

The net thrust varies linearly with the flight speed. The results are plotted in
Fig. 3.4. The net thrust must be greater than the total aircraft drag force during
acceleration and equal to the drag at steady cruise flight. Zero net thrust results
from the intersection of the gross thrust and ram drag. The flight speed
corresponding to zero net thrust represents the maximum possible aircraft’s
speed.
168 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Fig. 3.3 Thrust components and drag with variable flight speed

Fig. 3.4 Thrust variations with constant mass flow rate

3.2 Thrust Force 169

B. Variable air mass flow rate at altitude 9 km

The mass flow rate varies linearly with the flight speed according to the relation:

Pa 30:8 ½ 103 U
m_ a ¼ ρa UAi ¼ UAi ¼ ½ ½ 0:24 ¼kg=sþ
RT a 287 ½ 229:74 3:6
m_ a ¼ 0:031141 ½ U ¼kg=sþ

The momentum thrust varies linearly with the flight speed as per the relation

T momentum ¼ m_ a ¼1 þ f þU e ¼ 0:031141 ½ U ½ 1:02 ½ 600 ¼ 19:058 ½ U ¼Nþ

The pressure thrust is constant and has the same value as in case (1)

T pressure ¼ Ae ½ ¼Pe % Pa þ ¼ 0:26 ½ ¼87:5 % 30:8þ ½ 103 ¼ 14, 742 N

The gross thrust is varying linearly with the flight speed

T gross ¼ T momentum þ T pressure ¼ 19:058 ½ U þ 14742 ¼Nþ

The momentum drag for flight speed varying from 500 to 4000 km/h is given by
the quadratic relation:

U ¼km=hrþ
Dmomentum ¼ m_ a U ¼ 0:031141 ½ U ¼kg=sþ ½ ¼ 8:65 ½ 10%3 ½ U 2 ¼Nþ
3:6

The net thrust is then

T net ¼ T gross % Dmomentum ¼ 19:058 ½ U þ 14, 742 % 8:65 ½ 10%3 ½ U2 ¼Nþ

The above relations are plotted in Fig. 3.5.

C. Variable mass flow rate at altitudes 3, 6, and 12 km and constant exhaust
pressure of Pe ¼ 87.50 kPa
Air mass flow rate varies linearly with the flight speed according to the relation:

Palt Palt U
m_ a ¼ ρa UAi ¼ UAi ¼ ½ ½ 0:24
RT alt 287 ½ T alt 3:6
Palt
¼ 2:32 ½ 10%4 ½ U ¼kg=sþ
T alt

The momentum thrust varies linearly with the flight speed as per the relation

Palt
T momentum ¼ m_ a ¼1 þ f þUe ¼ 2:32 ½ 10%4 ½ U ½ 1:02 ½ 600
T alt
Palt
¼ 0:142 ½ ½ U ¼N þ
T alt
170 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Fig. 3.5 Variations of net thrust with variable mass flow rate

Table 3.1 Values of Altitude (km) Pressure (kPa) Temperature (K)

pressures and temperatures at
3 70.122 268.66
different altitudes
6 47.2 249.16
9 30.762 229.66
12 19.344 216.66

The pressure thrust is varying with altitude pressure (refer to Table 3.1):

T pressure ¼ Ae ½ ¼Pe % Palt þ ¼ 0:26 ½ ¼87:5 % Palt þ ½ 103 ¼Nþ

The gross thrust is varying linearly with the flight speed

T gross ¼ T momentum þ T pressure

Palt
¼ 0:142 ½ ½ U þ 0:26 ½ ¼87:5 % Palt þ ½ 103 ¼Nþ
T alt

The momentum drag for flight speed varying from 500 to 4000 km/h is given by the
quadratic relation:

Dmomentum ¼ m_ a U
¼ 2:32 ½ 10%4
Palt U ¼km=hrþ Palt
½ U ¼kg=sþ ½ ¼ 6:44 ½ 10%5 ½ ½ U 2 ¼Nþ
T alt 3:6 T alt
3.2 Thrust Force 171

Fig. 3.6 Net thrust variations with variable mass flow rate at different altitudes

The net thrust is then

T net ¼ T gross % Dmomentum

Palt Palt
¼ 0:142 ½ ½ U þ 0:26 ½ ¼87:5 % Palt þ ½ 103 % 6:44 ½ 10%5 ½ ½ U 2 ¼Nþ
T alt T alt

The above relation is plotted in Fig. 3.6.

D. Variable mass flow rate at altitudes 3, 6, 9, and 12 km and variable exhaust
pressure based on the relation Pe/Palt ¼ 1.25
The net thrust is expressed by the relation:

T net ¼ T gross % Dmomentum

Palt ¼Paþ Palt ¼Paþ
¼ 0:142 ½ ½ U þ 0:26 ½ ¼Pe % Palt þ % 6:44 ½ 10%5 ½ ½ U 2 ¼Nþ
T alt ¼K þ T alt ¼K þ
Palt ¼Paþ Palt ¼Paþ
T net ¼ 0:142 ½ ½ U þ 0:26 ½ 0:25 ½ Palt ¼Paþ % 6:44 ½ 10%5 ½
T alt ¼K þ T alt ¼K þ
½ U 2 ¼N þ
172 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Fig. 3.7 Thrust variations with variable mass flow rate at different altitudes with pressure ratio at
exit equals 1.25

For the case of altitude 3 km and flight speed of 600 km/h, then

70 ½ 103
T net ¼ 0:142 ½ ½ 600 þ 0:26 ½ 0:25 ½ 70 ½ 103 ¼Paþ % 6:44 ½ 10%5
268
3
70 ½ 10
½ ½ ¼600þ2 ¼Nþ
268
T net ¼ 22, 253 þ 4550 % 6055 ¼ 20, 748 N ¼ 2:0748 ½ 104 N

Figure 3.7 illustrates the positive net thrust for different flight speeds and altitudes
of 3, 6, 9, and 12 km. It is clarified that the maximum possible flight speed for such
an aircraft is nearly 2300 km/h.
It is interesting here to calculate the flight speed that provides a maximum thrust,
which is obtained from the relation: ∂T net
∂U
¼0
Since

Palt ¼Paþ Palt ¼Paþ

T net ¼ 0:142 ½ ½ U þ 0:26 ½ 0:25 ½ Palt ¼Paþ % 6:44 ½ 10%5 ½
T alt ¼K þ T alt ¼K þ
½ U 2 ¼N þ
∂T net Palt ¼Paþ Palt ¼Paþ
Then ¼ 0:142 ½ % 2 ½ 6:44 ½ 10%5 ½ ½U ¼0
∂U T alt ¼K þ T alt ¼K þ
3.2 Thrust Force 173

Thus net thrust attains a maximum value at all altitudes when the flight speed is

0:142
U¼ ¼ 1102:5 km=hr
2 ½ 6:44 ½ 10%5

The above value is also clear in Fig. 3.7.

Example 3.4 A high bypass ratio turbofan engine is powering a civil transport
aircraft flying at an altitude 11 km with a speed of 1100 km/h. The total air mass
flow rate is 120 kg/s and the bypass ratio is 5.0. Exhaust speeds for the cold and hot
streams are, respectively, 1460 and 2000 km/h. Both cold and hot nozzles are
unchoked. Calculate the thrust force (fuel-to-air ratio is 0.012).
Solution
From Eq. (3.4), the thrust force for unchoked nozzles is

T ¼ m_ h ð¼1 þ f þueh % uÞ þ m_ c ¼uec % uþ

Since the bypass ratio η ¼ 5.0 and the total air mass flow is 120.0 kg/s, then

η 5
m_ c ¼ m_ a ¼ ½ 120 ¼ 100 kg=s
1þη 1þ5
1 1
and m_ h ¼ m_ a ¼ ½ 120 ¼ 20 kg=s
1þη 1þ5

Then the thrust force is

T ¼ f20ð¼1 þ 0:012þ2000 % 1100Þ þ 100¼1460 % 1100þg ½ ¼1000=3600þ

T ¼ 15, 133 N ¼ 15:133 kN

Example 3.5 The thrust of a ramjet engine (single exhaust stream athodyd aero-
engine) is expressed by the relation:

T ¼ m_ a f¼1 þ f þue % ug

where the exhaust speed is expressed by the relation:

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffihffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiiffiffi
σ%1
ue ¼ 2Cp T 0max 1 % ¼Pa =P0max þ σ

It is required to examine the effect of maximum temperature T0max on thrust force, by

considering the following case: m_ a ¼ 100 kg=s, u ¼ 250 m/s, (Pa/P0max ¼ 0.125),
Cp ¼ 1148 J/(kg.K), σ ¼ 4/3, f ¼ 0.015, and T0max ¼ 1000, 1200, 1400, 1600 K
174 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Table 3.2 Values of exhaust velocity and net thrust at different maximum temperatures
T0max (K) 1000 1200 1400 1600
ue (m/s) 965 1957 1142 1220
Thrust T (kN) 72.9 82.2 90.8 98.8

Solution
Since the exhaust speed is given by the relation:
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffihffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiiffiffi
σ%1
ue ¼ 2Cp T 0max 1 % ¼Pa =P0max þ σ

Then, from the above given data:

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffihffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffihffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiiffiffi
σ%1
ue ¼ 2Cp T 0max 1 % ¼Pa =P0max þ σ ¼ 2 ½ 1148 ½ T 0max 1 % ¼0:125þ0:25
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ 30:5 T 0max

Moreover, the thrust force is then expressed by the relation

T ¼ m_ a f¼1 þ f þue % ug ¼ 100ð¼1:015þue % 250Þ

Substituting for the different values of maximum temperature, we get the following
tabulated results.
It is clear from Table 3.2 that keeping a constant ratio between the maximum and
ambient pressures, then increasing the maximum total temperature will increase the
generated thrust.

3.3 Factors Affecting Thrust

As seen from Eq. (3.1) for a single stream aero engine (ramjet or turbojet engine),
the thrust force depends on the inlet and outlet air mass flow rates, fuel-to-air ratio,
flight speed, exhaust speed, and exhaust and ambient pressures [1]. Though it
looked like a simple task to identify the factors listed above, each of them is
dependent on several parameters. For example, the inlet air mass flow rate influenc-
ing both of the momentum thrust and momentum drag is dependent on several
variables including the flight speed, ambient temperature and pressure, humidity,
altitude, and rotational speed of the compressor. The outlet gas mass flow rate is
dependent on the fuel added, air bleed, and water injection. The pressure thrust term
depends on the turbine inlet temperature, flight altitude, and the nozzle outlet area
and pressure. The momentum thrust is also dependent on the jet nozzle velocity.
These parameters [2] and [3] can be further explained as below:
3.3 Factors Affecting Thrust 175

3.3.1 Jet Nozzle

Pressure thrust has finite values only for choked nozzles, where the exit pressure is
greater than the ambient pressure. Nozzles are either of the convergent or
convergent–divergent (C–D) type. Only convergent nozzles may be choked. For a
choked convergent nozzle, the pressure thrust depends on both of the area of the
exhaust nozzle and also on the difference between the exit and ambient pressures.
Moreover, the exhaust speed is equal to the sonic speed which is mainly influenced
by the exhaust gas temperature. If a convergent nozzle is unchoked, then the jet
velocity will attain subsonic values. For a convergent divergent (CD) nozzle, the jet
speed may attain supersonic values as described in Chap. 2. CD nozzles are seen
only in supersonic aircrafts.

3.3.2 Air Speed

The air speed, sometimes denoted as the approach speed, is equal to the flight speed
in the thrust force; Eq. (3.1). Such a parameter has a direct effect on the net thrust. If
the exhaust gas velocity is constant and the air velocity is increased, then the
difference between both velocities [(1 + f )ue % u] is decreased leading to a decrease
also in the net thrust. If the air mass flow and the fuel to air ratio are assumed
constants, then a linear decrease in the net thrust is enhanced (Fig. 3.8).

3.3.3 Mass Air Flow

The mass air flow m_ a is the most significant parameter in the thrust equation. It
depends on the air temperature and pressure as both together determine the density
of the air entering the engine. In free air, a rise in temperature will decrease the
density. Thus air density and mass flow rate is inversely proportional with the air

Fig. 3.8 Variation of thrust

force with air speed
176 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Fig. 3.9 Variation of the thrust force with air temperature and pressure

temperature. On the contrary, an increase in the pressure of a free air increases its
density and, consequently, its thrust increases. The effect of both of air temperature
and pressure is illustrated in Fig. 3.9. In brief, the density affects the inlet air mass
flow and it directly affects thrust.

3.3.4 Altitude

As outlined above, the air temperature and pressure have significant effects on the
thrust. As described in Chap. 2, in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
temperature decreases by about 3.2 K per 500 m of altitude up to nearly 11,000 m
(36,089 ft). The variations of ambient temperature and pressure are given by
Eqs. (2.83) and (2.84). These relations are repeated here, but with altitude expressed
in meter:

T ¼Kþ ¼ 288 % 0:0065 ½ z ¼3:6þ

%9
P ¼barþ ¼ 1:01325 % 0:000112 ½ z þ 3:8e ½z ¼3:7þ

After 11,000 m, the temperature stops falling, but the pressure continues to drop
steadily with increasing altitude. Consequently, above 11,000 m (36,089 ft), the
thrust will drop off more rapidly (Fig. 3.10). This makes the 11,000 m an optimum
altitude for long-range cruising at nominal speed, just prior to the rapidly increased
effect of altitude on thrust. It may be concluded that the effect of altitude on thrust is
really a function of density.
3.3 Factors Affecting Thrust 177

Fig. 3.10 Variation of the

thrust force with altitude

Fig. 3.11 Effect of ram Thrust Resultant Effect of A & B

pressure on thrust

A - Va Effect

B - Ram Effect

Air Speed (Va)

3.3.5 Ram Effect

The movement of the aircraft relative to the outside air causes air to be rammed into
the engine inlet duct. Ram effect increases the airflow to the engine, which in turn,
increases the gross thrust. However, it is not as easy, ram effects combine two
factors, namely, the air speed increase and in the same time increases the pressure
of the air and the airflow into the engine. As described earlier, the increase of air
speed reduces the thrust, which is sketched in Fig. 3.11 as the ‘A’ curve. Moreover,
the increase of the airflow will increase the thrust, which is sketched by the ‘B’
curve in the same figure. The ‘C’ curve is the result of combining curves ‘A’ and
‘B’. The increase of thrust due to ram becomes significant as the air speed increases,
which will compensate for the loss in thrust due to the reduced pressure at high
altitude. Ram effect is thus important in high speed fighter aircrafts. Also modern
subsonic jet-powered aircraft fly at high subsonic speeds and higher altitudes to
make use of the ram effect.
178 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Finally, it is fruitful to classify the factors affecting thrust into two groups [4]:
1. Factors related to the engine
2. Factors related to the surrounding medium
The first group [1] includes:
1. The rotational speed (rpm), which influences both of the compressor pressure
ratio and the turbine work
2. Exhaust nozzle size, which influences the jet velocity
3. Fuel flow rate and turbine inlet temperature, which affect the combustor heat
generation
4. Compressor bleed flow, water injection, and components performance, which
lead to increase of the specific work
The first group thus contributes to both of the air mass flow rate and jet velocity.
The second group includes:
1. Forward (air) speed, which leads to thrust decrease and more fuel consumption
2. Air density (influenced by the flight altitude, humidity, hot/cold day), which
influences the airflow leading to a thrust increase if the airflow is increased and
vice versa.

3.4 Engine Performance Parameters

The performance of an aircraft engine may be criticized by its ability to provide the
necessary thrust force needed in propelling an aircraft efficiently in its different
flight regimes.
The engine performance parameters [1] are identified as:
1. Propulsive efficiency
2. Thermal efficiency
3. Propeller efficiency
4. Overall efficiency
5. Takeoff thrust
6. Specific fuel consumption
7. Aircraft range
Military aircrafts are powered by engines that fulfill its mission requirements.
For this reason, the takeoff thrust, maneuverability, and affordability are the critical
issues with some sacrifice of its fuel consumption in some types like fighters and
interceptors. For both civil and military transports, specific fuel consumption and
the aircraft range are the critical design issues. In both types, several efficiencies
related to the conversion of heat generated by fuel burning into thrust force are
important.
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 179

3.4.1 Propulsive Efficiency

It is the efficiency of the conversion of the kinetic energy of air when passes through
the engine into a propulsive power. It is identified by manufacturers of aero engine
as an external efficiency. It is influenced by the amount of the energy wasted in the
propelling nozzle(s) and denoted by (τp).
It is defined as

Thrust power
τp ¼ ¼3:8aþ
Power imparted to engine airflow

or simply

Thrust power
τp ¼ ¼3:8bþ
Thrust power þ power wasted in the exhaust

which will be denoted here as the first expression for the propulsive efficiency.
Another definition used in many texts is

Thrust power
τp ¼ ¼3:9þ
Rate of kinetic energy added to engine airflow

This will be referred to as the second expression.

For ramjet, scramjet and turbojet engines, the first expression has the form:

uT
τp ¼ ¼3:10aþ
uT þ 12 m_ e ¼ue % uþ2
ufm_ a ð¼1 þ f þue % uÞ þ Ae ¼Pe % Pa þg
τp ¼ ¼3:10bþ
ufm_ a ð¼1 þ f þue % uÞ þ Ae ¼Pe % Pa þg þ 12 m_ a ¼1 þ f þ¼ue % uþ2

This expression is normally used by manufacturers of aero engines [3–6] as well as

some texts [7, 8].
The second expression is adopted by other authors [9, 10] and expressed as

2uT
τp ¼ $ % ¼3:11aþ
m_ a ¼1 þ f þu2e % u2
2ufm_ a ð¼1 þ f þue % uÞ þ Ae ¼Pe % Pa þg
τp ¼ $ % ¼3:11bþ
m_ a ¼1 þ f þu2e % u2

The two expressions are identical if the nozzle is unchoked (Pe ¼ Pa). If in addition,
the fuel-to-air ratio ( f ) is negligible, then the following third expression is obtained:

2u 2
τp ¼ ¼ ¼3:12þ
u þ ue 1 þ ¼ue =uþ
180 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Considering Eqs. (3.3) and (3.12), it is important to notice that [1]:

1. If the exhaust speed is much greater than the air (flight) speed, ue ( u, then the
thrust force will be maximum while
ffi ' the propulsive efficiency attains a very small
ð "
value approaching zero; or as uu0e " , then τp #. This case represents takeoff
conditions (where u , 0) as well as military aircrafts.
2. If the exhaust speed is nearly equal to the flight speed, ue/u , 1, then the thrust
force will be so small and approachesffi zero,' whileðthe" propulsive attains very
ue
high value approaching 100 %, or as u0 # then τp ". Thus civil transport
aircrafts require higher efficiency and fly at lower speeds.
The highest propulsive efficiency is typically obtained with a propeller or an
unducted fan, as both give a relatively small impulse (ζu) to a relatively large
mass flow.
For bypass engines (turbofan and propfan), the air coming into the engine is
splitted into two streams: the first passes through the fan/propfan and is known as
the cold stream, while the other passes through the engine core, compressor,
combustion chamber, and subsequent modules, and is known as the hot stream.
Applying the same principle and employing the first expression, we get the follow-
ing form:

u¼ T h þ T c þ
τp ¼ ¼3:13aþ
u¼ T h þ T c þ þ W h þ W c

where Th and Tc are the thrust force generated by the hot and cold streams
respectively, while Wh and Wc are the wake losses of the hot and cold streams
respectively. The thrust force and wake losses for both hot and cold streams are
expressed as

T h ¼ m_ h ð¼1 þ f þueh % uÞ þ Aeh ¼Peh % Pa þ

T c ¼ m_ c ðuec % uÞ þ Aec ¼Pec % Pa þ
1 1
W h ¼ m_ h ¼1 þ f þ¼ueh % uþ2 ¼ m_ eh ¼ueh % uþ2
2 2
1
W c ¼ m_ c ¼uec % uþ2
2
where m_ eh ¼ ¼1 þ f þm_ h

This relation can be written also as

Tu
τp ¼ n o ¼3:13bþ
Tu þ 0:5 m_ eh ¼ueh % uþ2 þ m_ c ¼uec % uþ2

This is the first expression for the propulsive efficiency in turbofan engine.
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 181

The second expression, Eq. (3.11a), can be also written using the two hot and
cold streams.

2uT
τp ¼ ( ) ¼3:14aþ
m_ h ¼1 þ f þu2eh þ ηu2ec % ¼1 þ ηþu2

When the two nozzles of the hot and cold streams are unchoked and the fuel to air
ratio ( f ) is negligible, both expressions yield the following expression:

2uðueh þ ηuec % ¼1 þ ηþuÞ

τp ¼ ¼3:14bþ
u2eh þ ηu2ec % ¼1 þ ηþu2

where (η) is the bypass ratio which is the ratio between the mass flow rates of the
cold air and hot air, or η ¼ mm__ hc . For turbofan engines, the simple relation (Eq. (3.12))
cannot be applied.
The propulsive efficiency for a turboprop engine can be written also as

Tu
τp ¼ n o ¼3:15þ
Tu þ 0:5 m_ e ¼ue % u1 þ2 þ m_ 0 ¼u1 % u0 þ2

The propulsive efficiency for turboprop, turbojet, and turbofan engines is illustrated
by Fig. 3.12. Figure 3.13 illustrates the propulsive efficiency for single and contra
rotating propfan engines.
Example 3.6 A turbojet engine is powering a fighter airplane. Its cruise altitude and
Mach number are 10 km and 0.85, respectively. The exhaust gases leave the nozzle
at a speed of 600 m/s and a pressure of 0.75 bar. The outlet area of exhaust nozzle is
Ae ¼ 0.24 m2. The air mass flow rate is 40 kg/s and fuel to air ratio is 0.02. It is
required to calculate:
(a) The specific thrust (T=m_ a )
(b) The propulsive efficiency using the different expressions defined above

Solution
(a) At altitude 10 km, the ambient temperature and pressure are
Ta ¼ 223.3 K and Pa ¼ 0.265 bar
This ambient pressure is less than the exit pressure. Thus the nozzle is choked
and the pressure thrust is not zero.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
The flight speed u ¼ M σRT a ¼ 254:6 m=s
From Eq. (3.3), the specific thrust is

T Ae
¼ ð¼1 þ f þue % uÞ þ ¼Pe % Pa þ
m_ a m_ a
182 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Fig. 3.12 Propulsive efficiency for turboprop, turbojet, and turbofan engines (Reproduced with
the permission of Rolls-Royce plc, copyright © Rolls-Royce plc 2007)

T 0:24
¼ ¼1:02 ½ 600 % 254:6þ þ ¼0:75 % 0:265þ ½ 105 ½
m_ a 40

T
Then ¼ 648:4 N:s=kg
m_ a

(b) The propulsive efficiency is calculated using the different expressions.

The first expression given by Eq. (3.10) can be rewritten as

2¼T=m_ a þu
τp ¼
2¼T=m_ a þu þ ¼1 þ f þ¼ue % uþ2

Substitution will give

2 ½ 648:4 ½ 254:6 330165:3

τP ¼ ¼
2 ½ 648:4 ½ 254:6 þ 1:02 ½ ¼600 % 254:6þ2 330165:3 þ 121687:2
τP ¼ [Link] ¼ 73:07 %
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 183

Fig. 3.13 Propulsive efficiency for single- and contra-rotating propfan engines (Reproduced with
the permission of Rolls-Royce plc, copyright © Rolls-Royce plc 2007)

Next, the second expression given by Eq. (3.11) can be rewritten as

2¼T=m_ a þu
τp ¼
¼1 þ f þu2e % u2

which by substitution gives

2 ½ 648:4 ½ 254:6
τP ¼ ¼ 1:092 ¼ 109:2 %
1:02 ½ ¼600þ2 % ¼254:6þ2

This value assures that this expression must not be used if the nozzle is choked.
Finally using the third expression given by Eq. (3.12) gives

2u
τp ¼ ¼ 0:5958 ¼ 59:58 %
ue þ u

Though this expression is simple but gives a very rough estimate of the propul-
sive efficiency.
184 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Comment
As depicted in example (3.6), the second expression for the propulsive efficiency
provides efficiencies greater than unity. Such astonishing value of a propulsive
efficiency greater than unity can be overcome if the effective jet velocity proposed
in [1, 6, 11] is employed. The proposed effective jet velocity is expressed as

0 Ae
ue ¼ ue þ ¼Pe % Pa þ ¼3:16þ
m_ e

Such an effective jet velocity means that a full expansion of the gases to the ambient
pressure is assumed. In such a case, the second expression for the propulsive
efficiency will be exactly equal to the first expression. This effective velocity was
also employed by Rolls Royce [5]. The effective jet velocity is identified by aero
engine manufacturers as the fully expanded jet velocity (in the exhaust plume).
Example 3.7 A comparison between turbojet, turbofan, and turboprop engines is
considered here. The three engines have the same gas generator (compressor,
combustion chamber, and turbine). It is required to calculate both the thrust and
propulsive efficiency of them provided the following data:

Core air mass Flight Fuel to Exhaust speed Exhaust

flow rate Bypass speed air for hot gases speed for
Engine (kg/s) ratio η (km/h) ratio (km/h) cold stream
Turbojet 20 0 1100 0.02 3000 0
Turbofan 20 5 1100 0.015 2000 1460
Turboprop 20 25 1100 0.015 1800 1200

All nozzles are unchoked.

Solution
(A) Turbojet engine
The thrust force is given by Eq. (3.2)

π ¼ m_ e ð¼1 þ f þue % uÞ
π ¼ 20 ½ ð¼1 þ 0:02þ ½ 3000 % 1000Þ=3:6 ¼ 10, 888 N ¼ 10:888 kN
Tu
τp ¼ n o
Tu þ 0:5 m_ e ¼ue % u1 þ2
10, 888 ½ ¼1100=3:6þ
¼ ¼ 0:5439
10, 888 ½ ¼1100=3:6þ þ 0:5 ½ 20:04 ½ f¼3000 % 1100þ=3:6g2
τp ¼ 54:39 %
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 185

(B) Turbofan engine

Since the bypass ratio η ¼ 5.0 and the core air mass flow is 20.0 kg/s, then

m_ fan ¼ ηm_ core ¼ 5 ½ 20 ¼ 100 kg=s

The thrust force is calculated from Eq. (3.4)

π ¼ m_ core ð¼1 þ f þueh % uÞ þ m_ fan ¼uec % uþ

π ¼ f20ð¼1 þ 0:015þ2000 % 1100Þ þ 100¼1460 % 1100þg ½ ¼1000=3600þ
π ¼ 15, 166 N ¼ 15:166 kN
Tu
τp ¼ n o
Tu þ 0:5 m_ eh ¼ueh % uþ2 þ m_ c ¼uec % uþ2
15, 166 ½ ¼1100=3:6þ
τp ¼ n o
15, 166 ½ ¼1100=3:6þ þ 0:5 20:3 ½ ð¼2000 % 1100þ=3:6Þ2 þ 100 ½ ð¼1460 % 1100þ=3:6Þ2

τp ¼ 0:8033 ¼ 80:33 %

(C) Turboprop engine

Total air mass flow rate

m_ 0 ¼ η ½ m_ c ¼ 25 ½ 20 ¼ 500 kg=s

The thrust force is calculated from Eq. (3.5):

π ¼ m_ c ð¼1 þ f þue % u1 Þ þ m_ 0 ¼u1 % u0 þ

π ¼ f20ð¼1 þ 0:015þ1800 % 1200Þ þ 500¼1200 % 1100þg ½ ¼1000=3600þ
¼ 17, 372 N

The Propulsive Efficiency

Tu
τp ¼ n o
Tu þ 0:5 m_ e ¼ue % u1 þ2 þ m_ 0 ¼u1 % u0 þ2
17, 372 ½ ¼1100=3:6þ
τp ¼ n ð "2 ð1200%1100"2 o
17, 372 ½ ¼1100=3:6þ þ 0:5 20:3 ½ 1800%1200
3:6 þ 500 3:6

¼ 0:9178
τp ¼ 91:78 %
186 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Summary of Results
Engine Thrust force (kN) Propulsive efficiency τp %
Turbojet 10.888 54.39
Turbofan 15.166 80.33
Turboprop 17.372 91.78

It is clear from the above example that for the same gas generator, the turboprop
engines furnishes the maximum thrust force and highest propulsive efficiency. The
least thrust force and minimum propulsive efficiency is attained by a turbojet
engine. Turbofan engine delivers a large thrust force and a high propulsive effi-
ciency. It is important to mention here that the thrust of turbofan engine in many
cases much greater than turboprop engines as well be described in Chap. 4.

3.4.2 Thermal Efficiency

It is the efficiency of energy conversion within the power plant itself. So it is

considered as an internal efficiency, while the propulsive efficiency resembles an
external efficiency as stated earlier. Thermal efficiency is denoted by (τth). Two
forms for such efficiency are defined for the following two groups of engines.
Ramjet, scramjet, turbojet, and turbofan engines:

Power imparted to engine airflow W_ out

τth ¼ ¼ ¼3:17þ
Rate of energy supplied in the fuel Q_ in

It is easy to note that the denominator in Eq. (3.8a) is equal to the numerator in
Eq. (3.17).
For a ramjet and turbojet engines:
Using the first expression for the propulsive efficiency, the following first
expression for (τth) is obtained:

Tu þ 12 m_ a ¼1 þ f þ¼ue % uþ2
τth ¼ ¼3:16þ
m_ f QR

where (QR) is the heat of reaction of the fuel used. Other names for QR are the
calorific value of fuel [9] or the lower heating value (LHV) [4]. It is also alterna-
tively written as QHV.
Assuming an unchoked nozzle, then

1 $ð " %
W_ out ¼ m_ a þ m_ f ue 2 % m_ a u2
2
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 187

From the second expression for propulsive efficiency, the following second expres-
sion for thermal efficiency is obtained:
1
$ð " %
2 m_ a þ m_ f ue 2 % m_ a u2
τth ¼ ¼3:17aþ
m_ f QR
ð¼1 þ f þue 2 % u2 Þ
τth ¼ ¼3:17bþ
2f QR

For an unchoked nozzle and negligible ( f ), then the following third expression is
given:

u2e % u2
τth ¼ ¼3:18þ
2f QR

For a two stream engines (turbofan and prop fan), the following expression is
employed:

Tu þ 12 m_ h ¼1 þ f þ¼ueh % uþ2 þ 12m_ c ¼uec % uþ2

τth ¼ ¼3:19þ
m_ f QR

Similarly, assuming unchoked nozzles and negligible ( f ) to get

u2eh þ ηu2ec % ¼1 þ ηþu2

τth ¼ ¼3:20þ
2f QR

which is the counterpart of Eq. (3.18)

Turboprop and turbo shaft engines:
The output of turboprop or a turbo shaft engine is largely a shaft power. In this
case, thermal efficiency is defined as

PTotal
τth ¼ ¼3:21þ
m_ f QR

where (PTotal) is the total power.

For a turboprop engine:

PTotal ¼ PPropeller þ PJet ¼ τpr τgb SP þ T ½ V j

where (SP) is the shaft power, while the jet thrust (T ) is given by the relation:
$ %
T ¼ m_ a ¼1 þ f þV j % V f
188 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

helicopter compressor combustion core power

rotor blade chamber turbine turbine
helicopter
rotor head output
shaft

gearbox

Fig. 3.14 Turboshaft engine powering helicopter’s rotor

For a turbo shaft engine say driving the rotor of a helicopter:

PTotal ¼ PRotor ¼ τrotor τgb SP

Example 3.8 Bell 206 LM helicopter is powered a single Rolls-Royce 250 C30P
turboshaft engine, Fig. 3.14, having a takeoff shaft power of 726 hp. The engine has
the following data:

Rotor efficiency 0.8

Gearbox efficiency 0.995
Fuel heating value 45,000 kJ/kg
Fuel mass flow rate 102 kg/h

Calculate the thermal efficiency

Solution
Since thermal efficiency is expressed by the relation:

PTotal
τth ¼
m_ f QR

where PTotal ¼ PRotor ¼ τrotor τgb SP,

Then PTotal ¼ PRotor ¼ τrotor τgb SP ¼ 0:8 ½ 0:995 ½ 726 ¼ 577:9 hp

¼ 431 kW
PTotal 431
τth ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:338 ¼ 33:8 %
m_ f QR ¼102=3600þ ½ 45, 000
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 189

3.4.3 Propeller Efficiency

Propellers are used in both of piston and turboprop. Shaft power is converted to
thrust power. Propeller efficiency (τpr) is defined as the ratio between the thrust
power generated by the propeller (TP - uTpr) to the shaft power (SP)

TP uT pr
τpr ¼ ¼ ¼3:22þ
SP SP

when an appreciable amount of thrust is obtained from the exhaust gases Te in a

turboprop engine, an Equivalent Thrust Power, ETP is expressed in terms of the
shaft power, propeller efficiency, and exhaust thrust power, thus

ETP ¼ ¼SPþ ½ τpr þ T e u ¼3:23aþ

Alternatively, an equivalent shaft power (ESP) is used instead of the equivalent

thrust power. They are related to each other by the relation:

Teu
where ESP ¼ ETP=τpr ¼ SP þ ¼3:23bþ
τpr

Moreover, the exhaust thrust is expressed as

.
T e ¼ mh ð¼1 þ f þue % uÞ ¼3:24aþ

The total thrust force is given by the relation:

T ¼ T pr þ T e ¼3:24bþ

The propeller efficiency is then expressed as

uT
τpr ¼ ¼3:25þ
ESP

Such propeller efficiency replaces the propulsive efficiency of other types of aero
engines discussed above. More details will be given in Chap. 4.

3.4.4 Overall Efficiency

The product of the propulsive and thermal efficiencies (τp ½ τth) or (τpr ½ τth) as
appropriate is called the overall efficiency.
190 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

In all cases

Tu
τo ¼ . QR ¼3:26þ
mf

Since the overall efficiency depends on speed (u) and the thrust (T ) balances the
aircraft drag, overall efficiency is actually not a parameter of the engine alone, but
characterizes the engine/aircraft combination and its state of operation. The overall
efficiency was close to 0.2 in the 1950s, near 0.3 on average for subsonic airliner
fleet in the 1990s, and may reach 0.5 for engines of 2015 [12]. The overall
efficiency is 0.35 for a B747 aircraft with CF6-80C2B1F engines cruising with
Mach 0.86 at 11.9 km altitude and was 0.40 for a Concorde with Olympus
593 engines cruising with Mach 2 at 16.5 km altitude, on 6400 km mission.
For a turbojet with unchoked nozzle and negligible fuel to air ratio ( f ), then
from Eq. (3.12):

2u
τo ¼ τth ¼3:27aþ
u þ ue

Example 3.9 Boeing 747-400 aircraft is powered by four PW4062 turbofan

engines manufactured by Pratt & Whiney Aircraft Engine Company. Each engine
has the following data:

Thrust force 24.0 kN

Air mass flow rate 120 kg/s
Bypass ratio 5.0
Fuel mass flow rate 0.5 kg/s
Operating Mach number 0.85
Altitude 10 km
Ambient temperature 223.2 K
Fuel heating value 40,800 kJ/kg

If the thrust generated from the fan is 75 % of the total thrust, determine:
(a) Jet velocities of the cold air and hot gases
(b) Specific thrust
(c) Propulsive efficiency
(d) Thermal efficiency
(e) Overall efficiency
(Assume that the exit pressures of the cold and hot streams are equal to the
ambient pressure)
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 191

Solution
Since the total air mass flow rate through the engine is m_ a ¼ 120 kg=s and the
bypass ratio is 5.0, then the flow rates of the cold (fan) and hot (core) streams are
calculated as follows:

η 5
m_ c -m_ fan ¼ m_ total ¼ ½ 120 ¼ 100:0 kg=s
1þη 6
1 1
m_ h - m_ core ¼ m_ total ¼ ½ 120 ¼ 20:0 kg=s
1þη 6

(a) Subscripts (c) and (h) stands for the cold (or fan) and hot (or core) sections
respectively.
0:5
Fuel-to-air ratio f ¼ m_ fuel =m_ h ¼ 20:0 ¼ 0:025

T fan ¼ 0:75T ¼ 0:75 ½ 24 ¼ 18 kN

T core -T h ¼ 0:25T ¼ 6 kN
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Flight speed U ¼ M σRT a ¼ 0:85 1:4 ½ 287 ½ 223:2

U ¼ 254:5 m=s

Exit velocity from fan (cold air)

.
since T fan ¼ m fan ¼U efan % U þ
T fan 18000
∴U efan ¼ . þU ¼ þ 254:5 ¼ 180 þ 254:5
m fan 100:0
U efan ¼ 434:5 m=s

Exhaust velocity from engine core (hot gases)

.
Since T h ¼ mh ð¼1 þ f þU eh % U Þ
hffi ' i
.
T h =mh þ U 1
∴Ueh ¼ ¼ ½ ð¼6000=20:0þ þ 254:5Þ
1þf 1:025
U eh ¼ 541:0 m=s

(b) Specific thrust ¼ m.T ¼ 120

24
¼ 0:2 kN / s=kg ¼ 200 m=s
a
(c) The propulsive efficiency
192 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Since both cold (fan) and hot (core) nozzles are unchoked, then the propulsive
efficiency can be expressed as

T½U
τP ¼ 1 . $ 2 2
% 1. $ 2 2
%
2 m h
¼ 1 þ f þU e h
% U þ 2 mc U ec % U
2 ½ 24, 000 ½ 254:5
τP ¼ h i h i
20:0 1:025 ½ ¼541þ2 % ¼254:5þ2 þ ¼100:0þ ¼434:5þ2 % ¼254:5þ2

12:216 ½ 106
τP ¼ ¼ 0:714 ¼ 71:40=0
4:7045 ½ 106 þ 12:402 ½ 106

(d) The thermal efficiency

1 .
$ % . $ %
2 mh ¼1 þ f þU 2 eh % U 2 þ 12 mc U 2 c % U 2
τth ¼ .
m fuel QHV
17:1065 ½ 106
τth ¼ ¼ 0:4192
2 ½ 0:5 ½ 40:8 ½ 106
τth ¼ 41:92 %

(e) The overall efficiency

τo ¼ τP τth ¼ 0:3 ¼ 30:0 %

3.4.5 Takeoff Thrust

An important parameter that defines the ability of an aero engine to provide a static
and low speed thrust which enables the aircraft to take off under its own power
[1]. Both ramjet and scramjet engines are not self-accelerating propulsion systems
from static conditions: they require acceleration to an appreciable velocity by a
boost system before they are capable of providing net positive thrust. Thus they are
excluded from this discussion.
From Eq. (3.3), the static thrust of a turbojet engine with an unchoked nozzle is
expressed by the relation:
.
T takeoff ¼ ma ¼1 þ f þue ¼aþ

From Eq. (3.17a) when u ¼ 0, then

. u2e
¼τth þstatic ¼ ma ¼1 þ f þ . ¼bþ
2m f QR
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 193

From equations (a) and (b), then the static or takeoff thrust is given by the relation:
.
2τth mf QR
T takeoff ¼ ¼3:27bþ
ue

For constant values flow rate and thermal efficiency, then

1
T takeoff /
ue

The above relation outlines one of the advantages of turboprop engines over
turbojet and turbofan engines. Turboprop engines accelerate a large mass flow
rate of air to a small exhaust velocity which in turn increases the takeoff thrust.
Consequently, aircraft powered by turboprop engines can takeoff from a very short
runway.

3.4.6 Specific Fuel Consumption

This performance parameter of the engine has a direct influence on the costs of
aircraft trip and flight economics [1]. Fuel consumption is either defined per unit
thrust force (for ramjet, turbojet, and turbofan engines) or per horsepower (for
example, for turboprop and piston-propeller engines).
(A) Ramjet, turbojet and turbofan engines:
The Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC) is defined as
.
m
TSFC ¼ f ¼3:28aþ
T

where the thrust force (T) is expressed by Eq. (3.1) for a ramjet/turbojet engine and
Eq. (3.4) for a turbofan engine. Values of TSFC strongly depend on the flight speed,
so its typical values for both turbojet and turbofan are defined for static condition.
However, for ramjet reference values for TSFC are defined at flight Mach number
of 2. Typical values [10] for the above mentioned three engine types are given in
Table 3.3.
Some empirical formulae are presented in [13] for thrust specific fuel consump-
tion. These formulae have the form:
pffiffi
TSFC ¼ ¼a þ bM0 þ ω ¼3:28bþ

where (a) and (b) are constants that vary from one engine to another, M0 is the flight
Mach number, and ω is the dimensionless ratio (Ta/Tref), which is the ratio between
194 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Table 3.3 Typical TSFC TSFC

values for different engines at
kg/N.h ib=ibf / hr
certain Mach numbers
Turbojet (M ¼ 0) 0.075 % 0.11 0.75 % 1.1
Turbofan (M ¼ 0) 0.03 % 0.05 0.3 % 0.5
Ramjet (M ¼ 2.0) 0.17 % 0.26 1.7 % 2.6

the ambient temperature at the flight altitude and the standard temperature at sea
level (288.2 K). For a high bypass ratio turbofan, the values of these constants are
a ¼ 0.4 and b ¼ 0.45.
(B) Turboprop engines
For engines which produce shaft power, fuel consumption is identified by Brake
Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC), or simply SFC, and defined as
.
SFC-BSFC ¼ mf =SP ¼3:29þ

When appreciable thrust is produced by the hot gases, the fuel consumption is
identified by the Equivalent Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (EBSFC), or simply
ESFC, and defined by
.
ESFC ¼ mf =ESP ¼3:30þ
ffi ' ð "
ib=hr kg
Typical values [10] for ESFC are 0.45–0.60 hp or 0.27–0.36 kW:hr . The values
of the corresponding constants in the empirical relation (3.25b) are a ¼ 0.2 and
b ¼ 0.9 [13].
Example 3.10 A turbojet engine powering a fighter airplane has an unchoked
nozzle. The following simplified expressions for thrust and propulsive efficiency
may be used:

T ¼ m_ a ¼ue % uþ
2u
τp ¼
u þ ue

Prove that the propulsive efficiency is expressed by the relation

2u
τp ¼
2u þ ¼f =TSFCþ

Next, calculate the propulsive efficiency for the case of fuel-to-air ratio f ¼ 0.02 and
TSFC ¼ 0.1 kg/N.h, at different flight speeds u ¼ 100, 200, 300, 400, 500,
600, 700 m/s.
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 195

Table 3.4 Propulsive efficiency versus flight speed

u (m/s) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
τp % 21.74 35.71 45.45 52.63 58.14 62.5 66.04

Solution
Since T ¼ m_ a ¼ue % uþ then ue ¼ T=m_ a þ u
2u 2u
Thus τp ¼ ¼
u þ T=m a þ u 2u þ T=m_ a
_
But TSFC ¼ m_ f =T
ð "
Then T=m_ a ¼ m_ f =TSFC =m_ a ¼ f =TSFC
2u
Thus τp ¼
2u þ ¼f =TSFCþ

From the given data, τp ¼ 2uþ¼f2u 2u 2u

=TSFCþ ¼ 2uþ¼0:02=0:1þ½3600 ¼ 2uþ720
Substituting for the flight speed, the propulsive efficiency is calculated and
tabulated in Table 3.4.
Example 3.11 A turbojet engine is powering an aircraft flying with a speed of
250 m/s at an altitude where the ambient pressure is 20 kPa. A convergent nozzle is
used which has an outlet area of 0.5 m2. The air mass flow rate is 60 kg/s, fuel to air
ratio is 0.02, and the nozzle inlet total conditions are
600 K and 100 kPa:
(A) For the cases of full expansion and choked nozzle, calculate:
1. The exhaust velocity and pressure
2. The jet, pressure, and net thrusts
(B) Repeat the above requirements in the following six cases of under-expanded
flow in the nozzle, where the ratio between the total inlet and exit pressures P0i/
Pe ¼ 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0 and 4.5.
(C) Calculate:
1. The incremental decrease in thrust ζπ ¼ πcritical % π , where πcritical is the
thrust at choked conditions
2. Calculate the percentage of thrust decrease ζπ/πcritical %
(D) Calculate the equivalent jet speed
(E) Plot the below variables versus P0i/Pe (horizontal axis), while the vertical axis
may be
1. Jet thrust
2. Pressure thrust
3. Net thrust
196 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

P01

V 2c/2Cp Pc

V 2e/2Cp

Pe

V 2jmax/2Cp

Pa

S
Fig. 3.15 Nozzle behavior for full expansion, choking, and under-expansion

4. Exact propulsive efficiency

5. Approximate propulsive efficiency

Solution
The nozzle flow characteristics are

P01 ¼ 100 kPa, T 01 ¼ 600 K, σ h ¼ 4=3, Cph ¼ 1:148 kJ=kgK, Pa

¼ 20 kPa

Figure 3.15 illustrates the flow behavior inside the nozzle on T-S diagram.
(A.1) Full expansion
For the case of full expansion, the exhaust speed is the maximum in all cases,
while the exhaust pressure is the lowest in all cases. It is calculated as follows:
Conditions
Exhaust pressure ¼ Pa ¼ 20 kPa
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi"ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi#
ffiffiffi
u * +σhσ%1
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi u Pa h
V jmax ¼ 2Cph ¼T 01 % T a þ ¼ t2Cph T 01 1 %
P01
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi"
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi#ffiffi
u * +
u 20 0:25
t
¼ 2 ½ 1148 ½ 600 1 %
100

Jet speed-V jmax ¼ 675 m=s

3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 197

The exit temperature is

* +σ=σ%1 * +0:25
Pa 20
T a ¼ T 01 ¼ 600 ¼ 401:2 K
P01 100

(A.2) Choked nozzle: The exhaust pressure is the maximum, while the exhaust
speed attains its minimum value.
* + σh * +
P01 σ h þ 1 σh %1 4=3 þ 1 4
¼ ¼
Pc 2 2
P01
¼ 1:8526
Pc
Pc ¼ 53:98 kPa
* +
T 01 σh þ 1 7
¼ ¼
Tc 2 6
T c ¼ 514:3 K
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Jet speed-V c ¼ a ¼ σ h RT c ¼ 443:6 m=s

(B) For in-between pressure ratios

P01 P01 P01

< <
Pc Pe Pa

then
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi"ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi#ffiffi
u ffi 'σhσ%1
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi u
Jet speed-V e ¼ 2Cph ¼T 01 % T e þ ¼ 2Cph T 01 1 % PP01e h t

Pe
Exhaust pressure -Pe ¼ ½ P01
P01

The net thrust is π ¼ m_ a ð¼1 þ f þV e % V Þ þ Ae ¼Pe % Pa þ

The jet thrust is πj ¼ m_ a ð¼1 þ f þV e % V Þ
And the pressure thrust is πp ¼ Ae ¼Pe % Pa þ
Computational results are summarized in Table 3.5.
As noticed from Table 3.5, the maximum thrust is achieved in the critical flow
case (choked nozzle) and attains a value of 29.14 kN. The minimum thrust is
noticed in the full expansion flow case.
(C.1) Incremental decrease in thrust ζπ ¼ πcritical % π
(C.2) Percentage of thrust decrease γπ/πcritical %
Calculation of the incremental change in thrust and percentage of thrust decrease are
calculated and tabulated in Table 3.6, where πcritical is the thrust at choked condition.
 198

Table 3.5 Exhaust speed and pressure and net, jet, and pressure thrusts
P0i/Pe Critical case (1.8526) 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 Full expansion (5.0)
Ve (m/s) 444 468 531 575 608 635 657 676
Pe (kPa) 54 50 40 33.3 28.6 25 22.2 20
πJ (kN) 12.15 13.65 17.5 20.2 22.5 23.9 25.21 26.34
πP (kN) 16.99 15.0 10.0 6.7 4.3 2.5 1.11 0
π (kN) 29.14 28.65 27.5 26.9 26.8 26.4 26.32 26.34
3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 199

Table 3.6 Incremental decrease in thrust (ζπ) and percentage of thrust decrease with variation of
exit pressure (ζπ/πcritical %)
P0i/Pe Critical case 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 Full expansion (5.0)
(1.8929)
ζπ ¼kN þ 0 0.49 1.64 2.24 2.34 2.74 2.82 2.8
¼πcritical % πþ
ζπ 0 1.68 5.63 7.69 8.03 9.4 9.68 9.61
πcritical %

Table 3.7 Effective jet speed and exact and approximate propulsive efficiency
Full
Critical case expansion
P0i/Pe (1.8526) 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 (5.0)
Veff (m/s) 736 727 708 698 692 690 688.7 689
ð "
τ % 50.7 51.2 52.2 52.8 53.1 53.21 53.26 53.25
* p exact +
2V f
%
V f þ V eff
ð "
τ % 72.1 69.6 64 60.6 58.2 56.5 55.1 54
* p approximate
+
2V f
%
Vf þ Ve

(D) The equivalent jet speed is evaluated as follows:

$ %
π ¼ m_ a ð¼1 þ f þV e % V Þ þ Ae ¼Pe % Pa þ-m_ a V eff % V
Ae ¼Pe % Pa þ
V eff ¼ ¼1 þ f þV e þ
m_ a
0:5
V eff ¼ 1:02 ½ V e þ ¼Pe % 20þ ½ 103
60
V eff ¼ 1:02 ½ V e þ 8:33 ½ ¼Pe % 20þ

where the pressure is substituted in kPa.

(E) The propulsive efficiency is expressed as
The exact value of propulsive efficiency is calculated from the equation:
* +
ð " 2V f
τp exact ¼
V f þ V eff

The approximate value of propulsive efficiency is also calculated from the equation

2V f
τp ¼
Vf þ Ve

Effective speed, exact, and approximate propulsive efficiencies are calculated and
plotted in Table 3.7.
200 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Figure 3.16 illustrates jet, pressure, and net thrusts for different nozzle pressure
ratio.
Figure 3.17 illustrates exact and approximate propulsive efficiency for different
nozzle pressure ratios.

3.4.7 Aircraft Range

Aircraft range is a design parameter of the aircraft and based on which the number,
location, and capacity of fuel tanks in the aircraft is determined [1]. The aircraft
weight is composed of the structural weight, the pay load (including the crew
members, food, and service supply), and the fuel weight. During any trip, only
the fuel weight is changeable.
Now consider the cruise phase in a flight trip where the aircraft flies at a constant
speed. Ignoring the climb and descent phases, it may be assumed that the cruise
distance is equal to the trip distance of the aircraft. During cruise, the aircraft is
subjected to two vertical forces [lift (L ) and weight (mg), which are equal in
magnitude] and two horizontal forces [thrust (T ) and drag (D), which are also
equal in magnitude], refer to Fig. 3.18.
Then

T ¼ D ¼ mg¼D=Lþ

where (m) is the instantaneous aircraft mass and (g) is the gravitational acceleration.
Thus

T L
¼ ¼1
D mg

Since the rate of fuel consumption is equal to the rate of decrease of the mass of
aircraft, then
.
mf ¼ %dm=dt ¼ ¼%dm=dsþ ½ ¼ds=dtþ ¼ %udm=ds

where (s) is the distance along the flight path.

* +* +
. T L dm
∴mf ¼ %u
D mg ds
u T L dm
∴ds ¼ %
g m_ f D m
 3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 201

Poi/Pe v.s jet thrust

30
Jet thrust (KN)
25

20

15

10
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Poi/Pe

Poi/Pe v.s Pressure thrust

20
Pressure thrust (KN)

15

10

0
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Poi/Pe
Poi/Pe v.s Net thrust
30

29.5

29
Net thrust (KN)

28.5

28

27.5

27

26.5

26
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Poi/Pe
Fig. 3.16 Jet, pressure and net thrusts for different nozzle pressure ratio
 202 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Poi/Pe v.s Exact Propulsive eff.

54
Exact Propulsive eff.
53

52

51

50
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Poi/Pe

Poi/Pe v.s App. Propulsive eff.

80
App. Propulsive eff.

70

60

50
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Poi/Pe
Fig. 3.17 Exact and approximate propulsive efficiency for different nozzle pressure ratio

Integration of the above equation yields the range of aircraft (S) as follows
* +
uT L m1
S¼ . ln ¼3:31þ
g mf D m2

where (m1) and (m2) are the initial and final mass of aircraft.
From Eq. (3.25a), the above equation is reformulated as
* +
u 1 L m1
S¼ ln ¼3:32þ
g TSFC D m2

The above equation is known Breguet’s equation, which was derived since 1920.
Another expression for the range is obtained from the overall efficiency, Eq. (3.26)
and Eq. (3.31), as
* +
τo QR L m1
S¼ ln ¼3:33þ
g D m2
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 203

Fig. 3.18 Forces on airplane during cruise

In the above Eqs. (3.32) and (3.33), the ratio between the lift and drag forces may be
alternatively written as CCDL , where the lift force coefficient is calculated as usual
from the relation:

W
CL ¼ 1 2
2 ρU SW

where W and SW are the aircraft weight and wing area.

The drag coefficient is calculated from the relation:

CD ¼ K 1 CL 2 þ K 2 CL þ CDo

where the constants K1, K2, and CDo are typical function of the flight Mach number
and wing configuration (flap position, etc.). The CDo term is the zero lift drag
coefficient, which accounts for both frictional and pressure drag in the subsonic
flight and wave drag in supersonic flight [13]. The K1 and K2 terms account for the
drag due to lift. Normally, K2 is very small and approximately equal to zero in most
fighter aircrafts.
It is clear from Eqs. (3.32) and (3.31) that to maximize the range of an aircraft
flying at a specified speed [14]:
1. Fly at the maximum lift to drag ratio
2. Have the highest possible overall efficiency
3. Have the lowest specific fuel consumption
4. Have the highest possible ratio between the aircraft weights at the start and end
of cruise
204 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

For a propeller/reciprocating or turboprop engines, a similar analysis may be

followed.
From Eqs. (3.25) and (3.30), then

uT τpr
∴ . ¼
mf ESFC

Substituting the above equation in Eq. (3.31), the following equation for the range is
obtained
* +
τpr 1 L m1
S¼ ln ¼3:34þ
g ESFC D m2

Similarly to maximize the range, the lift to drag ratio, propeller efficiency, and the
ratio between the aircraft weight at the start to that at the end of cruise have to be
chosen as maximums while the fuel consumption (ESFC) have to be minimum.
Airlines and aircraft manufacturers normally use the following forms for
Breguet’s relation:
For turbojet/turbofan engines:

u L m1
S¼ ln ¼3:35þ
c D m2

and for turboprop engines:

τ L m1
S¼ ln ¼3:36þ
c D m2

where (c) is the specific fuel consumption [15] expressed in (lbs / fuel=lb / thrust=hr)
or
(lbs / fuel=ESHP=hr). Another definition is also employed, namely, the specific
range [16], which is given in miles per pound of fuel (mi/lb)
(a) For a turbojet/turbofan

mi u uL 1
¼ $ ðD " % ¼ ¼3:37aþ
lb c L W cDW

If u is in knots, mi/lb will be in nautical miles per pound of fuel.

(b) For a turboprop engine

mi ffiτ '* L +* 1 +
prop
¼ 325 ¼3:37bþ
lb c D W
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 205

3.4.8 Range Factor

The range factor is defined as

1 u L 1 u CL
RF ¼ ¼ ¼3:38þ
g TSFC D g TSFC CD

The minimum fuel consumption for a distance(s) occurs at the condition where the
range factor is maximum.

3.4.9 Endurance and Endurance Factor

If the time spent in the air is of interest and not the distance traveled then one is
concerned with endurance. Endurance is the longest time an aircraft can spend in
flight without landing. The maximum endurance of an aircraft (or the time aloft)
refers to a flight condition that requires the minimum fuel power.
The minimum fuel consumption as seen from Eq. (3.39) for a time flight time (t)
occurs, when the endurance factor is maximum.
The instantaneous endurance is defined as the amount of time the aircraft will
remain aloft from the next increment of fuel burned. This can be expressed by the
relation:

dE 1
¼%
dm cT
ð2
m ð2
m
dm 1L
E¼ ¼% dm
%cT cD
m1 m1

1 L m1
E¼ ln ¼3:39þ
c D m2

and for propeller/turboprop engines:

τ L m1
E¼ ln ¼3:40þ
cu D m2

The endurance factor is defined as

1 1 L 1 1 CL
EF ¼ ¼ ¼3:41þ
g TSFC D g TSFC CD
206 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Fig. 3.19 Flight segments of a bomber in a mission

Table 3.8 Mission segments miþ1

mi
weight fractions [17]
Warmup and takeoff 0.97
Climb 0.985
Landing 0.995

3.4.10 Mission Segment Weight Fraction

For analysis, the various mission segments, or “legs”, are numbered, with
(1) denoting the start of the mission. Mission leg “one” is usually engine warmup
and takeoff. The remaining legs are sequentially numbered [17]. The simple
mission for a passenger aircraft the mission legs are: (1) warmup and takeoff,
(2) climb, (3) cruise, (4) loiter, and (5) land (Fig. 3.19). Table 3.8 gives typical
weight-fractions for mission legs [17].
Loiter weight fractions are found from the endurance factor; Eq. (3.41)
E¼TSFCþg
W 2 =W 1 ¼ e% ¼L=Dþ

We
It is important here to mention that the empty weight fraction (W 0
) is expressed by
the relation

We
¼ AW 0C K vs
W0

The values of the constants (A and C) are given in Table 3.9 for different aircrafts.

K vs ¼ variable sweep constant ¼ 1:04 if variable sweep

¼ 1:00 if fixed sweep

3.4.11 Head- and Tail-Wind

When an aircraft is in flight, it is moving relative to the body of air through which it
is flying; therefore maintaining an accurate ground track is not easy unless there is
no wind at all which is a very rare occurrence. The pilot must adjust heading to
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 207

Table 3.9 Empty weight We

¼ AW 0C K vs
fraction vs (W0) [17] W0 A C
Sailplane-powered 0.91 %0.05
General aviation-single engine 2.36 %0.18
General aviation-twin engine 1.51 %0.10
Agricultural aircraft 0.74 %0.03
Twin turboprop 0.96 %0.05
Flying boat 1.09 %0.05
Jet trainer 1.59 %0.10
Jet fighter 2.34 %0.13
Military cargo/bomber 0.93 %0.07
Jet transport 1.02 %0.06

Fig. 3.20 Head and tail wind conditions

compensate for the wind, in order to follow the ground track. Initially the pilot will
calculate headings to fly for each leg of the trip prior to departure, using the forecast
wind directions and speeds supplied by the meteorological authorities for the purpose.
These figures are generally accurate and updated several times per day, but the
unpredictable nature of the weather means that the pilot must be prepared to make
further adjustments in flight. A general aviation (GA) pilot will often make use of
either the E6B flight computer – a type of slide rule – or a purpose-designed electronic
navigational computer to calculate initial headings. As will be explained in example
(3.12), the flight time will depend on both the desired cruising speed of the aircraft and
the wind – a tailwind will shorten flight times, a headwind will increase them.
Example 3.12 The range of an aircraft is given by Eq. (3.32) as
* +
u 1 L m1
S¼ ln
g TSFC D m2

where u is the air relative speed including the effect of wind as shown in Fig. 3.20
for either head- or tail-wind conditions. The shown military aircraft has the follow-
ing data:

L kg
Maximum range ¼ 3700 km, ¼ 10, TSFC ¼ 0:08 ,
D N:h
m2 ¼ 10, 300 kg ;
208 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

flight speed ¼ 280 m=s:

1. Calculate the mass of fuel consumed during a trip in the following two cases:
(i) Head wind ¼ 50 m/s
(ii) Tail wind ¼ 50 m/s
2. Calculate the time for such a trip in the above two cases.

Solution
This example illustrates the effect of wind on both fuel consumption and the time of
a trip.
1. Fuel consumption
Consider first the case of:
Tail wind

u ¼ V 1 þ V TW ¼ 280 þ 50 ¼ 330 m=s

From Eq. (3.32), the range is calculated using the relative speed rather than the
airplane speed.
* +
u 1 L m1
S¼ ln
g TSFC D m2
m1 ¼Sþ¼gþ¼TSFCþ 3700 ½ 103 ½ 9:8 ½ 0:08
ln ¼ ð " ¼ ¼ 0:24418
m2 ¼uþ DL 330 ½ 10 ½ 3600
m1
¼ 1:27657
m2
* +
m1
Fuel consumed ¼ m1 % m2 ¼ m2 % 1 ¼ 10, 300¼1:27657 % 1þ ¼ 2848 kg
m2
For the case of tail wind ¼i:e:, supporting windþ ¼ 2848 kg

Head wind

u ¼ V 1 % V TW ¼ 280 % 50 ¼ 230 m=s

m1
ln ¼ 0:35034
m2
m1
¼ 1:4195
m2
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 209

Fuel consumed ¼ m1 % m2 ¼ m2 ¼1:4195 % 1þ ¼ 4321 kg

For the case of head wind ¼i:e:, opposing windþ ¼ 4321 kg

2. Trip time (t)

S
t¼
u

Tail wind

3700
Time ¼ ¼ 3:114 h
330 ½ 3:6

Head wind

3700
Time ¼ ¼ 4:469 h
230 ½ 3:6

From the above calculation tail wind shortens the trip time and saves fuel, while
head wind increases the trip time and fuel consumption. What are the corresponding
values for zero wind speed?

3.4.12 Route Planning

Pilot planning a flight under VFR (Visual flight rules) will usually use an aeronau-
tical chart of the area published for the use of pilots. This map will depict controlled
airspace, radio navigation aids, and airfields prominently, as well as hazards to
flying such as mountains, etc. It also includes sufficient ground detail – towns,
roads, wooded areas – to aid visual navigation.
The pilot will choose a route, taking care to avoid controlled airspace that is not
permitted for the flight, restricted areas, danger areas, and so on. The chosen route is
plotted on the map, and the lines drawn are called the track. During flight planning,
two points must be taken into consideration:
Point of no return
Critical point
These points will be discussed hereafter.
210 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Fig. 3.21 Flight track with departure airport as an alternate

[Link] Point of No Return

The Point of no Return (PNR) is also known as the Point of Safe Return (PSR). This
is the furthest point along track that a pilot can fly towards the destination and have
sufficient fuel to divert to an alternate, with safe reserves on arrival. In other words,
it is pilot’s last chance to assess his/her prospect of a successful approach and
landing at his destination and decide whether to go on or to divert. If any doubt
exists, he/she must divert to the alternate.
There are a number of methods which can be used to calculate a PNR/PSR, but
the one most favored uses what are called Specific Fuel Flows (SFF).
These are calculated by dividing the planned cruise fuel flow by the expected
ground speeds towards the destination and towards the alternate field. Normally,
two cases may be expected:
1. When the alternate is the departure field
2. Alternate is on track between the departure point and the destination
Two examples will be given below to illustrate both cases.
Example 3.13 Consider a flight from airport A to airport B, with A as the alternate
field (Fig. 3.21). The distance A to B is 2700 nms. Maximum range cruise power
will be used, giving a fuel flow (FF) of 800 l/h. The aircraft can carry 8000 l of
useable fuel without exceeding the Maximum AUW (All Up Weight (Gross)). The
Fixed Reserve is 1400 l. The used fuel for taxi and the climb are 100 and 500 l,
respectively. A 15 % of fuel is next maintained to provide a Variable Reserve. At
this power setting, the planned TAS (true airspeed) is 500 kts and a 50 kts tailwind
is forecast A to B. Calculate the distance of point of no return (PNR) from the
departure airport A.
Solution
The ground speed from A to B is

V AB ¼ V 0 þ V 1 ¼ 550 kts
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 211

For a return to A, the ground speed is

V BA ¼ V 0 % V 1 ¼ 450 kts

Maximum range cruise power will be used, giving a fuel flow (FF) of 800 l/h, and
this fuel flow will also be used for a Fixed Reserve and any holding.
To establish the Flight Fuel Available for the PNR calculation, we must subtract
from the Useable Fuel the Fixed Reserve (1400 l), the taxi fuel (100 l), and the
climb allowance (500 l). The forecast for a possible return to A does not indicate the
need for any holding fuel. Therefore, the Flight Fuel Available (FFA) is
FFA ¼ 8000 % ¼1400 þ 100 þ 500þ ¼ 6000 l

This figure is now divided by 1.15 to provide a Variable Reserve, giving a final FFA
of 5217 l.
Assume that L is the distance from airport A to PNR, and fuel consumption as:

Q1 ¼ Fuel quantity consumed in the root from A to PNR

Q2 ¼ Fuel quantity consumed in the root from PNR to A

Total fuel consumed Q1 þ Q2 ¼¼ 5217 l

Q1 ¼ FF ½ T 1 ¼ 800T 1 , Q2 ¼ FF ½ T 2 ¼ 800T 2
L L
T1 ¼ , T2 ¼
V0 þ V1 V0 % V1
* +
L L
Q ¼ Q1 þ Q2 ¼ FF ½ ¼T 1 þ T 2 þ ¼ FF ½ þ
V0 % V1 V0 þ V1
* +
2V 0
Q ¼ FF ½ L ½
¼V 0 % V 1 þ¼V 0 þ V 1 þ
¼V 0 % V 1 þ¼V 0 þ V 1 þ 450 ½ 550
L¼Q½ ¼ 5217 ½ ¼ 1614 nms
2V 0 ½ FF 2 ½ 500 ½ 800

The PNR is 1614 nms apart from departure airport and 1086 nms apart from
arrival airport.
Example 3.14 We will use the previous example of a flight from A to B over a
distance of 2700 nms, but with the possible alternate (C) located at 700 nms along
track towards A, i.e., the distance from C to B is 2000 nms. The other planning data
remains the same as in the previous example, i.e.:
(a) Flight Fuel Available at A ¼ 5217 l (after allowing for a Variable Reserve)
(b) Cruise Fuel Flow ¼ 800 l/h
(c) Ground Speed away from home ¼ 550 kts
(d) Ground Speed back to home ¼ 450 kts
Calculate the distance between departure airport (A) and PNR.
212 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

Fig. 3.22 Flight track with alternate on track

Solution
We first determine how much fuel is required to fly from A to overhead C. This is
equal to the distance A to C (700 nms) divided by the speed (550 kts) and multiplied
by the cruise fuel consumption (800 l/h).

Q ¼ Fuel quantity consumed in the root from A to C

700
Q ¼ FF ½ T ¼ 800T ¼ 800 ¼ 1, 018 l
550

Fuel available to the trip from C to PNR and PNR to C is then

0
Q ¼ 5217 % 1, 018 ¼ 4199 l

The distance to PNR is L, given by the relation:

0 ¼V 0 % V 1 þ¼V 0 þ V 1 þ 450 ½ 550

L¼Q ½ ¼ 4199 ½ ¼ 1299 nms
2V 0 ½ FF 2 ½ 500 ½ 800

The distance of the PNR from C is therefore 1299 nms. This is 701 nms short of B
and 1999 nms away from A. If the aircraft flies beyond this point, there will not be
sufficient fuel to return to C with the fixed reserve intact (Fig. 3.22).

[Link] Critical Point

Similarly, the Equal Time Point, referred to as the ETP (also Critical point (CP)), is
the point in the flight where it would take the same time to continue flying straight,
or track back to the departure aerodrome. The ETP is not dependant on fuel, but
wind, giving a change in ground speed out from, and back to the departure
aerodrome. In Nil wind conditions, the ETP is located halfway between the two
aerodromes, but in reality it is shifted depending on the wind speed and direction.
While the distance to a PNR is dependent on fuel availability and fuel flow, the
distance to a Critical Point (CP) is independent of fuel considerations and is based
on groundspeeds only.
3.4 Engine Performance Parameters 213

Fig. 3.23 Critical point

As an illustration, we will calculate a CP/ETP for the previous example flight.

Example 3.15 Consider a flight from airport A to airport B. The distance A to B is
2700 nms. At this power setting, the planned TAS (true airspeed) is 500 kts and a
50 kts tailwind is forecast A to B. Calculate the critical point (CP) from the
departure airport A (Fig. 3.23).
The ground speed from CP to B is (VAB ¼ V0 + V1 ¼ 550 kts), while the ground
speed for a return to A is (VBA ¼ V0 % V1 ¼ 450 kts).
T 1 ¼ Flight time from critical point to departure airport A

T 2 ¼ Flight time from critical point to arrival airport B

L1 L2
T1 ¼ , T2 ¼
V0 % V1 V0 þ V1
L1 L2
Since T1 ¼ T2, then ¼
450 550
L2 550 11
¼ ¼
L1 450 9
,L1 þ L2 ¼ 2700
∴L1 ¼ 1215 kts L2 ¼ 1485 kts

From this critical point, the time on to B is 2.7 h (1485/550), and the time back to A
is also 2.7 h (1215/450).

3.4.13 Specific Impulse

The specific impulse (Isp) is defined as the thrust per unit fuel flow rate, or

T
I sp ¼ ¼3:42þ
m_ f g
214 3 Performance Parameters of Jet Engines

This quantity enters directly into the calculation of the fractional weight change of
aircraft (or rocket) during flight. Thus from Eq. (3.31), the range can be expressed in
term of the specific impulse as follows
* +
L m1
S ¼ u I sp ln ¼3:43þ
D m2

The specific impulse is equally applied for both rockets and aircrafts. The units of
specific impulse are time (seconds).
Problems
3.1 A General Electric J79-GE-15 turbojet engine is one of two propelling a
McDonnell F4C airplane is powered by two General Electric J79-GE-15
turbojet engines. F4C has the following characteristics: wing area S ¼ 49 m2,
engine inlet area A1 ¼ 0.6 m2, cruise Mach number M0 ¼ 0.82, and flight
altitude of 30,000 ft. The drag coefficient of the aircraft under these condi-
tions is 0.045. Determine:
(a) The net thrust of the engine
(b) The mass flow rate through the engine
(c) The gross thrust of the engine
Then, if the exhaust pressure Pe ¼ P0
(d) Estimate the exhaust velocity Ve assuming that the turbine exit stagna-
tion temperature (which is the nozzle entry stagnation temperature) as
T0e ¼ 1005.4 K
(e) Estimate the exit static temperature Te
(f) The exit Mach number Me

Problem 1 McDonnell F4C