18CSC302J- Computer Networks

Unit-5

School of Computing - SRMIST Kattankulathur Campus

DSL Technology

● Limited distance to central office (CO)

● Dedicated line from CO to home
● Asymmetric flow
● Typical speeds up to 1.5Mbits/s downstream

2
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
● Uses a newer technology that used the existing telecommunications networks such as the local loop
telephone line.
● Is an asymmetric communication technology designed for residential users; it is not suitable for
business.
● xDSL: where x can be replaced by A, V, H, or S
● The existing local loops can handle bandwidths up to 1.1 MHz

○ by removing the filter at the end of line of telephone company

○ but, limitation because of distance between the residence and the switching office, size of cable
● ADSL is an adaptive technology. The system uses a date rate based on the condition of the local loop
line

3
● DMT

○ Modulation technique that has become standard for ADSL is called the discrete multi tone
technique (DMT)

4
 ● voice : channel 0 is reserved for voice
● Idle : channel 1 to 5 are not used; gap between voice and data communicaiton
● Upstream data and control : channels 6 to 30 (25channels); one channel for control
● Downstream data and control : channels 31 to 255(225 channels); 13.4 Mbps; one channel for
control

Source: Douglas E. Comer, Internetworking with TCP/IP, Principles, protocols, and architecture,Vol 1 5th Edition,2006
5
● Actual Bit Rate

○ Upstream : 64 Kbps to 1 Mbps

○ Downstream : 500 Kbps to 8 Mbps

* Because of the high signal/noise ratio

6
Customer Site : ADSL Modem

7
Telephone Company Site : DSLAM

8
Other DSL Technologies
○ SDSL: Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line

○ HDSL: High-bit-rate digital subscriber line

■ an alternative to the T-line (1.544 Mbps)

■ using 2B1Q encoding

■ up to 3.6 Km

■ using 2 twisted-pair wires for full-duplex transmission

○ VDSL : Very-high-rate digital subscriber

■ using coaxial cable, fiber-optic, or twisted pair cable for short distances (300 to 1800
m)

■ using DMT with a bit rate of 50 to 55 Mbps downstream and 1.5 to 2.5 Mbps upstream
9
Communication in the traditional cable TV network is unidirectional.

● Traditional cable Networks

○ community antenna TV (CATV)

HFC Network

○ RCH : Regional cable head; serving 400,000 subscribers;

○ Distribution hub: serving 40,000 subscribers

○ Coaxial cable : serving 1,000 subscribers

○ Communication in HFC cable TV network can be bidireactional.

● Bandwidth

○ video band

■ 54 to 550 MHz

■ TV channels : 6 Mhz x 80 channels

○ Data downstream band : dividing into 6Mhz channels

 ○ Modulation

■ Downstream data are modulated using 64-QAM

○ Data rate

■ 6 bits for each baud in 64-QAM (1bit : control bit)

■ Theoretically, 5bits/Hz x 6 Mhz = 30 Mbps

● Upstream data band

○ Modulation

■ upstream data band uses lower frequencies that are more susceptible to noise and
interference

■ for this reason, using QPSK instead of QAM

○ Data rate : 2 bits/hz x 6 Mhz = 12 Mbps

● CM is installed inside the distribution hub by the cable company.
Cable modem transmission system(CMTS)
● Shared lines to the nearest splitter
● Generally higher speeds
● Reaches more households since distance limitation is removed
● Typical offering 4Mbits/s
● Last Mile advantage
Future Technology
● WiMax

○ Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)

○ 3-5 miles range, no direct line of sight required

○ 2Mbits/s practical limit

○ Can use existing cell towers

● Broadband over Power Lines (BPL)

○ More pervasive infrastructure, but requires extra equipment

○ Up to 2.7Mbits/s

○ Superimposing analog signal over AC

○ Small deployments in operation (e.g. Manassas, Virginia 10MBits/s for $30.00 a month)

17
Frame Relay

18
Introducing Frame Relay

● Frame Relay is a packet-switched, connection-oriented, WAN service.

● It operates at the data link layer of the OSI reference model.
● Frame Relay uses a subset of the high-level data link control (HDLC)
protocol called Link Access Procedure for Frame Relay (LAPF).
● Frames carry data between user devices called data terminal equipment
(DTE), and the data communications equipment (DCE) at the edge of the
WAN.

19
Frame Relay vs. X.25

● Frame Relay does not have the sequencing, windowing, and retransmission
mechanisms that are used by X.25.
● Without the overhead, the streamlined operation of Frame Relay
outperforms X.25.
● Typical speeds range from 1.5 Mbps to 12 Mbps, although higher speeds are
possible. (Up to 45 Mbps)
● The network providing the Frame Relay service can be either a
carrier-provided public network or a privately owned network.
● Because it was designed to operate on high-quality digital lines, Frame
Relay provides no error recovery mechanism.
● If there is an error in a frame it is discarded without notification. 20
Introducing Frame Relay

Access circuits

● A Frame Relay network may be privately owned, but it is more commonly

provided as a service by a public carrier.
● It typically consists of many geographically scattered Frame Relay
switches interconnected by trunk lines.
● Frame Relay is often used to interconnect LANs. When this is the case, a
router on each LAN will be the DTE.
● Access Circuit - A serial connection, such as a T1/E1 leased line, will
connect the router to a Frame Relay switch of the carrier at the nearest
point-of-presence for the carrier.
21
DTE – Data Terminal Equipment

● DTEs generally are considered to be terminating equipment for a specific

network and typically are located on the premises of the customer.
● The customer may also own this equipment.
● Examples of DTE devices are routers and Frame Relay Access Devices
(FRADs).
● A FRAD is a specialized device designed to provide a connection between
a LAN and a Frame Relay WAN.
22
DCE – Data Communications Equipment
UNI NNI

● DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking devices.

● The purpose of DCE equipment is to provide clocking and switching
services in a network.
● In most cases, these are packet switches, which are the devices that actually
transmit data through the WAN.
● The connection between the customer and the service provider is known as
the User-to-Network Interface (UNI).
● The Network-to-Network Interface (NNI) is used to describe how Frame
Relay networks from different providers connect to each other.
23
Frame Relay terminology
An SVC between the same two A PVC between the same two
DTEs may change. DTEs will always be the same.

Path may Always same Path.

change.

● The connection through the Frame Relay network between two DTEs is
called a virtual circuit (VC).
● Switched Virtual Circuits (SVCs) are Virtual circuits may be established
dynamically by sending signaling messages to the network.

○ However, SVCs are not very common.

● Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs) are more common.

○ PVC are VCs that have been preconfigured by the carrier are used. 24
Frame Relay operation - SVC
An SVC between the same two A PVC between the same two
DTEs may change. DTEs will always be the same.

Path may Always same Path.

change.

● SVCs are temporary connections that are only used when there is
sporadic data transfer between DTE devices across the Frame Relay
network.
● Because they are temporary, SVC connections require call setup and
termination for each connection supported by Cisco IOS Release 11.2 or
later.
● Before implementing these temporary connections, determine whether the
service carrier supports SVCs since many Frame Relay providers only
support PVCs. 25
Access Circuits and Cost Savings

● The FRAD or router connected to the Frame Relay network may

have multiple virtual circuits connecting it to various end points.
● This makes it a very cost-effective replacement for a full mesh of
access lines.
● Each end point needs only a single access circuit and interface.

26
DLCI

● A data-link connection identifier (DLCI) identifies the logical VC between the

CPE and the Frame Relay switch.
● The Frame Relay switch maps the DLCIs between each pair of routers to create a
PVC.
● DLCIs have local significance, although there some implementations that use
global DLCIs.
● DLCIs 0 to 15 and 1008 to 1023 are reserved for special purposes.
● Service providers assign DLCIs in the range of 16 to 1007.

○ DLCI 1019, 1020: Multicasts

○ DLCI 1023: Cisco LMI

27
○ DLCI 0: ANSI LMI
DLCI

• Inside the cloud, your Frame Relay provider sets up the DLCI
numbers to be used by the routers for establishing PVCs. 28
Frame Relay bandwidth
and flowThe
control
first thing we need to do is
become familiar with some of
the terminology.

● Local access rate – This is the clock speed or port speed of the connection
or local loop to the Frame Relay cloud.

○ It is the rate at which data travels into or out of the network,

regardless of other settings.
● Committed Information Rate (CIR) – This is the rate, in bits per second,
at which the Frame Relay switch agrees to transfer data.

○ The rate is usually averaged over a period of time, referred to as the

committed rate measurement interval (Tc). 29
Frame Relay bandwidth and flow control
Tc = 2 seconds
Bc = 64 kbps
CIR = 32 kbps

● Committed burst (Bc) – The maximum number of bits that the switch agrees to transfer during
any Tc.

○ The higher the Bc-to-CIR ratio, the longer the switch can handle a sustained burst.

○ The DE (Discard Eligibility) bit is set on the traffic that was received after the CIR was
met. (coming)

○ (FYI) For example, if the Tc is 2 seconds and the CIR is 32 kbps, the Bc is 64 kbps.

○ (FYI) The Tc calculation is Tc = Bc/CIR.

● Committed Time Interval (Tc) – Tc is not a recurrent time interval. It is used strictly to
measure inbound data, during which time it acts like a sliding window. Inbound data triggers the
Tc interval.
30
Frame Relay bandwidth and flow control
Bc = 128 kbps
Be = 772 kbps Tc = Bc/CIR
EIR = 1544 Mbps
CIR = 772 kbps

● Excess burst (Be) – This is the maximum number of uncommitted bits that
the Frame Relay switch attempts to transfer beyond the CIR.

○ Excessive Burst (Be) is dependent on the service offerings available

from your vendor, but it is typically limited to the port speed of the
local access loop.
● Excess Information Rate (EIR) – This defines the maximum bandwidth
available to the customer, which is the CIR plus the Be.

○ Typically, the EIR is set to the local access rate.

○ In the event the provider sets the EIR to be lower than the local 31
access rate, all frames beyond that maximum can be discarded
Frame Relay bandwidth and
flow control

32
• Forward Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN) – When a Frame
Relay switch recognizes congestion in the network, it sends an FECN
packet to the destination device.
• This indicates that congestion has occurred.
• Backward Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN) – When a Frame
Relay switch recognizes congestion in the network, it sends a BECN
packet to the source router.
• This instructs the router to reduce the rate at which it is sending
packets.
• With Cisco IOS Release 11.2 or later, Cisco routers can respond
to BECN notifications.

33
Frame Relay bandwidth
and flow control

● Discard eligibility (DE) bit – When the router or switch detects network
congestion, it can mark the packet "Discard Eligible".

○ The DE bit is set on the traffic that was received after the CIR was
met.

○ These packets are normally delivered.

○ However, in periods of congestion, the Frame Relay switch will drop 34

packets with the DE bit set first.
Frame Relay bandwidth

● Several factors determine the rate at which a customer can send data on a Frame Relay network.

○ Foremost in limiting the maximum transmission rate is the capacity of the local loop to the
provider.

■ If the local loop is a T1, no more than 1.544 Mbps can be sent.

■ In Frame Relay terminology, the speed of the local loop is called the local access rate.

○ Providers use the CIR parameter to provision network resources and regulate usage.

■ For example, a company with a T1 connection to the packet-switched network (PSN) may agree
to a CIR of 768 Kbps.

■ This means that the provider guarantees 768 Kbps of bandwidth to the customer’s link at all
times.
35
Frame Relay bandwidth

● Typically, the higher the CIR, the higher the cost of service.
● Customers can choose the CIR that is most appropriate to their bandwidth
needs, as long as the CIR is less than or equal to the local access rate.
● If the CIR of the customer is less than the local access rate, the customer
and provider agree on whether bursting above the CIR is allowed.
● If the local access rate is T1 or 1.544 Mbps, and the CIR is 768 Kbps, half
of the potential bandwidth (as determined by the local access rate) remains
available.

36
Frame Relay bandwidth

● Many providers allow their customers to purchase a CIR of 0 (zero).

● This means that the provider does not guarantee any throughput.
● In practice, customers usually find that their provider allows them to burst
over the 0 (zero) CIR virtually all of the time.
● If a CIR of 0 (zero) is purchased, carefully monitor performance in order to
determine whether or not it is acceptable.
● Frame Relay allows a customer and provider to agree that under certain
circumstances, the customer can “burst” over the CIR.
● Since burst traffic is in excess of the CIR, the provider does not guarantee
37
that it will deliver the frames.
Frame Relay bandwidth

● Either a router or a Frame Relay switch tags each frame that is transmitted
beyond the CIR as eligible to be discarded.
● When a frame is tagged DE, a single bit in the Frame Relay frame is set to
1.
● This bit is known as the discard eligible (DE) bit.
● The Frame Relay specification also includes a protocol for congestion
notification.
● This mechanism relies on the FECN/ BECN bits in the Q.922 header of the
frame.
● The provider’s switches or the customer’s routers can selectively set the
DE bit in frames.
● These frames will be the first to be dropped when congestion occurs.
38
LMI – Local Management Interface

● LMI is a signaling standard between

the DTE and the Frame Relay switch.
● LMI is responsible for managing the connection and maintaining
the status between devices.
● LMI includes:

○ A keepalive mechanism, which verifies that data is flowing

○ A multicast mechanism, which provides the network server (router) with its
local DLCI.

○ The multicast addressing, which can give DLCIs global rather than local
significance in Frame Relay networks (not common).

○ A status mechanism, which provides an ongoing status on the DLCIs known to

the switch 39
LMI
LMI

● In order to deliver the first LMI services to customers as soon as possible,

vendors and standards committees worked separately to develop and
deploy LMI in early Frame Relay implementations.
● The result is that there are three types of LMI, none of which is compatible
with the others.
● Cisco, StrataCom, Northern Telecom, and Digital Equipment
Corporation (Gang of Four) released one type of LMI, while the ANSI
and the ITU-T each released their own versions.
● The LMI type must match between the provider Frame Relay switch and
the customer DTE device.
40
LMI
LMI

● In Cisco IOS releases prior to 11.2, the Frame Relay interface must be
manually configured to use the correct LMI type, which is furnished by the
service provider.
● If using Cisco IOS Release 11.2 or later, the router attempts to
automatically detect the type of LMI used by the provider switch.
● This automatic detection process is called LMI autosensing.
● No matter which LMI type is used, when LMI autosense is active, it sends
out a full status request to the provider switch.
41
LMI

● The Frame Relay switch uses LMI to report the status of configured PVCs.
● The three possible PVC states are as follows:

○ Active state – Indicates that the connection is active and that routers
can exchange data.

○ Inactive state – Indicates that the local connection to the Frame

Relay switch is working, but the remote router connection to the
Frame Relay switch is not working.

○ Deleted state – Indicates that no LMI is being received from the

42
Frame Relay switch, or that there is no service between the CPE
DLCI Mapping to Network Address

● Manual

○ Manual: Administrators use a frame relay map statement.

● Dynamic

○ Inverse Address Resolution Protocol (I-ARP) provides a given

DLCI and requests next-hop protocol addresses for a specific
connection.
43
○ The router then updates its mapping table and uses the information in
 Inverse ARP – Knows DLCI, needs remote IP
2
1
3
My DLCI 16 Your IP?
My IP is 1.1.1.1

4
My IP is 1.1.1.2
● Once the router learns from the switch about available PVCs and their
corresponding DLCIs, the router can send an Inverse ARP request to the
other end of the PVC. (unless statically mapped – later)
● For each supported and configured protocol on the interface, the router
sends an Inverse ARP request for each DLCI. (unless statically mapped)
● In effect, the Inverse ARP request asks the remote station for its Layer 3
address.
● At the same time, it provides the remote system with the Layer 3 address of
the local system.
● The return information from the Inverse ARP is then used to build the
Frame Relay map.
44
Inverse ARP – Knows DLCI, needs remote IP

● Inverse Address Resolution Protocol (Inverse ARP) was developed to provide a mechanism for dynamic
DLCI to Layer 3 address maps.

● Inverse ARP works much the same way Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) works on a LAN.

● However, with ARP, the device knows the Layer 3 IP address and needs to know the remote data link
MAC address.

● With Inverse ARP, the router knows the Layer 2 address which is the DLCI, but needs to know the
remote Layer 3 IP address.
45
Configuring Frame Relay maps
Router(config-if)#frame-relay map protocol
protocol-address dlci [broadcast] [ietf | cisco]

● If the environment does not support LMI autosensing and Inverse ARP, a
Frame Relay map must be manually configured.
● Use the frame-relay map command to configure static address
mapping.
● Once a static map for a given DLCI is configured, Inverse ARP is disabled
on that DLCI.
● The broadcast keyword is commonly used with the frame-relay
map command.
● The broadcast keyword:

○ Forwards broadcasts when multicasting is not enabled. 46

debug frame-relay lmi (continued)

FYI ONLY
● The possible values of the status field are as follows:
● 0x0 – Added/inactive means that the switch has this DLCI programmed but for
some reason it is not usable. The reason could possibly be the other end of the
PVC is down.
● 0x2 – Added/active means the Frame Relay switch has the DLCI and everything
is operational.
● 0x4 – Deleted means that the Frame Relay switch does not have this DLCI
programmed for the router, but that it was programmed at some point in the past.
This could also be caused by the DLCIs being reversed on the router, or by the
PVC being deleted by the service provider in the Frame Relay cloud. 47
Frame Relay Topologies

48
NBMA – Non Broadcast
Multiple
Frames betweenAccess
two routers are only seen
by those two devices (non broadcast).
Similar to a LAN, multiple computers have
access to the same network and potentially
to each other (multiple access).

● An NBMA network is the opposite of a broadcast network.

● On a broadcast network, multiple computers and devices are attached to a
shared network cable or other medium. When one computer transmits
frames, all nodes on the network "listen" to the frames, but only the node to
which the frames are addressed actually receives the frames. Thus, the
frames are broadcast.
● A nonbroadcast multiple access network is a network to which multiple
computers and devices are attached, but data is transmitted directly from
one computer to another over a virtual circuit or across a switching fabric.
The most common examples of nonbroadcast network media include ATM
(Asynchronous Transfer Mode), frame relay, and X.25.
● http://www.linktionary.com/
49
Star Topology

● A star topology, also known as a hub and spoke configuration, is the most
popular Frame Relay network topology because it is the most
cost-effective.
● In this topology, remote sites are connected to a central site that generally
provides a service or application.
● This is the least expensive topology because it requires the fewest PVCs.
● In this example, the central router provides a multipoint connection,
because it is typically using a single interface to interconnect multiple
PVCs.
50
Full Mesh
Full Mesh Topology
Number of Number of
Connections PVCs
----------------- --------------
2 1
4 6
6 15
8 28
10 45

● In a full mesh topology, all routers have PVCs to all other destinations.
● This method, although more costly than hub and spoke, provides direct
connections from each site to all other sites and allows for redundancy.
● For example, when one link goes down, a router at site A can reroute traffic
through site C.
● As the number of nodes in the full mesh topology increases, the topology
becomes increasingly more expensive.
● The formula to calculate the total number of PVCs with a fully meshed WAN is
[n(n - 1)]/2, where n is the number of nodes.
51
VPN (Virtual Private Network)
VPN (Virtual Private Network)
● VPN is a network that is private but virtual.
● It is private because it guarantees privacy inside the organization.
● It is virtual because it does not use real private WANs; the network is physically
public but virtually private.
● Routers R1 and R2 use VPN
technology to guarantee privacy for the organization.
Virtual private network

54
TRANSPORT LAYER SECURITY
Two protocols are dominant today for providing security
at the transport layer: the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
protocol and the Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol.
The latter is actually an IETF version of the former. We
discuss SSL in this section; TLS is very similar. Figure
shows the position of SSL and TLS in the Internet model.

55
Location of SSL and TSL in the Internet mode

56
SSL services
● SSL provides several services on data received from the
application layer.
❑ Fragmentation. First, SSL divides the data into blocks of
214 bytes or less.
❑ Compression. Each fragment of data is compressed using
one of the lossless compression methods negotiated between the
client and server. This service is optional.
❑ Message Integrity. To preserve the integrity of data, SSL
uses a keyed-hash function to create a MAC (see Chapter 29).
Key Exchange Algorithms
● To exchange an authenticated and confidential message, the client and the server each
need a set of cryptographic secrets.
● However, to create these secrets, one pre-master secret must be established between
the two parties.
● SSL defines several key-exchange
methods to establish this pre-master secret.
Key Exchange Algorithms
● Encryption/Decryption Algorithms
The client and server also need to agree to a set of encryption
and decryption algorithms.
Hash Algorithms
SSL uses hash algorithms to provide message integrity (message
authentication). Several hash algorithms have also been defined
for this purpose.
Cipher Suite
The combination of key exchange, hash, and encryption
Cryptographic Parameter Generation
● To achieve message integrity and confidentiality, SSL needs six cryptographic
secrets, four keys and two IVs (initialization vectors).
● The client needs one key for message authentication, one key for encryption, and one
IV as original block in calculation.
● The server needs the same. SSL requires that the keys for one direction be different
from
those for the other direction.
Cryptographic Parameter Generation
● 1. The client and server exchange two random numbers; one is created by the
client and the other by the server
● 2. The client and server exchange one pre-master secret using one of the
predefined key- exchange algorithms.
3. A 48-byte master secret is created from the pre-master secret by applying two
hash functions (SHA-1 and MD5)
Cryptographic Parameter Generation
● 4. The master secret is used to create variable-length key material by applying the
same set of hash functions and prepending with different constants, as shown in
Figure The module is repeated until key material of adequate size is created.
● 5. Six different secrets are extracted from the key material, as shown in Figure
Calculation of maser key from pre-master secret

63
Calculation of the key materials from master secret

64
Extraction of cryptographic secrets from key materials

65
Sessions and Connections
● A session is an association between a
client and a server
● A session can consist of many connections. A connection between two parties can
be terminated and reestablished within the same session.
A session can consist of many connections.
● A connection between two parties can
be terminated and reestablished within the same session.
Handshake Protocol
● Handshake Protocol uses messages to negotiate the cipher suite, to authenticate
the server to the client and the client to the server if needed, and to exchange
information for building the cryptographic secrets.
Four SSL protocols

68
Handshake protocol

69
Phase I: Establishing Security Capability
● In Phase I, the client and the server announce their security capabilities and choose
those that are convenient for both.
● In this phase, a session ID is established and the cipher suite is chosen. The parties
agree upon a
particular compression method.
● Finally, two random numbers are selected, one by the
client and one by the server, to be used for creating a master secret as we saw before.
Note
After Phase I, the client and server know
the version of SSL, the cryptographic
algorithms, the compression method, and
the two random numbers for key
generation.

71
Phase II: Server Key Exchange and Authentication
● In Phase II, the server authenticates itself if needed.
● The sender may send its certificate, its public key, and may also request certificates
from the client.
Note
After Phase II, the server is authenticated to
the client, and
the client knows the public
key of the server if required.

73
Phase III is designed to authenticate the client.
● Phase III is designed to authenticate the client.
Note
After Phase III, The client is authenticated
for the serve, and
both the client and the server
know the pre-master secret.

75
Phase IV: Finalizing and Finishing
● In Phase IV, the client and server send messages to change cipher specification and to
finish the handshaking protocol
Record Protocol
● The Record Protocol carries messages from the
upper layer (Handshake Protocol,ChangeCipherSpec
Protocol, Alert Protocol, or application layer).
● The message is fragmented and optionally
compressed; a MAC is added to the compressed
message using the negotiated hash algorithm.
● The compressed fragment and the MAC are
encrypted using the negotiated encryption algorithm.
Processing done by the record protocol

78
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode

ATM
School of Computing - SRMIST Kattankulathur Campus
ATM Features
● Cell relay protocol.

● Works along with SONET to provide high speed interconnection .

● Designed by ATM Forum and adopted by ITU-T.

80
ATM
● Destined to replace most existing WAN technologies

● Improves on performance of Frame Relay

● 53-byte cells of fixed size=48 byte data+5 header

● The standard-sized cells allow switching mechanisms to achieve faster switching rates

● Rates of 155 – 622 Mbps are achieved with theoretical rates up to 1.2 Gbps

● Compatible with twisted-pair, coax, and fiber

● ATM uses Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing

Issues Driving LAN Changes
● Traffic Integration

○ Voice, video and data traffic

○ Multimedia became the ‘buzz word’

■ One-way batch Web traffic

■ Two-way batch voice messages

■ One-way interactive Mbone broadcasts

■ Two-way interactive video conferencing

● Quality of Service guarantees (e.g. limited jitter, non-blocking streams)

82
 ATM LAN

Source: William stallings, Data and computer communications, Eigth edition

83
 ATM LAN Hub
configuration

Source: William stallings, Data and computer communications, Eigth edition

84
 Voice ATM Adaptation Layers
A/D AAL
s1 , s2 … cells
Digital voice samples

Video
A/D … Compression AAL
cells
picture compressed
frames frames

Data AAL
Bursty variable-length cells
packets

Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
85
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Voice
Data
MUX
packet
s Wasted bandwidth
Image
s
TDM
4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
ATM `
4 3 1 3 2 2 1

86
ATM
● ATM standard (defined by CCITT) is widely accepted by common carriers as mode of operation for

communication – particularly BISDN.

● ATM is a form of cell switching using small fixed-sized packets.

Basic ATM Cell Format

5 Bytes 48 Bytes

Header Payload

Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
87
ATM Conceptual Model
Assumptions
1. ATM network will be organized as a hierarchy.

User’s equipment connects to networks via a UNI (User-Network Interface).

Connections between provided networks are made through NNI (Network-Network Interface).

2. ATM will be connection-oriented .

A connection (an ATM channel) must be established before any cells are sent.

88
 Private ATM
Private network
UNI
X X
Private NI
NNI X l icU Public ATM
b
Pu network A

X X

NNI
Public X
UNI B-ICI Public ATM
network B
X

Public
X X UNI

Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
89
ATM Connections
● two levels of ATM connections:

virtual path connections

virtual channel connections

● indicated by two fields in the cell header:

virtual path identifier (VPI)

virtual channel identifier(VCI)

90
ATM Virtual Connections
Virtual Paths
Physical Link

Virtual Channels

Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
91
ATM Conceptual Model
Assumptions (cont.)
3. Vast majority of ATM networks will run on optical fiber networks with extremely low error rates .

4. ATM must support low cost attachments.

• This decision lead to a significant decision – to prohibit cell reordering in ATM networks.

ATM switch design is more difficult.

92
 UNI Cell Format
GFC (4 bits) VPI (4 bits)
VPI (4 bits) VCI (4 bits)
ATM cell VCI (8 bits)
header VCI (4 bits) PT (3 bits) CLP
(1 bit)
HEC (8 bits)

Payload
(48 bytes)

Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
93
● GFC(Generic Flow Label):

○ primary function of this header is the physical access control, it is often used to reduce cell jitters in CBR
services, assign fair capacity for VBR services, and tocontrol traffic for VBR flows.

○ VPI/VCI-identification numbers, so that the cells belonging to the same connection can be distinguished

○ PT-Payload TYpe

○ CLP(Cell Loss Priority)-whether the corresponding byte is to be discarded duringnetwork congestion

○ HEC(Header Error Control) is a CRC byte for the cell header field and is used for sensing and correcting cell
errors and in delineating the cell header.
ATM Cell Switching
1 1
Switch voice 67
…
N video 67 2
5 video 25 voice 32 25 75
32 1 67 data 39 3
32 3 39
6 data 32 video 61

…
61 2 67
…

N video 75 N

Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
95
 VP3 a
VP
a 5
b
c ATM ATM ATM ATM b
Sw DCC Sw Sw
c
d 1 2
e 3

VP
2 VP
1 ATM d
Sw = switch Sw
e
4
Digital Cross Connect
Only switches virtual paths

Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
96
ATM Protocol Architecture
● ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL) – the protocol for packaging data into cells is collectively referred to as

AAL.

● Must efficiently package higher level data such as voice samples, video frames and datagram packets

into a series of cells.

Design Issue: How many adaptation layers should there be?

97
 ATM Network Architecture

Source: Behrouz Forouzan, Data communication and networking, 5th Edition,2006

98
 Management plane

Plane management
Control plane User plane

Layer management
Higher layers Higher layers

ATM adaptation layer

ATM layer

Physical layer

Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
99
 User User
information information

AAL AAL

ATM ATM ATM ATM

PHY PHY PHY PHY

…

End system Network End system

Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
100
● AAL-How to break application messages to cells.

● The ATM Layer –

○ Transmission/Swiching/Reception

○ Congestion Control/Buffer management

○ Cell header generation/removal at source/destination

○ Reset connection identifiers for the next hop (at switch)

○ Cell address translation

○ Sequential delivery
Original ATM Architecture
● CCITT envisioned four classes of applications (A-D) requiring four distinct adaptation layers (1-4)

which would be optimized for an application class:

A. Constant bit-rate applications CBR

B. Variable bit-rate applications VBR

C. Connection-oriented data applications

D. Connectionless data application

102
ATM Architecture
An AAL is further divided into:
The Convergence Sublayer (CS) manages the flow of data to and from SAR sublayer.

The Segmentation and Reassembly Sublayer (SAR) breaks data into cells at the sender and
reassembles
cells into larger data units at the receiver.

103
 ATM layer

Transmission
convergence
sublayer
Physical layer
Physical medium
dependent
sublayer

Physical
medium

Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
104
Original ATM Architecture
● The AAL interface was initially defined as classes A-D with SAP (service access points) for AAL1-4.

● AAL3 and AAL4 were so similar that they were merged into AAL3/4.

● The data communications community concluded that AAL3/4 was not suitable for data communications

applications. They pushed for standardization of AAL5 (also referred to as SEAL – the Simple and
Efficient Adaptation Layer).

● AAL2 was not initially deployed.

105
Revised ATM Service Categories
Class Description Example

CBR Constant Bit Rate T1 circuit

RT-VBR Real Time Variable Bit Rate Real-time videoconferencing

NRT-VBR Non-real-time Variable Bit Rate Multimedia email

ABR Available Bit Rate Browsing the Web

UBR Unspecified Bit Rate Background file transfer

106
QoS, PVC, and SVC
● Quality of Service ( QoS) requirements are handled at connection time and viewed as part of signaling.

● ATM provides permanent virtual connections and switched virtual connections.

○ Permanent Virtual Connections ( PVC)

permanent connections set up manually by network manager.

○ Switched Virtual Connections ( SVC)

set up and released on demand by the end user via signaling procedures.

107
 AAL 1 Payload
(b) CS PDU with pointer in structured data transfer

47 Bytes
AAL 1
Pointer
1 Byte 46 Bytes
optional

(a) SAR PDU header

CSI Seq. Count SNP(seq no protection)

1 bit 3 bits 4 bits
Convergence Sublayer
Identification

Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
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 AAL 1
Higher layer User data stream
b1 b2 b3 …

Convergence CS PDUs
sublayer 47 47 47

SAR PDUs
SAR sublayer H H H
1 47 1 47 1 47

ATM layer H H H ATM Cells

5 48 5 48 5 48

Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
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18CSC302J- School of Computing (Odd sem 2020)
 AAL 3/4

18CSC302J- School of Computing (Odd sem 2020)

 AAL 3/4
CS and SAR PDUs
(a) CPCS-PDU format
Header Trailer
CPI Btag BASize CPCS - PDU Payload Pad AL Etag Length

1 1 2 1 - 65,535 0-3 1 1 2
(bytes) (bytes) (bytes)
(b) SAR PDU format
Header Trailer
(2 bytes) (2 bytes)
ST SN MID SAR - PDU Payload LI CRC
2 4 10 44 6 10
(bits) (bytes) (bits)
Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
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 AAL 3/4
Higher layer Information User message

Service specific
convergence Assume null
sublayer
Common part H Information PAD T Pad message to
convergence 4 4 multiple of 4 bytes.
sublayer Add header and trailer.

SAR sublayer … Each SAR-PDU

2 44 2 2 44 2 2 44 2 consists of 2-byte
header, 2-byte trailer,
and 44-byte payload.
ATM layer …
Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
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 AAL 5
Convergent Sublayer
Format
Information Pad UU CPI Length
CRC
0 - 65,535 0-47 1 1 2 4
(bytes) (bytes)
SAR Format

ATM
Head 48 bytes of Data
er 1-bit end-of-datagram field
(PTI)
Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies
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 AAL 5
Information
Higher layer
Service specific
convergence Assume null
sublayer
Common part Information PAD T
convergence
sublayer

SAR sublayer …
48 48 48
(0) (0) (1)

ATM layer …
PTI = 1
PTI = 0 PTI = 0
Source: Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies 114
18CSC302J- School of Computing (Odd sem 2020)
 Thank you

115
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 Point to Point Protocol

Unit-5

School of Computing - SRMIST Kattankulathur Campus

 PPP- Point to Point Protocol
PPP
The telephone line or cable companies provide a physical link, but to control and manage the transfer
of data, there is a need for a special protocol. The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) was designed to respond
to this need.

PPP is comprised of three main components:

A method for encapsulating multi- protocol datagrams.

A Link Control Protocol (LCP) for establishing, configuring, and testing the data-link connection.

A family of Network Control Protocols (NCPs) for establishing and configuring

different network-layer protocols)

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 PPP – design principles

● Support multiple network protocols

● Link configuration

● Error detection

● Establishing network addresses

● Authentication

● Extensibility
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 PPP – a protocol

● PPP relies on another DLP –

○ HDLC – to perform some basic operations

● After the initial handshake, PPP executes its own handshake

● PPP itself consists of two protocols:

○ LCP – Link Control Protocol

○ NCP – Network Control Protocol

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 PPP state machine
PPP STATES
fail
● Dead
Dead Establish
up
● Establish
down opened
● Authenticate
fail Authentica
terminate
te
● Network

closing Success /
Networ ● terminate
None
k

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 PPP state machine
1.DEAD:It means that the link is not being used .

2.ESTBLISHING:-When one of the end machine starts the communication, the connection goes into the
establishing state.

3.AUTHENATICATING:-The user sends the authenticate request packet & includes the user name &
password.

4.NETWORKING:-The exchange of user control and data packets can started.

5.TERMINATING:-The users sends the terminate the link. With the reception of the terminate.

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 PPP – Frame Format

“01111110” 11111111 00000011

contro protoc paddin

flag addr data g check
l ol
PPP frame

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 PPP – Frame Format
1. Flag field. The flag field identifies the boundaries of a PPP frame. Its value is 01111110.

2. Address field. Because PPP is used for a point-to-point connection, it uses the broadcast address used in
most LANs, 11111111, to avoid a data link address in the protocol.

3. Control field. The control field is assigned the value 11000000 to show that, as inmost LANs, the frame
has no sequence number; each frame is independent.

4. Protocol field. The protocol field defines the type of data being carried in the datafield: user data or
other information.

5. Data field. This field carries either user data or other information.

6. FCS. The frame check sequence field is simply a 2-byte or 4-byte CRC used for
error detection.
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 Link Control Protocol (LCP)
● Purposes

○ Link establishment

○ Link maintenance

○ Link termination
● Optional operations

○ Link quality determination

○ Authentication

124
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 Link Control Protocol (LCP)- Packets
● There are 3 classes of LCP packets:

○ Link configuration
configure-request, configure-ack,
configure-nak & configure-reject

○ Link termination
terminate-request & terminate-ack

○ Link monitoring
code-reject, protocol-reject, echo-request,
echo-reply & discard-request

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 Link Control Protocol (LCP)- Packets Format

PPP frame code ID length Data PPP frame

○ Code – type of LCP packet (configure-ack etc`)

○ ID – request-response matching ID

○ Length – of the LCP packet

○ Data – the LCP packet

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 Link Control Protocol (LCP)- Options

● MRU determination

● Magic number selection

● Authentication Protocol

● Escaped characters map

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 Network Control Protocol(NCP)
● Purpose

Configuring the network layer protocol.

There exists a separate NCP for each

network layer protocol

● Negotiation process

Same message formats, code numbers

and state machines as LCP

128
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 IPCP – IP Control Protocol

● Purpose

○ TCP/IP matching NCP

○ Establishes, configures and terminates the TCP/IP network layer protocol

● Options

○ IP-Compression protocol – I.e Van-Jacobson (VJ) compressed TCP/IP

○ IP address – allows dynamic IP configuration

○ DNS & NBNS address(NetBIOS Name Server)

129
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 IPCP – IP Control Protocol
PPP frame

0x7E 0xFF 0x03 0x8021 data check

(protocol)

Code ID length IPCP data

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 PPP – unsupported options

● Flow control
Any PPP frame sent that overflows the
receiver's buffer are lost

● Error correction
PPP includes only Frame Check
Sequence (CRC)

● Re-sequencing
PPP assumes all frames, sent and received,
retain their original intended order

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 Tunneling & PPP
● Tunneling - definition
The process of running one network
protocol
on top of another.
Common use: VPN (Virtual Private
Network)
● Tunneling method
Extending the link between the HDLC
driver
and the rest of PPP over a separate
network
● PPP tunneling protocols
L2TP, L2F(Layer 2 Forwarding),
PPTP(Point-to-Point_Tunneling_Prot
ocol) & ethernet (PPPoE)

132
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 HDLC

133
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Data link protocol

Defintion

manages node-to-node transfer of data between

two directly connected machines.

Operations

○ Error detection and correction (depends on the protocol)

○ Addressing (in LANs)

○ Frame-level synchronization between sender and receiver

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(Odd sem 2020)
HDLC `s ( High level Data link Control) family

HDLC

LAPX
LAPM LAPB LAPD LLC SDLC
(teletex
(v. 42) (x. 25) (ISDN) (LANs) (SNA)
)

LAPF
ESF MTP-2 LAPDm PPP
(frame-relay
(T1) (SS7) (GSM) (many)
)

18CSC302J- School of Computing 135

High-level Data link control

● Exchange of Digital data between two devices some form of data link control

● This Protocol is important for two reasons:

○ it is a widely used standardized data link control protocol.

○ HDLC serves as a baseline from which virtually all other important data link control
protocols are derived

18CSC302J- School of Computing 136

High Level Data Link Control

● HDLC

● ISO 33009, ISO 4335

● Most widely used DLC protocol

137
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High-level Data link control

● Basic Characteristics

○ HDLC defines three types of stations

○ Two link configurations

○ Three data-transfer modes of operation

18CSC302J- School of Computing 138

 HDLC Station Types
● Primary station

○ Controls operation of link

○ Issues commands (frames)

○ Maintains separate logical link to each secondary station

● Secondary station

○ Under control of primary station

○ Issues responses (frames)

● Combined station

○ May issue commands and responses

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HDLC Link Configurations

● Unbalanced

○ One primary and one or more secondary stations

○ Supports full duplex and half duplex

● Balanced

○ Two combined stations

○ Supports full duplex and half duplex

18CSC302J- School of Computing 140

HDLC Transfer Modes (1)

● Normal Response Mode (NRM)

○ Unbalanced configuration

○ Primary can only initiate transmission

○ Secondary may only transmit data in response to command (poll) from primary

○ Used on multi-drop lines

○ Host computer as primary

○ Terminals as secondary

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(Odd sem 2020)
HDLC Transfer Modes (2)

● Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)

○ Balanced configuration

○ Either station may initiate transmission without receiving permission

○ Most widely used

○ No polling overhead

18CSC302J- School of Computing 142

HDLC Transfer Modes (3)

● Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)

○ Unbalanced configuration

○ Secondary may initiate transmission without permission form primary

○ Primary is responsible for connect, disconnect, error recovery, and initialization

○ rarely used

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 Frame Structure

● Synchronous transmission

● All transmissions in frames

● Single frame format for all data and control exchanges

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Frame Structure
Defines 3 types of
frames (I,S,U frames)
01111110 01111110

18CSC302J- School of Computing 145

 Flag Fields
● Delimit frame at both ends

● 01111110

● Receiver hunts for flag sequence to synchronize

● Bit stuffing used to avoid confusion with data containing 01111110

○ The transmitter inserts 0 bit after every sequence of five 1s with the exception of
flag fields

○ If receiver detects five 1s it checks next bit

■ If 0, it is deleted

■ ofIfComputing
18CSC302J- School 1 and seventh bit is 0 (i.e., 10), accept as flag 146
 Bit Stuffing

● Example with
possible errors

18CSC302J- School of Computing 147

Address Field
● Identifies secondary station that sent or will receive frame

● Usually 8 bits long

● May be extended to multiples of 7 bits

○ LSB of each octet indicates that it is the last octet (1) or not
(0)
● All ones (11111111) is broadcast

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 Control Field

● Different for different frame type

○ I-frame (information frame)

■ data to be transmitted to user (next layer up)

■ Flow and error control piggybacked on information frames

○ S-frame (Supervisory frame)

■ Used for flow and error control

○ U-frame (Unnumbered frame)

■ supplementary
18CSC302J- School of Computing
link control
149
 Control Field Diagram

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Poll/Final Bit

● Use depends on context

● Command frame

○ P bit : used for poll from primary

○ 1 to solicit (poll) response from peer

● Response frame

○ F bit : used for response from secondary

○ 1 indicates response to soliciting command

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I-frame
● Contains the sequence number of transmitted frames and a piggybacked ACK

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

0 N(S) P/F N(R)

•I,0,0
•I,1,0
•I,2,0,P

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S-frame
● Used for flow and error control

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 0 S P/F N(R)

•RR --- receive ready

•RNR --- receive not ready
•REJ --- reject on frame N(R)
•SREJ --- selective reject on N(R)

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(Odd sem 2020)
U-frame
● Mode setting, recovery, connect/disconnect

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 1 M P/F M

Unnumbered
function bits

18CSC302J- School of Computing 154

 Unnumberred frames
● Set normal response mode (SNRM)

● Set asynchronous response mode (SARM)

● Set asynchronous balanced mode (SABM)

● Disconnect (DISC)

● Unnumberred acknowledgement (UA)

● Disconnect mode (DM)

● Request disconnect (RD)

● Unnumberred poll (UP)

● Reset (RSET)

● Exchange identification (XID)

●
18CSC302J- School of Computing Test (TEST) 155
Information Field

● Only in information and some unnumbered frames

● Must contain integral number of octets

● Variable length

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 Frame Check Sequence Field

● FCS

● Error detection

● 16 bit CRC

● Optional 32 bit CRC

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(Odd sem 2020)
 HDLC Operation

● Exchange of information, supervisory and unnumbered frames

● Three phases

○ Initialization

○ Data transfer

○ Disconnect

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 Examples of Operation (1)

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 Examples of Operation (2)

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160
(Odd sem 2020)
MPLS

161
What is MPLS?

• MPLS - Multi Protocol Label Switching

• A protocol to establish an end-to-end path from source to the destination.
• To setup this path basically using labels
- Require a protocol to set up the labels along the path.
It builds the connection oriented service on the IP network
• MPLS is an efficient encapsulation mechanism
• A hop-by-hop forwarding mechanism
• MPLS packets can run on other layer 2 technologies such as ATM, PPP, POS, FR,
Ethernet
• Labels can be used as designators
- example: IP prefixes, ATM VC, or a bandwidth guaranteed path.
• This technique designed to speed up and shape traffic flows across enterprise
wide area and service provider networks.
 MPLS – MOTIVATION

Disadvantages of IP Routing
• It is a connectionless protocol, it does not directly
any support for quality of service
• Each router has to make independent forwarding
decisions based on the IP-address
• Large IP headers (at least 20bytes)
• Routing in Network Layer(Slower that Switching)
Motivation

• Growth and evolution of the internet

-The need to evolve routing algorithms

-Allow speed of L2 switching at L3

Router makes L3 forwarding decision based on a
single field: similar to L2 forwarding => speed

-The need for advanced forwarding algorithm

MPLS + IP form a middle ground that combines the

best of IP and the best of circuit switching
technologies.
MPLS Basics

Multi-Protocol Label Switching is arranged between

Layer 2 and Layer3. Infect MPLS refer to as a Layer 2.5

IP
Layer 3
MPLS
ATM, Ethernet, FR, PPP
Layer 2

SDH, ODH,WDN,CSMA
Layer 1

• MPLS uses Label Switching

• A label is assigned for each IP flow
• A LSP is created between ingress and egress
• Packet forwarding at each router by table lookup (based on label)
 When an ingress receives a packet it encapsulates it inside a
MPLS packet at layer 2 and passed on to egress which then
puts of the MPLS headers.

Ingress
Egress
MPLS Characteristics
• It can support the traffic flows of various granularities

• It is independent of Layer 2 and Layer 3 Protocols

• It maps IP address to fixed length labels

• Interfaced to existing routing protocols

• It can support ATM, Frame-Relay and Ethernet

Technology Basics

Label
• A label is an integer identifying a FEC (a flow)
• Labels are not globally or network - unique label
• Labels are unique only between nodes
• Labels change at each node as a packet traverses a path
• Labels can set manually or we can use label distribution
Label Format
Label EXP Stack bit(s) TTL
(20bits) (3bits) (8bits)

Label: Label value used as the pointer for forwarding.

Exp: Experimental bits often used for quality of service

S: Bottom of stack flag – for indicating whether the label is at the

bottom of the label stack.

1 indicates that no label follows .

This field is very useful when there are multiple levels of MPLS labels.

TTL: Time to live - This field has the same meaning as that for an IP packe
 Encapsulation
PPP Label Layer 2/Layer 3 Packet
PPP Header (Packet Header
over SONET/SDH )

One or More Labels Appended to the Packet

MAC Label Layer 2/Layer 3 Packet

LAN MAC Label Header Header

ATM MPLS Cell Header GFC VPI VCI PTI CLP HEC DATA

Label
Label Distribution:
• MPLS does not specify a single method for label distribution
BGP has been enhanced to piggyback the label information
within the contents of the protocol
• RSVP has also been extended to support piggybacked
exchange of labels.
• IETF has also defined a new protocol known as the label
Distribution protocol (LDP) for explicit signalling and
management.
• Extensions to the base LDP protocol have also been defined
to support explicit routing based on QoS requirements
Label Edge Router – LER
• Resides at the edge of an MPLS Network and assigns
and removes the labels from the packets.
• Supports multiple ports connected to dissimilar networks
(such as frame relay, ATM, and Ethernet)
 Position of LERs and LSRs

IP Addr Out IP Out IP Out IP Addr Out

Label Addr Label Addr Label Label

192.4/1 5 5 9 9 2 2 192.4/16
6
Label Label Remove Layer 2
Layer 2 Assign Label Transpor
Transpo init Swapping Swapping
t
rt label

“ROUTE AT EDGE, SWITCH IN CORE”

Forward Equivalence Class – FEC
• Is a representation of a group of packets that share
the same requirements for their transport.

• The assignment of a particular packet to a particular

FEC is done just once(when the packet enters the
network).
 Forwarding Equivalence Classes

IP1
IP1 #L1 IP1 #L2 IP1 #L3

IP2 #L1 IP2 #L2 IP2 #L3

IP2

Packets are destined for different address prefixes, but

can be mapped to common path

• FEC = “A set of packets with similar and /or identical characteristics

which may be forwarded the same way; that is, they may be bound to
the same MPLS label."
MPLS Operation
 MPLS Packet Format

Label EXP Stack bit(s) TTL

(20bits) (3bits) (8bits)

Label EXP Stack bit(s) TTL

(20bits) (3bits) (8bits)

Label EXP Stack bit(s) TTL

(20bits) (3bits) (8bits)
MPLS has two major components:
• Control plane—exchanges L3 routing information and labels.
Control plane takes care of the routing information exchange and the label
exchange between adjacent devices
• Data plane—forwards packets based on labels
Data plane takes care of forwarding either based on destination
addresses or labels

Control plane contains complex mechanisms to exchange routing

information (OSPF, EIGRP, IS-IS, BGP, etc.) and labels (Tag Distribution
protocol [TDP], Label Distribution protocol [LDP], BGP, RSVP, etc.)
Data plane has a simple forwarding engine Control plane maintains the
contents of the label switching table (label forwarding information base or
LFIB)
There is a large number of different routing protocols such as OSPF,
IGRP, EIGRP, IS-IS, RIP, BGP, etc. that can be used in the control plane.
The control plane also requires protocols to exchange labels,
such as:
■ Tag Distribution Protocol [TDP] (MPLS)
■ Label Distribution Protocol [LDP] (MPLS)
■ BGP (MPLS virtual private networks [VPNs])
■ Resource-Reservation Protocol [RSVP] (MPLS Traffic Engineering [MPLSTE])
■ CR-LDP (MPLS-TE)
The data plane however, is a simple label-based forwarding engine that is independent
of the type of routing protocol or label exchange protocol. A Label Forwarding
Information Base (LFIB) is used to forward packets based on labels. The LFIB table is
populated by the label exchange protocols used in the control plane.
Label Switch Paths – LSPs

• A path is established before the data transmission starts.

• A path is a representation of an FEC
LSP Details

• MPLS provides two options to set up an LSP

1. Hop by hop routing
Each LSR independently selects the next hop for a
given FEC. LSRs supports any available routing protocols
(OSPF,ATM…).
2. Explicit routing
Is similar to source routing. The ingress LSR specifies the list
of nodes through which the packet traverses.
• The LSP setup for an FEC is unidirectional. The return traffic must
take another LSP.
Label Distribution Protocol – LDP
An application layer protocol for the distribution of label binding
information to LSRs.
- It is used to map FECs to label, which, in turn, create LSPs
- LDP sessions are established between LDP peers in the
MPLS network (not necessary adjacent)
- Sometimes employs OSPF or BGP.
LDP message types:

- Discovery messages - announce and maintain the

presence of an LSR in a network
- Session message – establish, maintain, and terminate
sessions between LDP peers
- Advertisement messages – create, change, and delete
label mappings for FECs
- Notification messages – provide advisory information
and signal error information
Label Advertisement Mode

Two label advertisement modes are available:

1. Downstream on demand(DoD)
2. Downstream unsolicited (DU)
Label Distribution control Mode

There are two label distribution control modes:

Independent: and LSR can notify label binding messages
upstream anytime.
Ordered: an LSR can send label binding messages about a FEC
upstream only when it receives a specific label binding message
from the next hop a FEC or the LSR itself is the egress node of the
FEC.
Label Retention Mode

Two label retention modes:

1. Liberal: an LSR keeps any received label to FEC binding regardless
of whether the binding is from its next hop for the FEC or not.
2. Conservative: an LSR keeps only label to FEC bindings that are
from its next hops for the FECs.

In liberal mode, an LSR can adapt to route changes quickly; while in

conservative mode, there are less label to FEC bindings for an LSR to
advertise and keep.
The conservative label retention mode is usually used with the DoD
mode on LSRs with limited label space.
MPLS Applications

Some of the MPLS applications are follows

• Unicasting IP routing
• Multicast IP routing
• Traffic Engineering
• Virtual Private Network
• Quality of Service(QoS)
Traffic Engineering

- Traffic engineering allows a network administrator to make the

path deterministic and bypass the normal routed hop-by-hop
paths.
- An administrator may elect to explicitly define the path between
stations to ensure QoS or have the traffic follow a specified path to
reduce traffic loading across certain hops.
- The network administrator can reduce congestion by forcing the
frame to travel around the overloaded segments.
- Hops are configured in the LSRs ahead of time along with the
appropriate label values.
MPLS – Traffic Engineering

- End –to-End forwarding decision determined by ingress node.

- Enables Traffic Engineering
MPLS based VPN

• One of most popular MPLS applications is the implementation

of VPN.
• The basic concept is the same as ATM transparent LAN.
• Using label (instead of IP address) to interconnect multiple
sites over a carrier’s network. Each site has its own private IP
address space.
• Different VPNs may use the same IP address space.
MPLS and QoS

• Pre configuration based on physical interface

• Classification of incoming packets into different classes
• Classification based on network characteristics (such as
congestion, throughput, delay, and loss)
• A label corresponding to the resultant class is applied to
the packet
Thank you

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