Analysis of the Social Structure of Agrarian Societies

Agrarian structure takes into account every conducive factor that is responsible for the sustained
growth in the agricultural sector. The term Agrarian Structure denotes all of the existing and
lasting production and living conditions found in a rural region. It comprises social,
technological, and economic elements and determines the achievable productivity, income and
its distribution, and the rural population's social situation. (Agrarian structure involves the social,
economic and technical elements that affect production in the agricultural sector). These factors
are used to measure the productivity level of farmers, the distribution of their income and the
social position of the rural population.
Social structure of the Nigerian Agrarian System
Agrarian social structure refers to the way in which land and agricultural production are
organized in a society. It includes the relationships between landowners, tenants, and laborers, as
well as the social institutions that govern land ownership and use. The agrarian social structure
encompasses communities whose main livelihood revolves around cultivating land and engaging
in related practices such as animal husbandry. Agricultural production serves as a fundamental
economic activity within this context.

Types of Agrarian Social Structures

The following are some of the major types of agrarian social structures:

Feudalism

Feudalism is the oldest type of agrarian social structure. It was common in Europe during the
Middle Ages. In a feudal society, the nobles owned all of the land. The peasants worked the land
in exchange for protection and a share of the crops.

Peasantry

Peasantry is a more recent type of agrarian social structure. It is common in many parts of the
world today. In a peasant society, most people are farmers who own small plots of land. They
work the land to provide for their own families, and they may also sell some of their crops to
others.

Communal agriculture

Communal agriculture is a type of agrarian social structure where land is owned and worked by a
community of people. This type of social structure is less common today, but it can still be found
in some parts of the world.

1
Characteristics of Agrarian Social Structures

Agrarian social structures vary widely from society to society. It depends on the level of
economic development, the climate, and the availability of land. However, there are some
common features of agrarian social structures.

Land ownership

In most agrarian societies, the land is owned by a small number of wealthy landowners. This can
lead to a system of social stratification. The landowners form a privileged elite, and the tenants
and laborers form a lower class.

Land tenure

The terms of land tenure, or the way in which land is held, can vary from society to society. In
some societies, land is held by individual landowners. In other societies, land is held by
communal groups.

Agricultural production

The methods of agricultural production also vary from society to society. In some societies,
agriculture is a subsistence activity. Farmers produce just enough food to feed themselves and
their families. In other societies, agriculture is a commercial activity. Farmers produce crops and
livestock for sale in markets.

The agrarian structure also includes the process of land management and land tenure system. The
integral part of the social agrarian structure that will be discussed here will be the land ownership
and the labour organization system.

a). Land Tenure System- There is the existence of different types of land tenure system in the
world as per the existing social conditions. A number of factors determine the land tenure system
social economic and natural conditions have a grave impart on the agricultural production. The
topography of the land, its climate and soil all constitute the natural condition whereas the socio-
economic factors include alternations in the price of goods, technological progress political
ideology and growth of population.
Problems of land tenure System

The system of land tenure has faced many problems in large countries, the most common
problem is that the population is more than the percentage of arable land. The cultivable lands
are often accumulated in the hands of a few powerful people who are not involved in farming
themselves and hire labours. Often, these owners only appear in the time of rent collection with

2
the rise in population, the demand for employment also increases and hence the small land
holders lease out their land and survive on the rent.

Another form of the tenure is share cropping but this is also a flawed system since no dead is
drawn while he deal is closed. It is only a verbal deal which implies that the tenant does not have
any security. Moreover, its only on a one year contractual basis on which the share croppers are
allowed to plough the field. The landowner often demands 50 percent of the produce even if he
does not share the cost of production. There is a class of people who act as the intermediaries
who often distort the relation between the landowner and the tenant. This form often leads to less
investment in agriculture, indebtedness and poverty. The population growth often leads to
segmentation of land. More and more people are becoming jobless and migrate to towns in
search of work.

The social agrarian structure only enhances poverty and unemployment. The landlords who earn
profits do not invest in agriculture instead they use the money for buying material comforts.
Majority of the population live under the poverty his and are unable to pay the rigid taxes the
structure actually hindered progress in the agricultural sector. It is difficult to change the land
tenure system with the changing time. These systems are institutionally set up, hence it is not a
good idea to alter the system time and again neither is it easy to do. The cultural interest, the
ethnic interests, the power structure everything must be taken into account before any
amendments are made. could be family labour organization hired labour organization or
collective labour organization. The system of labour organization also governs the relationship
between the division of labour and the wages among the farmer. The relationship differs based
on the kind of labour involved in the field.

ii. Systems of Land Ownership

The system of land ownership regulates the relationship of the people to the land, specifically the
power of disposition over land and the right to use the land. As it is practically impossible, on the
one hand, to increase the amount of land while, on the other hand, it is the basis of agrarian
production, living, and recreation - in other words, the basis of existence for a rural society - the
amount of land controlled and the type of distribution determine the social conditions. Rights in
land bring with them work and income, prestige, and influence. Anyone without rights in land is
dependent in an agrarian society. He is forced to work on someone else's land in order to earn his

3
livelihood. There are two forms of rights to the land - the right of disposition over the land and
the right to use the land. The owner has the right of disposition. He has the right to decide
whether to sell, lease, bequeath, give away, or lend, etc. a piece of land. The occupier has the
right to use the land. 'This right regulates the cultivation of the land. In the case of an owner-
cultivated family farm, the family has both the right of disposition as well as of use. A tenant, in
contrast, has no right of disposition over his land but can only use it.

Types of Land Ownership

Various systems of land ownership have developed throughout the world under the influence of
historical, cultural, and economic factors. These systems are exposed to a continual process of
change.

State Ownership of Land As a consequence of conquest, purchasing, gifts, and seizure, land
belongs to the state in many countries in the same way as other areas belong to private people. In
the USSR, the majority of the land has been turned into state property - in other socialist
countries, only a part until now. This was done to prevent exploitation resulting form private
ownership of the land as well as unearned income derived from ground rent. Otherwise, state
ownership plays a large role if public interests cannot be satisfied by private ownership, or if the
land is not of interest to private people from an economic standpoint (catchment areas, waste
land, forest, frontiers, experimental farms, etc,). The state partially cultivates its own land
(government farms, government forests) and also partially leases it out. In some countries, the
church likewise has a great deal of landed property.

Land Grants In Islamic countries, land is granted to schools, ,mosques, orphanages, and similar
institutions. This type of grant is often called a "waqf." The beneficiary receives an irrevocable
right of use that is carried out by government organizations, generally in the form of being leased
out. The institution that is granted the right of use receives the profit. The lands are frequently in
very bad condition as hardly any investments are made. Land is sometimes established as a
private waqf. The irrevocability of the grant, that is established in court, prevents eventual
changes in ownership and protects the family against property losses. The family receives the
income derived from the yield. This type of grant is also found in the south of Europe and
existed in Eastern Germany until 1945 where it was called "Fideikommis."

4
Collective and Communal Ownership In this type of ownership, the right of disposition is in
the hands of kinship or political groups that are larger than a single family. In the forms of
communal ownership found in Africa (a widespread phenomenon south of the Sahara), the land
rights are generally controlled by the tribe, and the use of the land is regulated by the chieftain or
priest serving the land and earth deities. Every member that is born into the group has a lifelong
right to a piece of land for his own usage. The tribes regard themselves as custodians of the land
for future generations rather than proprietors. In Mexico, former latifundia were transferred into
a form of communal land called "ejido." The members of the community are granted land on a
heritable basis for their usage, while pasture land and waste land are used commonly. In various
countries such as Taiwan, India, and Jamaica, land belongs to minorities in the form of common
land. The purpose behind this is to give protection against loss of the land.

Private Ownership of Land In non-socialistic countries, the right of disposition is often in

private hands - regarding agricultural land, less so in the case of forests. In face of the positive
experience in European history and its great ability to adapt to changing economic and
technological systems, private ownership of land was introduced in many of the former colonies.
In the process, however, it became obvious that the positive outgrowths of private ownership
were dependant upon certain specific preconditions that were not always present. The decrease in
the size of the farms resulting from population increase and the differences in the success
achieved in the process of adaption to changing conditions - especially of an economic nature -
led in part to property losses, whereas other people were able to gain control of large areas and,
thus, economic and - consequently - political power. As a result of this process, today there are
several widely differing forms of private ownership.

iii. System of labour organization This system governs the relationship between the labours
and the landowners. The landowners pay wages to the labours against their works. The rate of
wage is determined by the landowner himself. There could be different types of labour
organizations.

1. Family Labour Organization: This structure is the one in which the family itself works on the
field and enjoys the fruits of labour. The working capacity of the family is the determinant factor
on how much profit the family earns. They always endeavor to bear the loss incurred if there is
any. In this type of system there could be problems, one of these is the size of the farmland. If its

5
is small, then all the members of the family would not have the opportunity to be engaged on the
farm at the same time which may eventually lead to underemployment and as a result the
standard of living deteriorates.

2. Wage Labour Organization: There is a large number of wage labour found in the rural regions
of the developing countires. The wage labours owe their existence to the poor mechanization in
the rural areas of the developing nations. Due to population explosion and declining job
opportunities the ordinary people have no other option but to offer their labour against wages.
The different types of wage labour available are:

i. Permanent wage Labours: there are usually found in the large farms which can afford to keep
permanent labour. They sign a bound for the entire life. They are paid annually. This relationship
extends from a professional one to a personal one.

ii. Casual Labours: These labours are time bound. They usually find work during the peak season
of harvest. They may take up other paid work during the off season. This happens because of
population explosion.

iii. Agricultural Labour Owning small farms: This is another type of tenancy since the labours in
this category lose their own land due to several reasons and are forced to find work in other
fields. They work on their own farms as well as take up other paid work to sustain themselves.

iv. Colony: In Latin America People practice this type of farming which enables the farmers to
work in fields which are given to them by the owners.

v. Migratory Workers: People belonging to minority groups often become migratory labours.
They travel from distant places in search of work and are employed by the owners of land as
wage labours.

vi. Plantation Labours: They are the most organized form of labour more like the industrial
workers. These workers sometimes practice subsistence farming. The conditions in which they
live are poor with very little hope of advancement.

vii. Bonded Labour: This is a form of slavery and this happens due to any kind of debt or
obligations. They therefore decide to work in return to offset the debt. The wages paid to them

6
are very low and the interest rate is very high this form of bond is illegal out the farmers are not
in a position to do anything against it.

Economic agrarian structure:

Economic agrarian structure is also referred to as the land management system. It is very
important for a firm to be able to manage his resources to reap a good harvest. Man has been
cultivating land since time immemorial with the use of labour and capital. The three elements
that are land, labour and capital are the resources that man has to manage properly to be able to
produce a large quantity of crops both to feed his family and also to fulfill his needs.

The land management system covers the factors on which the cultivation of land is possible.
These factors include the following: land, labour and capital. The land is the most important
factor since without it crop production is not possible. This is closely followed by labour. Capital
is another important factor without which it is not possible for the farmers to buy the necessary
inputs. However, it finally depends on the farmer how well he can manage all these aspects to
have a bumper harvest.

In modern times, agriculture is considered to be an economic activity. In the past, man used to
cultivate land only to feed himself and his family but in late times an economic value has also
been attached to agriculture where man produces not only for his immediate needs but also to
sell it in the market and receive some money so that he can utilize that money to invest in his
agricultural activity. Modern day farming is well integrated with the industrial sector. It has
become market oriented. It is considered to be an economic enterprise which is well planned and
executed.

Agriculture now is not only the interplay of land, labour and capital but also a blend of number
of other factors that are generalized outside the field. The farmer has to get into business with the
supplying and buying and it becomes his responsibility to fulfill their wants. The agrarian
structure should be developed in such a way that it could help the farmer to increase
productivity. This is not possible for an individual farmer, hence, the other factors which are not
directing involved in cultivation of land should also be well developed like the credit providing
institutions. A farmer would be able to manage and optimize his resources only when he receives
the required aid from the society and government.

7
Technical Cooperation

Technical and cooperation among developing countries in activities affecting rural development
should be expanded. Joint measures should be taken to expand among developing countries as
well as to improve conditions of trade for agricultural products in international markets. In order
for these opportunities to be explored and exploited, government of developing countries should
consider action to:

a. establish cooperation among producers, including small scale farmers and tenants and landless
labourers and their organizations in regard to research on production processing and end users of
agricultural products.

b. Exchange information on future prospects for individual commodity markets and coordinate
national production policies, as far as feasible, to avert future imbalances between supply and
stem and in world markets and improve returns to producers.

c. Promote among national institution the exchange of experience and expertise gained in
implementing programmes of agrarian reform and rural development including the establishment
and strengthening of regional institutions for research and training.

d. Promote through national research institutions and interchange of technology for agriculture,
rural industry, energy construction of housing and other elements of infrastructure as well as
other subjects related to rural development.

e. Establish a more effective capacity for exchanging technologies among developing countries
where-similarities of natural conditions and social systems may offer techniques and solutions
that are more appropriate than that can be imported from the developed countries.

f. Ensure equitable distribution of gains among countries and improve the relative position of the
most depressed among them by promoting every forms of specialization among producer
countries to processing and manufacturing activities based on primary product with due regard to
the desirability of overall complimentarily.

The role of the relevant organizations of the UN system and other international organizations in
gathering knowledge, information and experiences of developing countries and disseminating

8
such material among developing countries and disseminating such material among developing
countries should be strengthened.

Changes and Challenges in Agrarian Societies

Following are some of the challenges faced by the agrarian societies:

o People move to cities for jobs, leaving agrarian societies behind.

o Technology changes farming practices, making them more efficient but requiring less
labor.
o Agrarian societies struggle to compete with large-scale agricultural production and access
global markets.
o Climate change, deforestation, and soil degradation hurt crop yields and livelihoods.
o Cities expand, taking agricultural land and reducing farming opportunities.
o More people need more food, putting pressure on agricultural resources.
o Limited access to land, water, and credit hurts agricultural productivity and development.
o Agrarian societies often have socioeconomic disparities. Marginalized groups lack access
to resources and opportunities.
o Shifting consumer preferences for organic or sustainable products may need changes in
farming practices.
o The need to enhance agricultural education and transfer traditional knowledge to future
generations is a challenge.
o Striking a balance between traditional farming practices and new technologies is a
challenge.
o Political instability can make it difficult for agrarian societies to develop and grow.
o Conflict can disrupt agricultural production and lead to food insecurity.
o Natural disasters, such as droughts, floods, and earthquakes, can damage agricultural
infrastructure and lead to crop losses.

Why Agrarian Structure Is Important

Land is the chief productive asset for the world’s rural poor. Most of the rural poor, and some of
the urban poor as well, depend on agriculture as their main source of income (Lipton 2009, 148).
Land also serves as social insurance in the developing world. It provides not only employment
and income, but also sustenance, a place to live, insurance for infirmity and age, and security for
future generations (Thiesenhusen 1989). The property rights and security of tenure tied to land
ownership are also critical for rural wellbeing, investment, and mobility.

9
 This section outlines several consequences of agrarian structure that make it so important to
rural economies.

Agrarian Structure, Poverty, and Inequality Where land is held by a small number of large
landowners and property rights for smallholders are weak, poverty and inequality are higher and
difficult to change. From the time of colonization until the early 20th century, most Latin
American countries were characterized by extreme social and economic inequality based on the
skewed distribution and use of land. More than half of Latin America’s population was rural
until 1960. Yet the vast majority of rural laborers were poor. The poorest half of rural workers in
most countries throughout the region typically held less than 5% of the land. Landed elites, by
contrast, were very powerful. The richest 2-3% of large landowners typically commanded
ownership of most of a country’s land. Landed elites also used their authority to influence the
behavior and even the movement of rural workers that lived on their estates.

Landholding inequality was fertile ground for low investment in public goods, slow economic
growth, the development of weak central states, delays in literacy and enfranchisement, and the
persistence of widespread poverty

Agrarian Structure, Education, and Migration Educational attainment has historically been
lower where landholding inequality is high. Smallholders, tenants, and wage laborers in rural
economies where landholding is concentrated have typically faced steep barriers to accumulate
enough land or capital to save, invest, and send their children to school where they could be
trained to work in more dynamic economic sectors.

Land concentration also historically hampered freedom of movement and freedom of choice on
the part of rural laborers to access schools. Weak property rights security also encourages
families to remain in rural areas lest they lose their land to counterclaimants while migrating to
urban areas or other countries. However, if families are large enough, property insecurity can
actually encourage migration for reasons tied to poverty.

Agrarian Structure, Rural Investment, and Land Markets A large literature demonstrates
that well-established and secure property rights are critical for the functioning of rural land
markets, generating incentives to invest in agricultural production and infrastructure, and the rise
of access to private credit.

Secure land access also supports the accumulation of human and physical capital. It is therefore
widely accepted that property rights, even if not always formal or individual, strongly support the
efficient exploitation of land. By contrast, weak property rights have a deleterious effect on
investment and rural land markets. Investment in the land and in improvements are lower since
untitled land cannot be used as collateral to obtain loans from private banks.

10
Weak property rights also stunt rural land markets. On the one hand, buyers are more reticent
when they cannot be sure that they can protect their land from counterclaimants. On the other
hand, it is difficult to obtain a mortgage without a land title and therefore it is more difficult to
purchase land.

11