366

Chapter 9 Motion

Chapter introduction
This chapter continues our exploration of the science of physics. Have you ever wondered how long it
takes for sunlight to reach the Earth or how quickly a raindrop falls to the ground? These questions can
be answered in the domain of physics – the study of the physical world. One of the most famous areas of
physics is the study of how things move. What first comes to mind when you think of the word ’motion’?
How do you describe objects that move? You live in a world filled with moving things. This chapter will
help you understand the core ideas of how things move, how fast they travel and the forces that are
at work.

Curriculum
The description and explanation of the motion of objects involves the interaction of forces and the
exchange of energy and can be described and predicted using the laws of physics (VCSSU133)
• recognising that a stationary object, or a moving object with constant motion, 9.4
has balanced forces acting on it
• gathering data to analyse everyday motion produced by forces, for example, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4
measurements of distance and time, velocity, mass, acceleration and force
• investigating the effects of applying different forces, including Earth’s 9.4
gravitational force, to familiar objects

Victorian Curriculum F–10 © VCAA (2016)

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 367

Glossary terms
acceleration gradient Newton’s third law of motion
average speed inertia origin
constant speed instantaneous speed speed
deceleration mass stationary
displacement net force velocity
distance Newton’s first law of motion weight
force Newton’s second law of motion

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368 Chapter 9 MOTION

Concept map

Can be described by:

• Distance
• Displacement
• Speed (average and
instantaneous)
• Velocity (average and
instantaneous)
• Acceleration.

Can be visualised by:

Motion • Distance–time graphs
• Displacement–time graphs
• Speed–time graphs.

Governed by:
• Newton’s first law of motion
• Newton’s second law of motion
• Newton’s third law of motion.

9.1

9.2

9.3

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 Section 9.1 DEsCrIbINg MOTION 369

9.1 Describing motion

Everyday motion Try this 9.1

You are surrounded by things that move. Make a list of all of the objects
that you have interacted with today. What words come to mind when you want to describe WORKSHEET

the motion of an object to another person? Can you also determine some other units of
measurement that are used to help describe physical quantities?

Distance
When motion is discussed, distance usually
refers to how far something has travelled.
distance
The symbol d is used to
total distance travelled denote the distance an object
measured in metres
has travelled. For example,
the soccer ball in Figure 9.1 has travelled a
distance of 20 metres.
4m

3m

5m
Figure 9.2 Often a compass bearing is used to
describe the direction of displacement. However,
5m simpler directions like left, right, up, down,
3m backwards and forwards are sometimes used.

Figure 9.3 shows a N

scenario where the A
Figure 9.1 Distance travelled by a soccer ball direction of travel matters.
20 km
You might know that you
sailed 20 kilometres, but
Displacement 20 km
B
you will not know where
Unlike distance, displacement describes you are unless you know
how far and in which direction something the direction you sailed.
20 km
displacement
has travelled from an initial If you sailed 20 km in the
how far you are from where starting point. Displacement north-west direction, you
you started and what
direction you are from where is the change in an object’s would end up on island C
you started
position from the initial point.
 A, if you sailed east, you
Displacement is denoted with the symbol d would end up on island B, Figure 9.3 If you ended up on Island B,
and it has both size and direction – hence and if you sailed south, you your displacement would be 20 km east
from your starting position.
the arrow above the d to indicate it has would end up on island C.
a direction. You can see that sometimes direction matters.

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370 Chapter 9 MOTION

Distance versus displacement displacement from their starting point, A, is

four metres forwards.
Often, knowing the displacement is
6m
more helpful than knowing the distance
something has travelled. Displacement A B
C
compares the initial position with the final 2m
position of an object in motion. If the final
Figure 9.4 The walk described can be represented
position is the same as the initial position, using arrows, where the length of the arrow
then the displacement is zero. Consider symbolises the magnitude, and the direction of the
a person who walks six metres forwards arrow shows the direction of motion.
from point A to point B, and then two The total distance travelled from A to B is
metres backwards to point C. The distance d = 6 + 2 = 8 m.
that they have travelled is eight metres.
However, since they have only ended up The
 displacement from A to B is
four metres from the starting position, the d = 6 – 2 = 4 m to the right.

Distance and displacement Worked example 9.1

A person walks four metres east and then three metres north. That can be
represented in a simple diagram as follows.
C

3 m north

A B
4 m east

1 What is the distance travelled by the person?

2 What is the displacement?

Worked solution
Thinking Working
1) Distance
Sum the two distances travelled to find the total distance d=3m+4m=7m
that the person has travelled.
2) Displacement
Use Pythagoras’s theorem to find the distance from A C
(the starting point) to C (the end point).
a2 + b2 = c2 3 m north

A B
c 4 m east
a
Using Pythagoras’s theorem, find the distance
b from A to C.

c = a2 + b2 AC = 4 2 + 3 2
= 16 + 9
= 25
=5m

continued…

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 Section 9.1 DEsCrIbINg MOTION 371

…continued

Worked solution
Thinking Working
You also need the direction travelled from the starting To determine the direction requires trigonometry.
position to the final position. C

3 m north

A u B
4 m east

tan θ = ¾
θ = 36.9° north of east

Therefore, the displacement d is 5 m 36.9° north
of east.

Measuring distance Did you know? 9.1

Throughout history many systems have been used to measure
distance. One of the earliest known standardised systems was in ancient Egypt, roughly
6000 years ago, where forearms, hands and fingers were used to measure distances between
two objects.
A ‘league’ was a unit of distance used in medieval England. It originally meant the distance
that a person could walk in an hour. Often this meant that people in different places had a
different understanding of how far a league actually was. Today, most of the world uses the
metric system which is standardised globally. In the metric system, the base unit for length is
the metre which comes from the Greek metron meaning measure. One metre is the length that
1
light travels through a vacuum in seconds.
299792 458

1 Define the terms distance and displacement. Quick check 9.1

2 Consider a classmate travelling between classrooms. From their
initial classroom they travel west 100 m and then north 50 m, where they arrive at the
intended classroom.
a Draw a diagram that represents the problem.
b What is the distance travelled by the student?
c What is the displacement of the student to the nearest metre? Remember to also give an
angle in your answer.
d If the student then travels back to the initial classroom, what is their displacement?

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372 Chapter 9 MOTION

speed
We have all used words or phrases to describe how quickly something travels, or speed
change in distance divided
maybe even to determine how long it will take to get from one place to another. by time
Speed is a general term for how fast something travels. It is a measure of the rate
at which an object travels a distance. In other words, it is the distance (d) travelled
within a certain amount of time (t).

A rocket can travel at 11 km/s. A cheetah can maintain a speed of 31 m/s.

The speed of a snail is more likely to be The speed of cars is usually measured in km/h.
measured in units of cm/min.
Figure 9.5 Examples of different speeds

Speed is used to judge how fast something is moving, or how far something will travel in a
certain amount of time. Speed is commonly measured in units of metres per second (m/s), or
kilometres per hour (km/h). However, depending on the motion, speed may sometimes be
measured in m/min, cm/h, or even km/s.

Consider the examples of motion shown in Figure 9.5.

Speed is calculated as follows:

distance travelled (m or km)
m/h) =
average speed (m/s or km/h)
time taken (s or h)
d
Or vav =
t

A simple way to remember this equation is by using the

average speed triangle shown in Figure 9.6.
d

Using the average speed triangle, you can derive formulas for:
d
• average speed vav =
t
vav t
d
• change in time t =
vav
• change in distance d = vav × t. Figure 9.6 The average speed triangle

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 Section 9.1 DEsCrIbINg MOTION 373

Average speed Worked example 9.2

Consider two runners who are in competing in a 100 m hurdles event. Runner 1
finishes in a time of 12.5 s. Runner 2 runs the race with an average speed of 7 m/s.
1 Who wins the race?
2 How long does it take Runner 2 to cross the finish line? Round your answer to two decimal places.

Worked solution
Thinking Working
1) Who wins?
List the relevant information for Runner 1. d = 100 m
t = 12.5 s
vav = ?
Calculate the average speed using the d 100 m
vav = =
formula for average speed. t 12.5 s
= 8 m/s
Compare the average speed of Runner 1: vav = 8 m/s
each runner. Runner 2: vav = 7 m/s
Since Runner 1 has a higher average speed, they finish before
Runner 2 does. Therefore, Runner 1 wins the race.
2) Runner 2 time
List the information that you have for t=?
Runner 2 vav = 7 m/s
d = 100 m
Calculate the time taken for Runner 2 to d 100 m
t= =
complete the race using a rearranged vav 7 m/s
average speed formula. = 14.29 s
Interpret the solution, ensuring that you It takes 14.29 s for Runner 2 to complete the 100 m hurdles race.
have correct units and decimal places.

Figure 9.7 The fastest runner wins the race.

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374 Chapter 9 MOTION

Converting units Consider a cat Quick check 9.2

So far we have only used m/s for speed, but and a dog that
another common unit for speed is kilometres challenge each other to a 60 second race.
per hour (km/h), which is what most people Whoever travels the furthest in 60 s wins the
use in cars. Here is a quick guide for race. The cat travels at an average speed
converting units. of 4 m/s. The dog travels a total distance of
500 m in that time.
1 km = 1000 m
1 Does the dog or the cat travel further?
1 h = 3600 s Does the dog or cat win the race?
2 What is the average speed of the dog?
km 1000 m 1 m
1 = = Round to two decimal places.
h 3600 s 3.6 s
Multiplying both sides by 3.6 and swapping
the sides to make 1 m/s the subject gives:

1 m/s = 3.6 km/h Converting speed Try this 9.2

× 3.6 Next time you are in a car,
ask the driver to tell you how fast the car is
m/s km/h
travelling. Collect three samples at different
speeds, and then convert each of them from
km/h to m/s.
÷ 3.6
Are the results what you expected?
Figure 9.8 Converting m/s into km/h Can you think of a scenario that would be
To convert m/s to km/h, multiply by 3.6. appropriate to measure speed using m/s
instead of km/h?
To convert km/s to m/s, divide by 3.6.

speed of light Did you know? 9.2

Light travels at a constant speed of 3 × 108 m/s. Nothing we currently
know of can travel faster than light – it travels so fast that the distance between stars can be
measured in units of light years. One light year is the distance that a beam of light travels in
one year – equivalent to 9.46 trillion km!

Figure 9.9 Light travels faster than anything else.

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 Section 9.1 DEsCrIbINg MOTION 375

Average versus instantaneous Instantaneous speed can be determined

When talking about the speed using a radar gun or a speed camera.
average speed
change in distance divided that something travels, it can A speed detector calculates the average
by change in time; usually
measured in km/h or m/s mean one of two things: average speed but over such a small time frame
instantaneous speed speed or instantaneous speed. that it is essentially capturing the speed
the speed at any particular
instant It is important that we do not at that instant, therefore, it is called
confuse the two. instantaneous. Another example of
instantaneous speed detection is the
Average speed is the measure of how fast speedometer in a car. The speedometer
something moves from point A to point B displays the speed at that instant in time.
within a given time. Whereas, instantaneous The driver gets instant feedback on how
speed is how fast something is travelling at a fast they are travelling.
specific point in time.

Figure 9.10 Speed detectors can capture the speed of an object in a fraction of a second.

Velocity has both size and direction. It is used as a

measure of how quickly something travels
Velocity is a term used to describe how fast in a specific direction. Aeroplane pilots and
something travels in a particular direction. ship captains need to know their velocity
velocity
Like speed, the common so they can accurately navigate towards
change in displacement units associated with velocity their destination.
divided by change in time
are m/s or km/h. However,
unlike speed, velocity is a measure of the Calculating velocity is similar to using the
change in displacement of an object within formula for speed, except distance travelled is
a certain amount of time. Sometimes replaced by displacement. The main difference
velocity is preferable to speed because it between calculating speed and velocity is

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376 Chapter 9 MOTION

Figure 9.11 Terminal velocity is the highest attainable speed of a skydiver. It occurs when the
skydiver is in freefall and the downward force of gravity is balanced by the upwards force of air
friction so she is no longer accelerating. This skydiver's terminal velocity is at roughly 60 metres
per second down to Earth.

that direction is important with the velocity, Mathematically, velocity can be described in
so displacement is used instead of distance. the following ways:
In the following formula, arrows are used
displacement
to show that direction matters for velocity, average velocity =
and hence displacement is used, which time taken
also includes an arrow to denote that it has 
 d
direction. vav =
t

Average speed versus average velocity Worked example 9.3

Alice Springs

1965 km
Brisbane

1330 km

1603 km

Adelaide

Figure 9.12
continued…
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 Section 9.1 DEsCrIbINg MOTION 377

…continued
Consider the triangle in Figure 9.12 made between Adelaide, Brisbane and Alice Springs. Imagine two
aeroplanes that need to get from Alice Springs to Brisbane. Plane 1 travels directly to Brisbane. Plane 2 must
stop in Adelaide before flying to Brisbane. It takes both planes 3.7 hours to reach Brisbane. The true bearing of
Brisbane from Alice Springs is 106° clockwise from north.
1 What is the average speed of each plane?
2 What is the average velocity of each plane?
3 Which plane travels faster in the air?

Worked solution
Thinking Working
1) Average speed
d Plane 1:
For average speed, use this formula: vav =
t 1965
=v = 531 km/h
3.7
Plane 2:

v=
(1330 + 1603 ) = 
793 km/h
3.7
2) Average velocity
For average velocity, use this formula: Plane 1:

 d  1603
vav = =
vav = 433 km/h 106° clockwise from north
t 3.7
Plane 2:
 1603
=
vav = 433 km/h 106° clockwise from north
3.7
3) Comparing speeds
The plane with the greater average speed travels Plane 2 is faster in the air.
faster as it covers more ground in the same amount
of time.

Two students, Mia and Peter, leave school to meet at the local coffee shop. Peter Quick check 9.3
decides to jog to the coffee shop, but also stops at a flower shop
along the way. Mia decides to walk from school directly to the
School
coffee shop. They arrive at the coffee shop at the same time,
30 minutes after they leave school.
1 How much further does Peter travel than Mia?
2 If it takes them both half an hour to reach the coffee shop: 2.00 km 3.00 km
a What is Mia’s average speed?
b What is Peter’s average speed?
3 Calculate their average velocities.

Flower shop 2.24 km Coffee shop

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378 Chapter 9 MOTION

Acceleration An object that does not constant speed

when an object is travelling
change velocity is travelling at the same speed and is not
When an object changes its velocity over
with a constant speed. accelerating or decelerating
a period of time, it can be said to have
Constant velocity occurs when the
accelerated. Thus, acceleration also has a
acceleration is zero.
direction. In many problems we are only
interested in the size (or magnitude) of
If an object changes its velocity, then it is
the acceleration so we can then ignore its
accelerating.When the object is moving in a
direction. Acceleration is the rate
acceleration
straight line we can calculate its acceleration
by which something increases or
an object has acceleration using the speed, as follows.
when its velocity changes. decreases its speed. Consider a car
Average acceleration equals
change in velocity divided at a set of traffic lights. Initially it
by the time taken. The most Mathematically, you can write acceleration in
2
common unit is m/s (metres is stationary; we would say that it
per second per second).
the following ways:
has an initial velocity of 0 km/h.
Imagine that when the light turns green the change in speed
Acceleration = =
car speeds up to 40 km/h in the next five time taken
seconds. This change in velocity means that
n speed final speed-initial speed
the car has an acceleration. = =
time taken
Similarly, consider the car reaching another or
set of lights that have just turned red – it
v2 − v1
has to slow until it stops. When the car a=
t
slows down, it decreases its speed over
time; we call this deceleration (negative Where v2 is the final speed, v1 is the initial
acceleration). For most purposes in speed and t is the time taken. Notice that
science, ‘acceleration’ can be taken v2 − v1 just represents the change in speed.
deceleration
when an object is slowing to cover both positive and negative
down
acceleration. Using the acceleration triangle in Figure 9.14
is another helpful way to remember the
formula for acceleration.

v2 − v1

a t

Figure 9.14 The acceleration triangle

Figure 9.13 Slowing to stop at a red light is negative

acceleration, or deceleration.

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 Section 9.1 DEsCrIbINg MOTION 379

Using this acceleration triangle, you can derive formulas for:

v −v
• acceleration a = 2 1
t
v −v
• change in speed t = 2 1
a
• change in time v2 − v1 = a × t

Acceleration Worked example 9.4

Consider the motion of a dirt bike.

Figure 9.15 A dirt bike in motion

1 If it speeds up from rest in 3 seconds to 54 km/h in a straight line, calculate the acceleration.
2 If that same bike travelling at 54 km/hr comes to a stop in a straight line within 5 seconds. What is the
acceleration? What does this mean?
3 If better brakes were installed on the bike, it could decelerate at quicker a rate of 10 m/s2. Calculate how
long it would take to stop if it was initially travelling at a speed of 72 km/h.

Worked solution
Thinking Working
1) Acceleration
List the information that you have. v1 = 0 m/s
Since the bike begins at rest, the initial speed is zero. v2 = 54 km/h = 15 m/s
t=3s
a=?
Calculate using the acceleration formula by substituting in all of v2 − v1 (15 − 0 )
a= = / 2
= 5 m/s
the known values. t 3
Interpret the answer. The bike accelerates at a rate of 5 m/s2
(5 metres per second, every second)

continued…

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380 Chapter 9 MOTION

…continued

2) Negative acceleration
List the information. In this example the bike has an initial speed v1 = 54 km/h = 15 m/s
of 54 km/h, and a final speed of 0 km/h. v2 = 0 m/s
t=5s
a=?
Substitute the known values. v2 − v1 ( 0 − 15 )
a= = = −−3 m/s2
t 5
Interpret the solution and remember to include correct units. Since there is a negative acceleration, the
bike is decelerating at a rate of 3 m/s2.
3) Faster stopping
List the known information. a = −10 m/s2
v2 = 0 m/s
v1 = 72 km/h = 20 m/s
t=?
Substitute the values into the acceleration formula. (0 − 20)
−10 =
t
Rearrange so that the unknown is the subject of the equation. −20
t= = 2 ss
−10
Interpret the solution. It takes the bike 2 seconds to decelerate
from 72 km/h to rest.

Car speeds Try this 9.3

Next time you are in a car and travelling in a straight line, use the stopwatch on your phone to
time the change in speed. Get the driver to read the speedometer to capture the instantaneous speed. Calculate
the acceleration of the car under different circumstances using the formula for average acceleration in the
following table. Remember not to distract the driver when doing this.

Test Initial speed Final speed Time taken Acceleration

Example: 0 km/h 10 km/h 5s (0 − 10) km/h
a= = 2 km/hs
5s

1
2
3

1 Define acceleration, deceleration and constant speed. Quick check 9.4

2 An object increases its speed from 5.2 m/s to 7.7 m/s in four seconds.
a Calculate the acceleration of the object.
b Assume that the object could decelerate at a rate of 1.5 m/s2 (a = −1.5 m/s2). Calculate the time it would
take for the object to stop if it were initially travelling at 10 m/s (v = 10 m/s). Give your answer to two
decimal places.

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 Section 9.1 DEsCrIbINg MOTION 381

Harvesting energy from movement Explore! 9.1

Using movement to generate electricity is not a new idea. This involves converting kinetic
energy into electrical energy via a generator. However, there have been many challenges in using portable
energy harvesters to harvest energy from human motion. Conduct some research on the idea of harnessing
energy from human motion (kinetic energy) and answer the following questions.
1 Describe the latest advances in this kind of technology.
2 Examine the possibilities and challenges this technology presents.
3 In your opinion, will this technology work in the future? Justify your response.

Practical 9.1
ramps and cars
Aim
To investigate the effect of ramp height on the average speed of a crash trolley or model car.

Materials
• ramp at least 90 cm long
• stopwatch
• metre ruler
• 5 books of similar height that are wide enough for the ramp to sit on
• crash trolley or model car

Method
1 Copy the results table below.
2 Set up the ramp as shown in Figure 9.16. Use only one or two books for it to lean on initially.

Figure 9.16

3 Measure the height of the ramp.

4 Use the stopwatch to measure how long it takes for a crash trolley or model car to roll down the ramp. Record
the results in the results table.
5 Do this three times so you can average the results.
6 Repeat steps 3–5 using three, four and five books and record your results in the table.

Results

ramp height First time second time Third time Average

2 books
3 books
4 books
5 books

continued…

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382 Chapter 9 MOTION

…continued
Evaluation
1 What trend can you see based on the results?
2 Why was it good experimental technique to repeat the car roll three times for each ramp height?
3 Predict what would happen if you used a longer ramp with five books, but measured the time it took the car to
roll the same length as it rolled using the previous ramp (as below in Figure 9.17). Can you test this out?

Original ramp

Second
(longer) ramp
Measure only
until here

Figure 9.17
Conclusion
1 Make a claim about ramp height and speed based on this experiment.
2 Support the statement by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of error.
3 Explain how the data support the statement.

section 9.1 questions

QUIZ Remembering
1 What is/are the unit/s normally used for distance?
2 List the unit or units normally used for speed.
3 State the formula and unit for average acceleration in a straight line.

Understanding
4 Distinguish between distance and displacement. How are they similar?
5 Distinguish between speed and velocity. How are they similar?
6 Contrast average speed and instantaneous speed.

Applying
7 The average speed of a galloping horse is 40 km/h. If a horse is already travelling at that
speed, how far will it travel in 2.3 hours?
8 If a person walks at an average speed of 4 km/h, how long will it take them to travel 50 m?
Round your answer to the nearest second. Hint: First convert 4 km/h into m/s.
9 What is the acceleration of a car travelling at a constant speed of 50 km/h?
10 A sprinter starts from rest. In the first three seconds they reach a speed of 2 m/s. After the
next 10 seconds they reach a speed of 6.5 m/s.
a Calculate the average acceleration in the first three seconds, and round to two
decimal places.
b Calculate the average acceleration in the last 10 seconds.
c When was the sprinter’s acceleration the greatest? The first three seconds or
that last 10 seconds?
continued…

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 Section 9.2 grAPHINg MOTION 383

…continued
11 A car starts from rest and accelerates at a constant rate of 5 m/s2 for five seconds.
a Calculate the final speed.
b Calculate the average speed. Because the speed increases at a constant rate, you can do this by using
(v1 + v2)/2 to find the average speed.
c Calculate the displacement of the car after five seconds.

Analysing
12 Categorise the following as either acceleration, deceleration or constant speed.

Motion Acceleration/deceleration/constant speed

A bike rider slowing down
A text book sitting on a desk
A sprinter taking off at the start of a race
A dog running at 5 m/s forwards
A car crashing into a brick wall
A car rolling down a hill and gaining speed

Evaluating
13 Imagine you were trying to figure out how efficient your car was in using petrol. Would you use distance
travelled or displacement covered with one tank full? Explain your reasoning.

9.2 graphing motion

You have now learned how to describe

motion using scientific language and are also
familiar with formulas to calculate average
WORKSHEET
speed, velocity and acceleration of moving
objects. In this section you will learn how to
plot objects in motion onto a graph and use
them to determine the displacement, speed
and acceleration.

Distance–time graphs
Distance–time graphs show how far an object
moves as time progresses. Distance travelled
is on the vertical y-axis and time is on the
gradient
horizontal x-axis. The gradient
the gradient of a graph is the of the line indicates the speed
rise over the run
of the object. Recall that:
d rise
vav= =
t run
Figure 9.18 Graphing motion can give you a lot of information.

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384 Chapter 9 MOTION

Table 9.1 shows some shapes you may see on a distance–time graph.

shape Explanation Example

Horizontal lines rise
The of horizontal lines is zero because the rise is 0 m.
indicate that an object run
Distance

So the speed is 0 m/s. stationary

is stationary. not moving

Time

A straight line with a

gradient indicates that

Distance (m)
Distance

the object is moving at 2

a constant speed.
1

Time 1 2
Time (s)

rise 2 m
v= = = 1 m/s
run 2 s
Distance (m)

1 2
Time (s)

rise 1 m
v= = = 0.
0.5 m/s
run 2 s
The gradient of the first graph is steeper, which shows that
object has a greater speed.
Table 9.1 Two types of distance–time graphs

Figure 9.19 The distance-time graph of a Formula One race car would be different to a regular car driving
down a busy road.

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 Section 9.2 grAPHINg MOTION 385

Distance–time graph Worked example 9.5

Take a look at the distance–time
Speeding up

Distance (m)
graph that shows Lin’s walk in a 4
straight line for six seconds. 3 Stationary
1 Calculate her speed at the Speeding up
2
following time intervals: from
1
0 to 2 seconds, 2 to 5 seconds
and 5 to 6 seconds. 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 When is Lin travelling the Time (s)
fastest?
Figure 9.20

Worked solution
Thinking Working
1) Speed
Select two points from each time interval 0 to 2 seconds:
rise
and use to calculate the speed. rise ( 2 − 0 ) m 1 m
run v= = = = 1 m/s
run ( 2 − 0 ) s 1 s
2 to 5 seconds:
Horizontal line indicates she is stationary.
5 to 6 seconds:
rise ( 4 − 2 ) m 2 m
v= = = = 2 m/s
run ( 6 − 5 ) s 1 s

2) Fastest interval
The steeper line indicates a faster speed. She travels the fastest from the 5th to the 6th second.

1 Consider the distance-time graph of a moving object in Figure 9.21. Quick check 9.5
20

18

16

14
Distance (km)

C
12

10

8
B
6

4
A
2

0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
Time (h)

Figure 9.21

Calculate the average speed for each of the sections A, B and C. Then describe the motion of the object.

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386 Chapter 9 MOTION

Displacement-time graphs an object is moving away from, or back

towards, its initial position over a period
Displacement-time graphs are similar to
of time. The starting position
distance-time graphs, but they also show
is always located on the graph origin
the object’s location with respect to a starting the point at which the axes
at the coordinate (0,0), and is of a coordinate system
point. In other words, they can show whether intersect
referred to as the origin.

Displacement-time graph Worked example 9.6

Remember the distance-time graph for Lin’s walk. Here is her displacement-
time graph. Displacement (m)

Speeding up
4
Change of direction
3 Stationary
back to start
2
1

1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s)

Figure 9.22

Describe her movements in relation to her starting point.

Worked example
Thinking Working
The displacement y-axis indicates how far from For the first two seconds, she moves away from her
the start she is. In the distance–time graph, you starting position. For the next three seconds she is
could not tell which direction she was travelling, stationary. In the final second she speeds up but moves
only that she was moving. back to the origin (her starting position).

1 Describe the motion of an object according to the following displacement–time Quick check 9.6
graph shapes.
a b d c d
d

t t t

Displacement–time graph creative story Try this 9.4

You have been handed a displacement–time graph; you have no
idea what object or what motion it could be describing. Working 10
(h/min/s)

in a group of two or three, your job is to create a story that

Time

5
matches the displacement–time graph in Figure 9.23.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Displacement (km/m/cm)

Figure 9.23
continued…

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 Section 9.2 grAPHINg MOTION 387

…continued
You might consider a car in motion, a day in the life of a snail, or even the motion of seaweed as it drifts through
the ocean. You should try to be as creative and as imaginative as possible. You may change the scale of either
axis so that your story fits better. The aim is to try to describe all of the key features that you can see on the
displacement–time graph. Remember to include words from this chapter like: constant speed, stationary,
acceleration, at rest.
Challenge: If you have finished your story, calculate the speed at certain points along the path.

speed–time graphs • The area under a speed–time graph

represents the distance that the object
Speed–time graphs show the speed of
has travelled.
a travelling object as time passes. They
are quite useful because they can be used Reading instantaneous speed
to determine the distance travelled, the
Imagine that a speed detector is used to capture
instantaneous speed and the acceleration of
the instantaneous speed of an object in motion
a moving object. Speed–time graphs have
every second for a period of 10 seconds. The
three important features.
following table is created and then the data is
• Instantaneous speed can be read directly
represented on a speed–time graph.
from the graph at any particular point
in time.
Speed 0 2 4 6 8 10 10 10 10 5 0
• The gradient between two points on a
(m/s)
speed–time graph represents the average
acceleration over that time interval of the Time (s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
object in motion.

Describing the motion

From the general shape of the graph,
we see that the object increases speed
in the first 5 seconds, then travels at a
constant speed for 3 seconds, finally in
the last 2 seconds it slows down until
it is stationary.
12 Determining the time an object
reaches a certain speed
10 For example, this object reaches
a speed of 10 m/s at the 5 second
Speed (m/s)

8 mark and continues that speed for

3 seconds before it slows down.
6

4
Determining the instantaneous 2
speed at any particular point in time
For example, at 2 seconds the object 0
has an instantaneous speed of 4 m/s. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)

An object will be stationary when

the speed is zero. Any time the graph
touches the horizontal axis,
the object must be stationary.
Figure 9.24 A speed–time graph tells you a lot about an object’s motion.

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388 Chapter 9 MOTION

Finding acceleration from the gradient in Table 9.2 help to identify when an object in
Speed–time graphs have three common motion is speeding up (accelerating), when an
configurations, and you need to be able to object is slowing down (decelerating), or when
distinguish between them. The three graphs an object is travelling at a constant speed.

shape Explanation Example

Horizontal lines indicate that
v
an object is travelling at a
14
Speed

constant speed.
12
10
8
Time
6
4
2

2 4 6 t

rise 0 m/s
a= = = 0 m/s2
run 10 s
Positive gradient means
v
positive acceleration
25
Speed

(speeding up). The steeper

the gradient the more the 20
object accelerates.
15
Time
10

1 2 3 4 5 t

rise 25 m/s
a= = = 5 m/s2
run 5s

Negative gradient means

v
negative acceleration
14
Speed

(deceleration). The steeper

12
the gradient the quicker the
object decelerates. 10
8
Time
6
4
2

1 2 3 4 5 t

rise −10 m/s

a= = = −5 m/s2
run 2s

Table 9.2 Three types of speed–time graphs

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 Section 9.2 grAPHINg MOTION 389

Calculating distance travelled object travels can be calculated by summing

In some problems, you may be given the the area under the graph. Often it might
speed–time graph and asked to work out be simpler to split the graph into smaller
the distance travelled. The distance an sections.

Calculating the distance Worked example 9.7

Area under speed–time graph is the distance travelled

12

10
Speed (m/s)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)

Figure 9.25

Consider this graph of an object in motion.

1 Calculate the distance travelled in the first five seconds
2 Calculate the distance travelled from t = 5 to t = 8.
3 Calculate the distance covered in the final two seconds.
4 What is the total distance covered by the object, over the entire 10 seconds?

Worked solution
Thinking Working
1) Distance in first five seconds
Redraw the shape and label the known sides The area in the first five seconds
Calculate the area of a triangle is given by the can be described by the
1 following triangle.
formula A= bh
2 1
A1 = ( 5 )(10 ) = 25 10
Interpret the area, and check that units are correct. 2
This means that in the
first five seconds the object 5
travels 25 metres.
2) Distance from t = 5 to t = 8
Redraw the shape and label the known sides. The area under the graph between
Calculate the area of the rectangle given by the t = 5 and t = 8 can be described by
formula A = l × w . the following rectangle.
Interpret the solution with correct units. A2 = 3 × 10 = 30 10

This means that the distance

travelled over this period is
3
30 metres.
continued…

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390 Chapter 9 MOTION

…continued

3) Distance in final two seconds

Redraw and label the shape. The area under the graphs in the final two seconds
Calculate the area. is represented by the following triangle.
Interpret solution with correct units.

10

1
A3 = ( 2 )(10 ) = 10
2
In the final two seconds the object travels 10 metres.
4) Total distance covered
Add up all of the area sections under the graph to Sum each of the areas for the total distance covered.
get the total distance travelled. AT = A1 + A2 + A3
= 25 + 30 + 10
= 65
Therefore, the total distance covered by the object
over the 10 seconds is 65 metres.

Consider the following speed–time graph. Quick check 9.7

10
9
8
Speed (m/s)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1

1 2 3 4
Time (s)

Figure 9.26

1 Describe the motion.

2 Calculate the acceleration over the first two seconds.
3 What is the acceleration between t = 2 and t = 4?
4 What is the distance travelled after the first two seconds?
5 How far has the object travelled after four seconds?

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 Section 9.2 grAPHINg MOTION 391

Practical 9.2

Investigating the motion of students over 100 m

Aim
To investigate the speed profile of sprinters.

Materials
• stopwatch

Method
1 Copy the results tables below.
2 Choose at most five classmates to sprint 100 m.
3 Line up the remainder of your classmates at 20 m intervals along the 100 m track. Start the first sprinter.
4 Use stopwatches to capture the time from when a sprinter begins, to when they pass each 20 m interval.
Ideally there will be at least two classmates at each interval so that an average of the times can be calculated.
Record these results in a table.

Results
1 Complete the table of distance vs. time.
Distance vs. time (seconds)

student name 20 m 40 m 60 m 80 m 100 m

2 Calculate the average speeds and complete the table of average speed vs. time.
Average speed (m/s) vs. time

student name 20 m 40 m 60 m 80 m 100 m

3 Plot the distance–time and average speed–time graphs by drawing smooth trend lines.

Evaluation
1 Are the shapes of the graphs generally similar?
2 Describe what is happening at each 20 m interval in terms of speed.
3 Why do you think it was important to gather data from various classmates instead of just from one?
4 What are some potential sources of error (uncertainties or experimental method faults)?
5 Imagine if your classmates walked, hopped or crawled. Predict what the graphs would look like.

Conclusion
1 Make a claim about sprints and speed based on this investigation.
2 Support the statement by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of error.
3 Explain how the data support the statement.

Motion and gait analysis science as a human endeavour 9.1

Gait analysis is the study of human movement from one place to
another. Research in gait analysis has applications in various conditions that affect human movement, such as
Parkinson’s disease and knee osteoarthritis. Accurate assessment can improve the movement of individuals who
have undergone knee or hip replacement surgery.
continued…

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392 Chapter 9 MOTION

…continued
Researchers in the wearHEALTH group at the University of Kaiserslautern, Germany, are developing a
wearable system for analysing people’s gait as they move around. By using sensors for acceleration and angular
velocities, the technology can calculate the motion parameters of the hip, knee and ankle and also step lengths.
This technology could give users real-time information about their posture as they are walking. It has the
potential to help people who have joint diseases and require hip or knee replacements as they go through
rehabilitation and learn how to walk with the correct posture after the surgery.

Figure 9.27 Wearable and mobile technology can help people correct their posture even when they
are not at gait rehabilitation centres.

section 9.2 questions

QUIZ Remembering
1 What does the gradient of a distance–time graph indicate?
2 What does the gradient of a speed–time graph indicate?
3 What does the area under a speed–time graph indicate?

Understanding
4 Describe what the shape of a displacement–time graph can reveal about an object’s
movements.
5 Describe what the
10
shape of a speed–time
9
graph can reveal
Displacement (km)

8
about an objects
7
movements.
6
Applying 5
6 The path of a 4 A B C
caveman as he makes 3
the trek to a nearby 2
village then back to 1
his cave, is shown on
1 2 3 4 5
this displacement–
Time (h)
time graph in
Figure 9.28. Figure 9.28
continued…

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 Section 9.2 grAPHINg MOTION 393

…continued
a How far is the village from the cave?
10
b What is the velocity of the caveman as he walks from his cave
9
to the village (section A)?
c How long does the caveman wait at the village (section B)? 8
7

Speed (m/s)
d How quickly does the caveman return back to his cave once
he leaves the village (section C)? 6
7 Consider the speed–time graph in Figure 9.29. 5
a Describe the motion of the object. 4
b Calculate the acceleration in the first three seconds. 3
c Calculate the acceleration for the next two seconds.
2
d Calculate the distance the object has travelled after five
1
seconds.

Analysing 1 2 3 4 5 6
8 Hundreds and thousands of animals in Australia are killed every Time (s)

year by vehicles.
Figure 9.29
a If a driver travelling at 90 km/h (25 m/s) takes 0.5 seconds to
react, and they come to a stop according to the following speed–time graph, what is the total stopping
distance?

Figure 9.30

b If the reaction time was increased by 0.5 seconds, in other words the reaction time was one second, what
would the stopping distance be?
c What can you infer about reaction times? What things can affect reaction time?
continued…

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394 Chapter 9 MOTION

…continued
Evaluating
9 Use the following table to draw the graph of the distance–time graph of an object. Based on the shape of the
graph, what conclusions can we make about its movements? Evaluate whether we can tell in which direction
it went and justify your response.
Time (s) Distance (m)
0 0
2 2
5 3
7 3
9 4
10 5

9.3 Forces and Newton’s

laws of motion

sir Isaac Newton’s three laws object will accelerate, continue to travel at
of motion a constant speed or remain at rest. Force
WORKSHEET has both magnitude and direction; it can
Newton’s first law of motion
be represented using the symbol F, and is
Newton’s first law of motion, also known as generally measured in newtons (N).
the law of inertia, states:
If the forces acting on an object are balanced,
VIDEO meaning equal in magnitude (size) and in
Newton’s An object will remain at rest or travel at
first law opposite directions, then the object will not
a constant speed in a straight line unless
change its motion. That is, if the object is
it is acted upon by an unbalanced force.
at rest it will stay at rest, and if an object is
travelling at a constant speed it will continue
at a constant speed in the same
Newton’s first law of motion As you might remember from net force
an object will remain at rest or direction. The term net force is the sum of all the forces
in uniform motion in a the same previous years of study, a force acting on an object
used to describe the sum of all
direction unless acted upon by an is a push or pull acting on an
external force forces acting on an object. So that when the
object. Put simply, a force is
inertia net force is zero (Fnet = 0) it means that the
a property of matter that keeps any interaction with an object
something in the same position or forces are balanced and will not change the
moving in the same direction unless that if left unopposed will
acted upon by an external force motion of the object. However, if the forces
cause the object to move. At
force applied to an object are unbalanced (Fnet ≠ 0),
any interaction that, when any given time, multiple forces
unopposed, will change the motion
then the object will either accelerate or
may act on any single object.
of an object decelerate or change direction.
These forces determine if the

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 Section 9.3 FOrCEs AND NEWTON’s lAWs OF MOTION 395

Figure 9.31 ‘I do not know what I may appear to the world; but to myself I seem to have been only like
a boy, playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself, in now and then finding a smoother pebble
or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.’
Sir Isaac Newton, 1642–1727

Fnet = 0 Fnet ≠ 0
The forces acting The forces on the object are
on an object are unbalanced and sum to either
balanced and sum a positive or negative number.
to zero. The motion The motion of the object
of the object is not changes. It either speeds up
changed in speed or or slows down or changes
direction. direction depending on the
direction of the net force.
Table 9.3 The effect of balanced and unbalanced forces

Inertia is responsible for the feeling that you

get when you suddenly change motion in a
car, train or aeroplane, or on a bike. At times
when we travel at a constant speed, we hardly
even recognise that we are moving. But when
the vehicle that we are travelling in suddenly
stops, turns a sharp corner or accelerates, we
notice that our body moves unexpectedly. Figure 9.32 Consider travelling in a car at a constant speed. When the
brakes are suddenly pressed, the car quickly slows down but our body
This is inertia! It is the tendency for objects continues to move forwards at the original speed. If it were not for
to either stay at rest or continue travelling at a seatbelts we would continue our motion towards the front window of
constant speed in the same direction. the car.

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396 Chapter 9 MOTION

Inertia on bus rides Try this 9.5

Imagine you are travelling in a bus. Try to re-enact and then describe how your body moves
when travelling under different circumstances. Remembering that inertia is just an object’s tendency to resist a
change in motion, consider the forces acting on your body and the direction your body moves when:
1 the bus is stationary
2 the bus travels at a constant speed
3 the bus is travelling at a constant speed, then suddenly stops
4 the bus takes a sharp right or left hand turn
5 the bus accelerates after a set of lights turns green.

Figure 9.33 You can feel the effect of inertia when you travel on a bus.

Newton’s second law of motion From this equation, the following three
Newton’s second law of motion is a simple statements can be generated.
mathematical formula that describes the • The more massive the object, the greater
VIDEO
Newton’s
relationship between net force, mass and the force needed to accelerate it.
second law acceleration. Newton’s second law states: • The greater the force applied to an object,
the quicker it will accelerate.
The net force acting on an object equals
• If the same force is applied to a more
the mass of the object multiplied by the
massive object, the acceleration will be less.

WIDGET
acceleration. 2m
m m
Newton’s
second law
It can also be written as: a 1 a
2a
2
net force = mass × acceleration
F F 2F
Fnet = ma

Newton’s second law of motion

an object acted upon by a force experiences acceleration in
the same direction and proportional to the magnitude of the Figure 9.34 A baseball hit by a bat follows Newton’s
net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object
second law of motion.

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 Section 9.3 FOrCEs AND NEWTON’s lAWs OF MOTION 397

Imagine a hitting a baseball with a bat as mass. Lastly, if we were to apply a greater
in Figure 9.35. When a net force is applied force on the baseball, it would increase the
to the ball it will accelerate. Consider what acceleration.
would happen if
we were to swap Using the force triangle (Figure 9.22),
the baseball with we have:
Fnet a larger baseball
a F F
with twice the Fnet = , a = net , m = net
mass. Newton’s m m a
second law tells Newton’s first law recognises that unbalanced
a m
us that if the forces acting on an object will result in a net
same force were force that accelerates the object. Newton’s
Figure 9.35 The force triangle applied to larger second law adds to this by letting you
baseball with twice calculate the acceleration of the object if you
the mass, it would not accelerate as much are given the net force applied to the object
as the baseball because of the difference in and the mass of the object.

Consider two students moving a table of mass 13 kg. One student pushes with a Worked example 9.8
force of 30 N while the other pulls with a force of 80 N. Ignore all vertical forces
and ignore frictional forces between the table and the floor.

80 N
30 N

Figure 9.36

1 What is the net force and direction of the table?

2 What is the acceleration of the table?

Worked solution
Thinking Working
1) Net force
Calculate the net force by simply adding all of the forces acting on the Fnet = 30 + 80 = 110 N to the left
table. Since the surface of the floor pushes up on the table with the There is effectively 110 N of force
same force as the table pushes back on the floor, you can ignore the acting on the table towards the
vertical forces. The only relevant forces acting on the table are the two left direction.
in the horizontal direction. The net force is the sum of the two forces
that the students exert on the table.
2) Acceleration
Newton’s second law allows you to calculate how quickly the table will Fnet
a=
accelerate if you know what the mass of the table is. m
(In real life there would be a frictional force between the table and the
110 N
floor acting against the motion. If in this example the frictional force was a= = 8.46 m/s
m/ 2 to the left
13 kg
50 N then the net force would be 60 N (110 N - 50 N) and the acceleration
60 N/13 kg = 4.62 m/s2 to the left.)
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398 Chapter 9 MOTION

Newton’s discovery of gravity due to gravity. For example, Earth’s

Newton came to believe that bodies attract gravitational field pulls objects to its centre at
other bodies. He concluded that there must a rate of 9.8 m/s2 so a person with a mass of
be a force that pulls things towards each other, 70 kg will have a weight of 70 × 9.8 = 686 N.
like the apple falling from the tree is attracted
by earth. This force later became known as In general, you can use the following equation
gravity. Based on his observations, Newton to calculate the weight force
proposed that more massive objects will have
Fg = mg
a higher gravitational strength, which pulls
objects towards them at a faster rate. Where Fg is the force due to gravity, also
known as the weight force measured
mass Mass is a fundamental property of an in newtons (N), m is the mass of the
mass is the quantity of
matter in a body regardless object. Mass is measured in kilograms. object measured in kilograms and g is the
of its volume or of any forces
acting on it
However, weight is a force which acceleration of the object due to gravity
weight is measured in newtons. In physics, measured in m/s2.
the weight (W) of an object
is the force of gravity on the
weight is often called the ‘force due
object and is defined as the to gravity’, or the ‘weight force’. To Remember the mass of an object is the same
mass times the acceleration
of gravity: W = mg calculate the weight force, multiply the regardless of the strength of the gravitational
mass of the object by the acceleration field.

Earth the Moon Mars Jupiter

g = 9.8 m/s2 g = 1.6 m/s2 g = 3.7 m/s2 g = 24.8 m/s2

Table 9.4 The acceleration due to gravity is different on different planets and their moons!

Alchemy Did you know? 9.3

Aside from Newton’s considerable contribution
to the physical sciences, he had an obsession
with alchemy that was not only illegal at the time,
but would also be seen as absurd today. For most
of his life, Newton was fixated on discovering a
mythical substance called a philosopher’s stone;
a substance which he and others at that time
believed could transmute base metals into gold.
While that may seem ridiculous today, you have
to remember that during the time of Newton,
chemistry was in its infancy and the basic structure
of elements was unknown. It is worth considering
that it may have been his passion and perseverance
in the face of failure that led Newton to become one
of the most influential scientists in history. Figure 9.37 Alchemists sought the philosopher’s stone.

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 Section 9.3 FOrCEs AND NEWTON’s lAWs OF MOTION 399

1 Calculate the force that is required to accelerate an object of mass Quick check 9.8
6 kg at 2.3 m/s2.
2 Calculate the mass of an object that accelerates at 0.63 m/s2 when it is pushed with a force
of 20 N. Give your answer to two decimal places.
3 Consider a car of mass 1500 kg travelling at a constant speed. Calculate the deceleration
when the brakes are applied with a force of 1200 N.

Practical 9.3: self-design

Acceleration due to gravity

Aim
This practical asks you to design an experiment to measure the magnitude of the acceleration
due to gravity in your area.

Materials
• a number of objects to drop (e.g. marble, steel ball bearing)
• 3 m long measuring tape
• smartphone with high-speed slow motion capabilities

Method
Work out, and write up, your procedure to determine accurately the magnitude of the
acceleration due to gravity.
E.g. Tape the 3 m long measuring tape to a wall, drop different objects a number of times
(perhaps three times for each object), try a few different dropping heights, undertake analysis
of the high-speed videos.

Results
Make a table for all your results with the appropriate parameters.
Record all the collected data.
Analyse the data to produce an estimate of the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity.

Evaluation
1 Do the different objects accelerate at the same rate? Why or why not?
2 How many trails were there of the same object?
Explain why you did this and what the variations were.
3 Did air resistance effect your results? Explain.
4 Explain why did you not measure the mass of the various objects that you were dropping?

Conclusion
1 Compare your results with the accepted value of the magnitude of the acceleration due to
gravity in your local area.
2 Suggest any sources of error in your experiment.
3 Were there any ways the experiment you designed could have been improved? Explain.

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400 Chapter 9 MOTION

Engineering cars to protect occupants Explore! 9.2

Car crashes can involve extremely large forces. Engineers have
to design cars to minimise the impact of these forces on the
occupants and improve their chances of surviving unscathed. Test
crash dummies are fitted with accelerometers to determine the
nature and size of the forces involved in a car crash.
1 Investigate the latest advances in car safety design and the
design of test crash dummies.
2 Why do we not legislate that everyone must drive the latest and
safest cars?
3 What are some of the reasons that car crashes occur even in
safe cars?

Figure 9.38 Here is the result of a dummy not

wearing a seatbelt in a 20 km/h crash!

Practical 9.4: self-design

Force and mass

Aim
To investigate the effects of force and mass on acceleration.

Materials
• crash trolley • tape
• elastic bands • stopwatch
• weights

Method
Design an experiment that investigates the effects of force and mass on acceleration. You can use increasing
numbers of elastic bands to demonstrate increased force applied on the trolley.

Results
Remember to record your data.

Evaluation
1 As you increase force, what happens to acceleration?
2 As you increase mass, what happens to acceleration?
3 How can your experiment design be improved?
4 Identify any sources of error (experimental uncertainty or experimental faults).

Conclusion
1 Make a claim about force, mass and acceleration based on this experiment.
2 Support the statement by using the data you gathered and include potential sources of error (experimental
uncertainty or experimental faults).
3 Explain how the data support the statement.

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 Section 9.3 FOrCEs AND NEWTON’s lAWs OF MOTION 401

Newton’s third law of motion

Newton’s first two laws examine the forces
acting on a single object. Newton’s third
law of motion describes what happens to
an object when it is acted upon by another
Newton’s third law object. The third law suggests
of motion
for every action, there is an
that all forces come in pairs: an
equal and opposite reaction action force that acts on one
object and a reaction force that acts on the
other object. For example, if you were to push
on a wall the wall pushes back just as hard – if
it did not you would fall through! Newton’s
third law states:
F by trampoline on person

For every action there is an equal but

opposite reaction force.
F by person on trampoline
There are many examples of these
action–reaction pairs.

Fby wall on person Fby person on wall Figure 9.40 As a person jumps down on a trampoline
they exert a force downwards on the mat when in
contact with the mat. The mat then pushes back up
with an equal but opposite force. This can cause the
person to bounce back into the air.

Figure 9.39 The action of pushing against a wall has a contact force that the ground pushes up on
reaction force that pushes back on the person with the
same magnitude.
the person’s feet (or vice-versa). The action–
reaction forces always act on different objects,
Action–reaction pairs always act on different in opposite directions and have the same
objects. For example, if the action force is the magnitude. This means that an apple pulls
force the person’s feet exerts on the ground Earth up with exactly the same force that
(a contact force) then the reaction force is the Earth pulls the apple down!

1 Copy this diagram and label with the action force and the Quick check 9.9
reaction force.

Figure 9.41

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402 Chapter 9 MOTION

Action–reaction pairs Try this 9.6

Think of some action–reaction pairs that you are encountering now or that you
have experienced today. A few examples are in Table 9.5. Can you think of the opposing force?

Action reaction
You are sitting on a chair.
The ground pushes against your foot in the
direction you are walking.
You throw a ball against the wall.
Table 9.5 Action and reaction forces

Practical 9.5: self-design

Crash test eggs

Aim
To design and build a car with a safety features that will protect an egg from breaking during a collision.

Materials
As chosen by students but may include:
• rubber bands • straws • toilet paper or paper towel rolls
• wheels • rubber bands • cardboard boxes (varying sizes)
• craft sticks • string • plastic bottles
• dowels • springs • flat cardboard
• plastic cups • balloons • sticky tape

Method
1 Research vehicle collisions, safety features of cars and the forces involved during a collision.
2 Based on your research, design and build a vehicle or device that has safety features to protect an egg during
a collision.
3 Test your design by competing as a class to see whose crash test egg survives.

Results
Take a high speed video of your collision and slow it down to see the forces in effect.

Evaluation
1 Compare your safety device to a safety feature in a car.
2 Draw the forces acting on the egg during the collision.
3 What difficulties or errors did you encounter during this experiment? How could you improve the experiment
to avoid these in the future?

Conclusion
1 Make a claim about safety based on this activity.
2 Support the statement by using your observations and include potential sources of error.
3 Explain how your observations support the statement.

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 Section 9.3 FOrCEs AND NEWTON’s lAWs OF MOTION 403

section 9.3 questions

Remembering QUIZ
1 Describe what is meant by the term inertia.
2 Describe the term ‘net force’.
3 Describe the term ‘weight’.

Understanding
4 If there is zero net force applied to an object that is travelling at a constant speed in a
straight line, outline what happens to the object? Which of Newton’s laws applies to the
situation?
5 Contrast weight and mass.

Applying
6 A 50 kg person sits on a chair with feet dangling above the ground. Construct a diagram
to represent the action–reaction pair of forces acting on the scenario and include labels to
indicate the force quantities. (Remember that acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m/s2.)

Analysing
7 Consider the action–reaction forces in the following scenario. Two students are trying to
push a mass towards each other. Student 1 on the left exerts a force of 155 N on the mass
and Student 2 exerts a force of 220 N. Ignore frictional forces.

F by mass on Student 1 = Fby Student 1 on mass = 155 N Fby Student 2 on mass = Fby mass on Student 2 = 220 N

Figure 9.42

a What is the net force acting on the mass?

b In which direction will the mass move?
c Using Newton’s second law, if the mass is 216 kg, calculate the acceleration of the mass.

Evaluating
8 Evaluate whether there are other action–reaction pairs in the system from the previous
question. Can you quantify the forces?

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404 Chapter 9 MOTION

review questions

Remembering
1 List the different terms you have learned that can describe motion.
SCORCHER
2 Recall what the gradient of a displacement–time graph indicates.
3 Describe Newton’s three laws of motion.

Understanding
4 Give one example that demonstrates average speed and one example that demonstrates
instantaneous speed.

Applying
5 Consider the times of one of Usain Bolt’s record 100 m sprint.

Distance (m) 0 20 40 60 80 100

Time (s) 0 2.87 4.65 6.32 7.96 9.69

a Calculate the average speed of Usain

Bolt for the entire 100 m. That is, from
t = 0 to t = 9.69.
b Does he travel quicker in the first 40 m
or the last 40 m? Give a reason why.

Analysing
6 Examine Figure 9.43. List all the action–
reaction pairs you can infer.
7 Consider the path of a bungee jumper. For
simplicity, assume that the path of motion
is straight up and down.
Figure 9.43

Figure 9.44 A bungee jumper

As a person jumps from the platform, they accelerate towards the ground. They then
decelerate when the rope tightens, then accelerate back up, and so on.

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 Chapter 9 rEVIEW QUEsTIONs 405

The first 10 seconds of the jump are recorded on the following two graphs, where the origin
represents the position of the jumper just before they leap from the platform.

195

180

165

150

135

120
Distance (m)

105

90 90

75 75

Displacement (m)
60 60

45 45

30 30

15 15

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure 9.45 Figure 9.46

a What is the distance that the jumper travels in the first four seconds?
b What is the displacement of the jumper after four seconds?
c What is the distance covered by the jumper in the first 10 seconds?
d How far is the jumper from the platform after 10 seconds (what is the displacement)?
e Calculate the average speed in the first four seconds.
f What is the speed at the six second mark?

Evaluating
8 A car starts from rest and accelerates at a constant rate of 3 m/s2 in a straight line for five
seconds.
a Calculate the final speed.
b Calculate the average speed. Because the speed increases at a constant rate, you can do
v1 + v2
this by using to find the average speed.
2
c Calculate the distance the car had moved after five seconds.
d Construct the speed—time graph for this scenario and use it to calculate the distance using
the area under the graph.
e What can you conclude from you answers to part c and d?

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406 Chapter 9 MOTION

sTEM activity: Preventing motion sickness

background Information
VCSSU103 VCDSTC048 VCDSCD049 VCDSCD051 VCSIS113
Motion sickness is a common condition usually
experienced by people who are travelling. Almost
everyone will experience motion sickness when
subjected to intense motion. About one in three
system. The vestibular system includes parts of the
people are susceptible to motion sickness while
inner ear and brain, and is involved in controlling
driving or flying, and around 10 per cent of those
balance. The visual system includes the eyes; it
sufferers are highly sensitive to motion.
processes what we see. Evidence suggests that
The mechanisms responsible for motion
motion sickness occurs when there is a conflict
sickness are not fully understood, but researchers
between the movement detected by the vestibular
suggest that motion sickness results from an
system and the visual input.
interaction between the vestibular and the visual

Figure 9.47 The driver of a car (left) is least likely to suffer from motion sickness because their sensory information
(visual, sensory and even touch) all indicate accurate information. They are also correctly anticipating changes in motion
(turning, accelerating, and decelerating). An aeroplane passenger (right) is susceptible to motion sickness as they are
often caught unaware by sudden changes in the plane’s motion.

Figure 9.48 Autonomous

driverless cars will enable
commuting time to be
used for other things like
entertainment or work.
However, reading or doing
anything with entertainment
value may come at the cost of
motion sickness. Automotive
companies are continuously
conducting research and
development into various
methods for addressing this.

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 STEM activity PrEVENTINg MOTION sICKNEss 407

Evaluate and modify

Design brief: Design a product as a solution for
motion sickness. 1 Discuss with your classmates the effect of
different modes of transport on motion sickness.
Activity instructions For example, on which modes of transport (car,
train, aeroplane, boat) have you experienced
In this activity, you will work in groups (three to four motion sickness? Why might someone
maximum) to brainstorm and attempt to design experience motion sickness in a small boat but
potential solutions and products that could assist not on a cruise? Use the terms: acceleration,
people with severe motion sickness symptoms. deceleration, change in motion, sensory or
You should focus on solutions to prevent sensory stimuli.
conflict, and the consequent motion sickness. 2 Research some of the current solutions that
Importantly, your design should be non- do not involve medication or electric shocks.
ingestible (not swallowed) and non-invasive Describe how you could make these solutions
(nothing is put inside the body), and it must not more affordable or viable for use now.
involve passing electric shocks. Consider cost and 3 Propose a design and a method of building
aim to make your design as affordable as possible. or developing your product. Your product
Use the evaluate and modify questions to ensure could be conceptual, but a physical product is
you have a well-thought out solution. preferred. If your design can be built, then build
a prototype.
suggested materials 4 Create a poster showcasing your solution and
• big pieces of paper pitch it to the class as if you were seeking for
• markers investors. Ensure your pitch takes three minutes
• access to the internet and explains:
• cardboard • why the product is needed
• tape • what the product is
• straws • what is unique about the product
• balloons • why people will want to use it.
• ziplock plastic bags 5 What questions might your ‘investors’ ask?
• string How could you modify your design to address
potential issues?

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