Environ Geochem Health

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-018-0203-z (0123456789().,-volV)
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REVIEW PAPER

A systematic review on global pollution status of particulate

matter-associated potential toxic elements and health
perspectives in urban environment
Muhammad Ubaid Ali . Guijian Liu . Balal Yousaf . Habib Ullah .
Qumber Abbas . Mehr Ahmad Mujtaba Munir

Received: 9 May 2018 / Accepted: 29 September 2018

Ó Springer Nature B.V. 2018

Abstract Airborne particulate matter (PM) that is a into respiratory system resulting in an increasing range
heterogeneous mixture of particles with a variety of of adverse health effects, at ever-lower concentrations.
chemical components and physical features acts as a In-depth investigation of PTEs content and mode of
potential risk to human health. The ability to pose occurrence in PM is important from both environ-
health risk depends upon the size, concentration and mental and pathological point of view. Considering
chemical composition of the suspended particles. this air pollution risk, several studies had addressed the
Potential toxic elements (PTEs) associated with PM issues related to these pollutants in road and street
have multiple sources of origin, and each source has dust, indicating high pollution level than the air quality
the ability to generate multiple particulate PTEs. In guidelines. Observed from the literature, particulate
urban areas, automobile, industrial emissions, con- PTEs pollution can lead to respiratory symptoms,
struction and demolition activities are the major cardiovascular problems, lungs cancer, reduced lungs
anthropogenic sources of pollution. Fine particles function, asthma and severe case mortality. Due to the
associated with PTEs have the ability to penetrate deep important role of PM and associated PTEs, detailed
knowledge of their impacts on human health is of key
importance.
Electronic supplementary material The online version of
this article (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-018-0203-z) con-
tains supplementary material, which is available to authorized
users.

M. U. Ali  G. Liu (&)  B. Yousaf  Q. Abbas

H. Ullah  Q. Abbas  M. A. M. Munir e-mail: [email protected]
CAS-Key Laboratory of Crust-Mantle Materials and the M. A. M. Munir
Environments, School of Earth and Space Sciences, e-mail: [email protected]
University of Science and Technology of China,
Hefei 230026, People’s Republic of China M. U. Ali  G. Liu  B. Yousaf
e-mail: [email protected] State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology,
M. U. Ali Institute of Earth Environment, The Chinese Academy of
e-mail: [email protected] Sciences, Xi’an 710075, Shaanxi, People’s Republic of
China
B. Yousaf
e-mail: [email protected]
H. Ullah
e-mail: [email protected]

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Keywords Particulate matter  PTEs  Pollution  atmosphere, (3) pollution status of particulate matter
Emission  Health risk and PTEs in different countries worldwide, (4) human
exposure and health risk associated with the increased
pollution level of PM and associated PTEs.

Introduction
Particulate matter emission sources
Airborne particulate matter refers to a wide range of
particle sizes. It includes particles having a diameter of Particulate matter originates as a result of both
few nanometers to particles sizes around 100 lm (Ali anthropogenic and natural activities, and contribution
et al. 2018). In order to ensure proper management and of both sources varies with time, season and location
regulation, these are usually divided into two basic (Guevara 2016; Karagulian et al. 2015). These sources
particle metrics termed as PM10 and PM2.5 (Nagar can be described as direct emission of PM into the
et al. 2014; Thorpe and Harrison 2008). PM is atmosphere or gaseous precursors released as a result
composed of solid particles and liquid droplets having of both natural and anthropogenic activities (Atkinson
the ability to remain suspended in the air for a long et al. 2010; Kim et al. 2015). The contribution of
time (Bascom et al. 1996; Nagar et al. 2014). Fine different anthropogenic and natural sources to PM
particles have the ability to penetrate deep into lungs, emissions is illustrated in Fig. 1.
thereby posing a high health risk, and they are more
toxic as compared to other particles (Dockery et al.
1993, 2007). Studies have revealed that concentration Natural sources
of PM exceeding the air quality guidelines can lead to
a variety of human health problems mostly including These sources involve no direct or indirect human
respiratory disorders, lungs disease, rhinitis, pul- activity and have a high contribution to PM emission
monary diseases and heart problems (Kumar et al. (Atkinson et al. 2010; Guevara 2016). The major
2007; McConnell et al. 2003). sources involved are windblown dust, volcanoes,
Anthropogenic activities caused serious environ- wildfires, sea salt aerosols and biological aerosols
mental issues in water, land and air that disturbed the particles (Liora et al. 2015; Stohl et al. 2011;
normal habitat faced by both developed and develop- Winiwarter et al. 2009). Windblown dust is fugitive
ing nations (Yousaf et al. 2016b; Bency et al. 2003). dust transported as a result of wind, mostly found in
Industrial and vehicular sectors are the major contrib- arid and semiarid regions with major sources in North
utors to air pollution. In developed and developing Africa (Ginoux et al. 2004). The previous study
countries, the amplified rates of mortality and mor- reveals that annually 400–2200 Tg year-1 of dust is
bidity have been linked to air pollution (Sarnat et al. exported from North Africa and a high fraction of this
2005). Roadside dust stands out to be the most dust moves across Mediterranean to southern Europe
imperative supporter toward air pollution. Harmful and reaches UK (Huneeus et al. 2011). It is responsible
substances emitted by exhausts and automobile emis- for more than 70% of PM10 in the Mediterranean basin
sions are deposited and accumulated daily in the urban which exceeds the corresponding EC standards
dust on road pavement together with primary and (Querol et al. 2009).
secondary particles from other anthropogenic and Sea salt aerosols are generated as a result of wind
natural sources (Amato et al. 2009b). Those result in stress at the surface of ocean via bubble bursting, jet
numerous unfavorable impacts, particularly on the drops, etc., having a diameter of less than one to few
respiratory health of persons exposed to the dust either micrometers (Sofiev et al. 2011). A study revealed that
in view of their home or occupation in these ranges 80% of the PM mass at coastal areas is attributed to sea
(Jafary et al. 2007). salt spray (Van Dingenen et al. 2004). Another study
The current review offers a systematic overview investigated 89 European sites and found that the
regarding (1) the possible natural and anthropogenic average concentration was 0.3–13 lg m-3 at land and
emission sources of PM and associated PTEs, (2) PM for particles larger than 0.8 lm sea salt was the major
resuspension mechanism and particle size behavior in component (Manders et al. 2010). Sea salt spray

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Fig. 1 Percentage contribution of different anthropogenic sources (traffic, industry, domestic fuel, unspecified human sources) and
natural sources to PM10 and PM2.5 emissions worldwide. Source: (Karagulian et al. 2015)

contributed 20 Tg year-1 to the total PM10 emissions PM10 was attributed to wildfires in 2005–2009 in
in 2009 (Liora et al. 2015).The amount, composition Europe (Wiedinmyer et al. 2010). The global fire
and emission rate of PM from volcanic eruption assimilation system revealed that an average of
depend upon magma type, eruptive style, intensity, 0.74 Tg year-1 PM10 and 0.46 Tg year-1 PM2.5
temperature, pressure and duration of the eruption emissions in 2003–2011 was attributed to wildfires
(Querol et al. 2009). Particles emitted from volcanic (Winiwarter et al. 2009). Primary biological aerosols
eruption have the potential to make transient peaks in including plant debris, pollens, bacterial and fungal
PM and can undergo large-range transport up to spores mostly originate as a result of biological
thousands of kilometer in the atmosphere (Sandrini process, and they enter the environment without
et al. 2014). The volcanic eruption that took place in undergoing any chemical change (Liora et al. 2015;
Iceland in 2010 also termed as Eyjafjallajokull Winiwarter et al. 2009). It was estimated that the total
eruption resulted in the emission of 8 ± 4 Tg year-1 contribution of primary biological aerosols to PM10
(2.8–28 lm) fine ash into the atmosphere (Querol emission was 0.12 Tg year-1 (Winiwarter et al.
et al. 2009). It was revealed that the PM10 concentra- 2009).
tion was 2000 lg m-3 in areas that were not hit by the
eruption due to Eyjafjallajokull eruption (Thorsteins- Anthropogenic sources
son et al. 2012).
Wildfires mostly occur in grassland, shrublands and Non-exhaust emission sources
forested regions in summer and contribute to a
significant amount of PM (European Environment PM is generated as a result of road surface abrasion,
Agency 2012; Guevara 2016). Global fire inventory resuspension of road dust, wear and tear of vehicular
(FINN) reported that annually an average of components, tire clutch and brake wear (Amato et al.
0.39 Tg year-1 of PM2.5 and 0.22 Tg year-1 of 2011; Hjortenkrans et al. 2007). These emissions are

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of key importance due to their nature, toxicity and diameter less than 20 lm and become airborne, while
ability to act as a carrier of PTEs and carcinogens almost 40% is released as PM10 (Garg et al. 2000;
(Adachi and Tainosho 2004; Johansson et al. 2009). Sanders et al. 2003). Some studies reveled that brake
Size distribution of PTEs is indicative of particles wear particles are responsible for 16–55% of non-
sources (Gunawardana et al. 2012; Harrison et al. exhaust PM10 emissions and 21% of total traffic
2012). The major contributors to non-exhaust emis- related emissions (Bukowiecki et al. 2009; Gasser
sions are resuspension of PM and road wear particles et al. 2009). Particles that are generated as a result of
accumulated on the surface, and fine and coarse shear force between tires and roads surfaces are
particles mostly originated as a result of tire and brake termed as tire wear emissions, and these are mostly in
wear (Keuken et al. 2012; Nanzetta and Holmén coarse size fraction (Kumar et al. 2013; Thorpe and
2004). These emissions are mostly characterized by Harrison 2008). About 0.1–10% of particles emitted as
PTEs (Cu, Zn, Cd, Mn, etc.) (Amato et al. 2009b; Gietl a result of tire wear become airborne, and its
et al. 2010). A study conducted in Taiwan showed that contribution to overall non-exhaust emissions is
EFs of elements such as Ba and Se were high in 5–30% by mass (Amato et al. 2011; Panko et al.
PM1–10 that are attributed to the mechanical fraction 2013; Wik and Dave 2009). Previous studies show that
and brake wear emission (Hung-Lung and Yao-Sheng 32% of particles released have a diameter less than
2009). A study conducted in Barcelona, Spain, 1.0 lm, while other found that it constitutes 15% of
revealed that 62–96% of the elements (Cu, Sb, Ba, fine particles in total PM10 mass (Kaul and Sharma
Mn and Zn) were associated with PM1–10 (Pérez et al. 2009; Kupiainen et al. 2005).
2010). Fine and ultra-fine particles of elements such as
Cu, Zn and Ba were attributed to road traffic (Lin et al. Exhaust emission sources
2005). Non-exhaust emissions are affected by a series
of factors including traffic volume and vehicle speed PM due to exhaust emission is released as a result of
(Chen et al. 2006; Gustafsson et al. 2008). A study combustion and mostly originates as a result of small
conducted in Bogota—Colombia—revealed that 54% particles agglomeration of partly burned fuel and lube
of PM2.5 within city is attributed to non-exhaust oil, fuel oil ash content, sulfate and water. Particles
emissions (traffic 26%, industry 20%), and it was released are mostly in the fine range having a diameter
stated that 80% of these emissions are attributed to less than 2.5 lm. Particles emitted as a result of diesel
light-weight vehicles (Beltran et al. 2012). Another exhaust have a diameter of 15–40 nm, and 90% of the
study conducted in European Cities revealed that 60% PM have a diameter smaller than 1 lm (Bukowiecki
in Spain and 30% in Zurich of PM10 are attributed to et al. 2009; Thorpe and Harrison 2008). A study
road dust resuspension (Amato et al. 2011), while in conducted in Berlin showed the elevated levels of PM
Beijing it was stated that one of the key sources of PM at roadside locations, and it was revealed that 50% of
is resuspended road dust (Han et al. 2007). the PM emission was due to vehicle exhaust. Other
study showed that out of 82% PM10 emission 21% was
Brake wear emissions due to diesel exhaust and 12% due to petrol exhaust
emission (Lawrence et al. 2013). In Los Angeles, it
PM less than 10 lm in diameter is released into the was estimated that fine particles released as a result of
atmosphere along with PTEs from brake wear that exhaust emissions vary from 7.5 to 18% (Fraser et al.
constitutes brake lining and disk abrasion due to 1999). In Beijing, it was found that PM10 and PM2.5
grinding, volatilization and condensation of brake pad emissions due to vehicle exhaust were 2445 tons
material (Garg et al. 2000; Varrica et al. 2013; Wåhlin (PM10) and 1890 tons (PM2.5) in 1995 and they
et al. 2006). Previous study revealed that a passenger increased by 37% (3359 tons) and 42.5% (2694 tons)
car can emit 44 g car-1 year-1 of brake dust (Iijima in 1998 (Wu et al. 2002).
et al. 2007). High concentration of PTEs like Fe, Ba,
Cu, Sb, Zr, Zn in brake lining wear and dust was also Industrial emission
observed (Adachi and Tainosho 2004; Dongarrà et al.
2012; Hjortenkrans et al. 2007). Almost 50% of the Industrial emissions contribute to PM mainly through
particles released as a result of brake wear have a three mechanisms including fuel combustion (coal, oil

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and coke), furnace and gas turbines and can also agglomerates, attached to surface or penetrate deep
contribute through treatment of raw material mechan- into road surface with time and become less vulnerable
ically and cast operations. Fuel has high ash content to suspension (Gradon 2009; Sehmel 1973). The
and has significant potential to emit PM. In European suspension of these particles into the atmosphere is a
regions, industrial emissions are the second largest complex process involving a series of environmental
contributor of PM and responsible for 28% of PM10 and metrological factors (Moncmanová 2007; Sehmel
and 21% of PM2.5 total emissions (Guevara 2016). A 1973).
study conducted in Germany showed that the total
emission of PM from the industrial sector was more Soil transport
than 70%; among those, PM10 accounted for 70% and
PM2.5 was in range of 50–70% (Ehrlich et al. 2007). In Resuspension of particles along with pollutants is
China, coal combustion accounts for 40% almost similar to soil transport moments that occur at a
(22 lg m-3) of total PM2.5 emissions at national different scale (Sehmel 1980). In case of small-scale
level, while in Sichuan it accounted for 50% moment, sand grains move concurrently in a series of
(37 lg m-3) of the total emissions, and industrial irregular bursts and are confined to small surface area.
coal was found to be the dominant contributor When the particle becomes stable, it remains quiescent
accounting for 17% (10 lg m-3) at national level until another short burst of wind (Kupiainen 2007;
(Ma et al. 2017). According to US EPA, the contri- Sehmel 1973; Sutherlnnd 1967). With an increase in
bution of industries to direct PM2.5 emissions is 1.9% wind speed, the particles become more active until
from industrial fuel combustion, 1.6% from vehicles they are suspended and transported into the atmo-
construction industries, 1.6% coal power plants, 1.3% sphere (Shao 2001, 2008). The common terms to
processing of metals, 0.7% pulp and paper industries describe soil particle moment are saltation, surface
and 1.1% from mineral products (Karmel et al. 2002; creep and suspension (Lyles 1988). The different
US-EPA 2000). phases of soil transport and particle suspension are
shown in Fig. 2. The mode of transport depends upon
the particle diameter, wind speed and turbulence
Particles resuspension mechanism (Aluko and Noll 2006; Pollack et al. 1979; Vincent
et al. 1985).
In past few decades, suspension of dust has received an
increased attention as it can be a serious health risk Saltation and surface creep
when toxic material deposited on environmental
surfaces is resuspended back to the atmosphere and Saltation is the most important geological process that
inhaled by the human being (Nicholson 1988; Sehmel acts as a primary source in the generation of
1980). Particles that are deposited earlier can be atmospheric mineral dust aerosols (Wang et al.
resuspended as a result of tire stress, vehicular 2014). The previous study shows that 50–70% of the
turbulence along with other activities such as wind total soil eroded is attributed to saltation process
and pedestrian activities (Chiou and Tsai 2001; (Chepil 1965; Oksza-Chocimowoski 1977). Saltation
Kupiainen 2007). Particles within turbulent bound- occurs in particles having a diameter of 100–500 lm
aries having settling velocity lower than vertical (Nicholson 1988; Sehmel 1973). These particles rotate
velocity remain in suspension for a long period of with a speed of 100–200 rev/sec and intervertically
time, and this is common in case of particles less than into air stream (Owen 1964; Sehmel 1980). After
20 lm (Kupiainen 2007; Sehmel 1980; Kupiainen gaining considerable horizontal momentum from the
et al. 2005). Particles are suspended into the atmo- wind, these particles tend to descend at an angle 6°–
sphere when the lift force of the airflow exceeds the 12° in a flat trajectory and strike the soil causing
adhesive forces among the particles or the attached avalanches, which in turn leads to suspension of other
surface (Tam et al. 2004). This is termed as threshold particles (Nicholson 2009). After coming to the
stress and functions as particles and surface properties surface, these saltate particles either saltate again or
(Chiou and Tsai 2001; Harris and Davidson 2017; cause surface creeps (Choi and Fernando 2008;
Sehmel 1973). These particles form large Countess Environmental 2006). The moment of

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Fig. 2 Different phases of soil transport and particles suspension

particles having a diameter of 500–1000 lm is particles that are capable of saltation (Namikas 2003;
attributed to surface creep (Cheng et al. 2015a, b; Sehmel 1980; Shao 2008).
Countess Environmental 2006). In this process, the
particles either roll or slide and are pushed along the Vehicular-induced resuspension
ground surface due to the wind speed and momentum.
The surface creep process is responsible for 5–25% of Moving vehicles aerodynamic drag causes turbulent
the total soil eroded (Chepil 1965; Countess Environ- activation that is higher as compared to adhesive
mental 2006; Sehmel 1980). forces between particles causing suspension (Karim
et al. 1998; Moosmüller et al. 1998). There is a direct
Suspension relationship between the speed of car and particles
resuspension; if speed increases, the resuspension rate
This phenomenon is responsible for the moment of also increases (Amato et al. 2017; Nicholson and
particles having a diameter less than 100 lm (Visher Branson 1990; Thorpe et al. 2007). Air is squeezed
1969; Lyles 1988; Sehmel 1980). The suspension beneath the tires due to their rolling moment as well as
process attributes 3–40% of the total soil eroded the shearing induced due to the rotation of tires that
(Chepil 1965; Oksza-Chocimowoski 1977). The par- cause turbulence that enhances particles resuspension
ticles are suspended into the atmosphere when the (Kastner-Klein et al. 2000; Sehmel 1973). Two major
saltation particles strike the surface causing particles factors that affect the turbulence of car and the
splash and avalanches (Horst 1978). Dust suspended resuspension of deposited particles are driving speed
for a long time remains in atmosphere for many weeks and the aerodynamic properties of the vehicle (Gue-
and can travel thousands of kilometer (Miller et al. vara 2016; Moosmüller et al. 1998). The wind velocity
2006; Zender et al. 2003). Dust with a particle size less increases due to the moment of the car that leads to
than 50 lm in diameter is highly resistant to wind excitation of dust. Sometimes, the wind velocity
erosion, and it would be very difficult to suspend becomes very high and leads to resuspension of
without saltation process (Chepil 1943; Loosmore and particles from areas outside the traffic lane (footpaths,
Hunt 2010). There suspension and transport would unpaved road shoulders) (Moosmüller et al. 1998).
also be easy if these particles mix with coarse size The dust resuspension also increases with the increase

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in cross-sectional area and weight of the vehicle multi-pollutant index (MPI) found the highest MPI in
(Etyemezian et al. 2003; Gillies et al. 2005). Dust Dhaka, Beijing, Cairo and Karachi. This indicates the
resuspension due to heavy duty vehicles is 8 times severity of pollution in Pakistan and other South Asian
high as compared to light duty vehicles (Abu-allaban countries (Waheed et al. 2009). Due to increasing
et al. 2003; Mathissen et al. 2012). population and heavy traffic mobbing, Bangkok is
According to previous studies, the road dust experiencing worst case of air pollution. Research
emission increases 30–170% when the vehicle speed conducted in order to find out the negative effects of
increases from 50 to 80 km h-1 (Gustafsson et al. air pollution in Bangkok revealed that people living
2008; Hussein et al. 2008; Pirjola et al. 2010). A single nearby roadside have a high risk of respiratory
passage of vehicles can resuspend a large section of impairment (Karita et al. 2004). PM10 and PM2.5
the deposited material and if the vehicle flow is concentrations in different countries worldwide are
constant and continues all the particles able of demonstrated in Fig. 3 and Table S2.
resuspension will be airborne and will remain in A study conducted in Lahore, Pakistan, to find out
suspension (Gehrig 2004). Previous studies observed PM2.5 trends and concentration revealed a high
that each time a vehicles travels, the fraction of tracer concentration of PM2.5 that was four times high as
resuspended ranges from 10-5 to 10-2 (Sehmel 1980). compared to summer and also exceed WHO guide-
Previous studies also investigated the resuspension lines. The range of PM2.5 was 49–447 lg m-3 with
rate due to pedestrian moment that every time a mean value of 175 ± 88.52 lg m-3 in winters fol-
pedestrian moves, a traffic line can resuspend a lowed by spring with a range of 24.95–432 lg m-3
fraction of 1 9 10-5 to 7 9 10-4 with every pass and mean value of 432 lg m-3 that was 2–14 times
(Sehmel 1980). Previous study shows that particles higher as compared to the acceptable limits of USEPA
suspension from road transport was responsible for (35 lg m-3) (Lodhi et al. 2009). PM samples col-
12% PM10 and 13% of PM2.5 emission (Querol et al. lected from 4 road sites: 3 in London and 1 in
2001). A study conducted in Barcelona showed that Birmingham using Partisol sampler, were analyzed to
road dust resuspension was responsible for 17% of find out the magnitude of PM2.5 and PM10. The results
PM10 and 8% of PM2.5 emission (Amato et al. 2009a). showed that the mean value of PM10 at the roadside
was 34.7 lg m-3 that exceeds the urban background
by 11.5 lg m-3 averaged mass increment, while in
Worldwide pollution status case of PM2.5 the exceeding mass increment was
8.0 lg m-3 at the four selected sites. The main
Particulate matter constituents of PM10 and PM2.5 were found to be
elemental carbon, iron-rich dust and organic com-
Particulate matter is a composition of organic and pounds (Harrison et al. 2004). A study conducted in
inorganic solids as well as liquids particles comprised Sweden illustrated that PM2.5 concentration in both
of different origin, shape, size and composition study areas is more important as compared to PM10
(Amato et al. 2009b). The schematic sketch of PM due to the long-range transport that makes it difficult to
measurement and tools used is illustrated in Fig. S1. quantify the local contributors of PM2.5. The PM2.5
Air quality is properly monitored in urban areas of the concentration on average in Gothenburg and Umea
modern industrialized world. World health organiza- was 3.7 and 4.3 lg m-3 times higher than the
tion and UNEF since 1947 are co-operating with corresponding background values. According to Swe-
‘‘global system of Environmental monitoring’’ in den air quality guideline, the mean concentration of
monitoring the air quality in urban areas through a PM10 should not exceed 40 lg m-3 and that of PM2.5
project called GEMS/AIR (Shah and Shaheen 2007). should not exceed 25 lg m-3 (Ferm and Sjoberg
The air quality of eighteen main cities was evaluated 2015). The PM10 concentration in road dust across the
worldwide, and it was reported that five cites have city of Barcelona (NE of Spain) was found to be in the
standard, whereas thirteen metropolises are below range of 24–80 lg m-3 mainly attributed to heavy
average air quality standard (Gurjar et al. 2008). A traffic of uncovered trucks; in addition, to construction
research conducted on three pollutants (TSP, SO2 and and demolition activities there was a significant
NO2) on the basis of WHO standard using single- and increase in PM level up to one degree magnitude

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Fig. 3 PM10 and PM2.5

concentrations (l m-3) in
medium-developed, high-
developed and very highly
developed countries of
world

which was way above the safe level; however, at a both fine and coarse forms are termed as primary
distance of 400 m from the main city the PM level was particles such as road dust and combustion sources of
within the threshold level (Amato et al. 2009b). black carbon that is aggregate of particles like metals,
rocks, different type of mineral particles originated
Particulate matter size distribution and chemical from construction and demolition motor vehicles and
composition natural sources also play its role in emission of
primary particles (Nagar et al. 2014; Panyacosit 2000;
Particulate matter is a composition of organic and Shandilya et al. 2007), while those found in only fine
inorganic solids as well as liquids particles comprised fraction are termed as secondary particles. Fine
of different origin, shape, size and composition particles are mostly formed due to condensation and
(Amato et al. 2009b). Particulate matter has been evaporation process (Kelly and Fussell 2012). A
divided into different categories on the basis of their variety of gases are involved in the formation of these
size, i.e., coarse, fine and ultra-fine particulates (Nagar particles including sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxide and
et al. 2014; Nel 2007). PM exceeding in size from volatile organic carbons (Ali et al. 2017b; Panyacosit
2.5 lm is termed as coarse particles, and fine particles 2000). The chemical transformation in these gases
(\ 2.5) are basically more diminutive than 2.5 lm and under different atmospheric conditions led to the
can stay in the air for a long period of time (Araújo production of secondary particles (Ali et al. 2017b;
et al. 2014; Pelletier et al. 2007). Particles having a Nagar et al. 2014; Querol et al. 2001).
diameter \ 100 nm or 0.1 lm are termed as ultra-fine PM is exceedingly mind-boggling and heteroge-
particles, and particles having a diame- neous mixture of chemicals, e.g., VOC (volatile
ter \ * 100 nm are termed as total suspended parti- organic chemicals), polyaromatic hydrocarbons, PTEs
cles (TSP) (Oberdörster et al. 2005; Valavanidis et al. and endotoxins (Ali et al. 2017b). Coarse particles are
2008). It can also be categorized as primary and mostly composed of minerals from earth crust,
secondary particles. Those particles which are biogenic origin material, sea salt, etc., while fine
released directly into the atmosphere and found in particles are mostly composed of carbonaceous

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aggregates with metal and organic pollutants (Pope the alveoli and can be translocated into lungs tissues
and Dockery 2006; Watson et al. 2006). The key and blood stream (Valavanidis et al. 2008). Apart from
factors that govern PM chemical composition are the particles side, the deposition pattern also depends
sources of emission and combustion factors (Lighty upon the morphology of respiratory tract (Heyder et al.
et al. 2000; Solomon and Sioutas 2008). PM derived as 1986).
a result of combustion is associated with a significant
amount (80–90%) elemental carbon (EC, black car-
bon) and organic carbon (Chow and Watson 2007; PTEs pollution status worldwide
Kelly and Fussell 2012). PAHs are usually found to be
most abundant in ultra-fine particles, while particles PM in association with PTEs may originate from
that have a diameter less than 50 nm mostly have a mobile source or stationary anthropogenic sources,
semi-volatile organic composition including hopanes while nature also plays its role, and their presence in
and organic acids (Chow and Watson 2007; Srogi dust can pose a severe threat to human health because
2007). PM is also found to be associated with of its small size and inherent moment (Yousaf et al.
chemically organic substances including olefins, 2017; Ali et al. 2017a, b). The worldwide concentra-
ketones, quinones, aldehydes and nitro-compounds tion of PTEs is shown in Fig. 5 and Table S2.
(Ohnishi and Kawanishi 2002). In past decade, A study conducted in Cairo, Egypt, investigated the
research on relative sample distribution of total mass concentration of nine (9) PTEs including Pb, Zn, Cd,
loading to particles size and chemical compositions Ni, Cr, Co, Ag, As and V. The results showed an
has significantly progressed. PTEs like As, Pb, Ni, Sb, elevated level of pollution in roadside dust, and it
Mn, Se, Co, Zn, Cd and many others are found to be varied throughout the Cairo district as compared to
associated with fine PM sizes (Godoi et al. 2008; corresponding background values. The highest mean
Nagar et al. 2014; Schroeder et al. 1987). concentration was found to be in case of Pb and Zn,
especially in the location with high traffic and
Particles size and deposition in respiratory track industrial activates. The size fraction of dust was
dominated by \ 125 lm with the high concentration
PM behavior in the environment and deposition in of PTEs (Nasser et al. 2014). Another study conducted
respiratory track is determined the physical properties in delta region of Egypt showed extremely elevated
that strongly depend on particles size (Kelly and concentration of zinc, and it was found to be highest
Fussell 2012). Aerodynamic equivalent diameter when compared to global values. The higher concen-
(AED) can describe the particles deposition pattern tration of zinc was attributed to construction activates
in a better way. Particles with same AED have the near the sampling site (Khairy et al. 2011). The high
same settling velocity (Anderson and Thundiyil 2012). concentration of PTEs in road dust of inner Magnolia
Based upon how the particles are generated and their was attributed to mining activities that release dust
ability to deposit in respiratory tract, scientists have loaded with PTEs during mining operations including
divided the particles into different AED fractions crushing, smelting, grinding, and excavation and
(Anderson and Thundiyil 2012). Particles size and its reefing (Csavina et al. 2012; Kexin et al. 2015).
deposition ability in respiratory track are demon- Large-scale mining is the key factor of soil pollution
strated in Fig. 4. Particles greater \ 10 lm often have with PTEs in Bayan Obo inner magnolia (Guo et al.
a half suspension life, and these particles are filtered 2011). The study conducted in Kuala Lumpur showed
by nose and upper air ways and are deposited in that 98% of Pb and other PTEs detected in dust were
nasopharynx zone (Atkinson et al. 2010; Cadelis et al. attributed to petrol-based vehicles (Ramlan and Badri
2014). Particles in the range of 5–10 lm are mostly 1989).
deposited in tracheobronchial zone (Kim et al. 2015). The mean concentration values (mg kg-1) of Cd,
Particle in the range of 1–5 lm can penetrate deep into Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Mn, Be, Co and Zn in road dust of
the respiratory tract and deposit in bronchioles and Urumqi was 1.7, 54.28, 94.54, 43.28, 53.53, 926.60,
alveoli (Kelly and Fussell 2012; Løndahl et al. 2007). 2.75, 10.97, 294.47 and 2.13, respectively. The
Particles with [ 1 lm diameter often behave like gas concentration of Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Mn, Be and Zn was
molecules, and these particles can penetrate deep into found to be high in correspondence with the

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Fig. 4 Schematic sketch of particles size deposition behavior in respiratory tract

Fig. 5 Worldwide concentration of trace elements in road and street dust (mg kg-1)

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Environ Geochem Health

background values, while the highest pollution was in concentration of Cu, Pb, Zn, Mn and Ni was 123.17,
case of Cd (Wei et al. 2009). Dust from five major 408.41, 715.10, 804.18 and 48.83 mg kg-1.The
roads in Nigeria was analyzed for Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn, Fe, results as a whole revealed a high degree of PTEs
Cd, Mn, Cr, Fe pollution. The concentration of these contamination in street dust of Baoji (Lu et al. 2009).
elements was within acceptable limits as compared to Study conducted in Shiraz, Iran, showed that the mean
corresponding background values (Mafuyai et al. values of Hg, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Mn and Zn were high
2015). Analysis of road dust in Gold Coast, Southeast when compared to the background values of world
Queensland, showed that Al, Fe and Zn were the most soil, while Fe and Cd mean values were lower as
abundant elements, while the lowest concentration compared to background values (Keshavarzi et al.
was found for Cd, followed by Cr and Ni (Gunawar- 2015).
dana et al. 2012). A study was conducted in industrial
areas of Islamabad, to investigate the properties and Methods to evaluate contamination of PTEs
concentration of Si, S, Cl, K, Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe,
Co, Ni, Cu, Pb, Zn, Ga, As, Se and Cd in 95 road dust Igeo (Geo-accumulation index)
samples using PIXE. A significant concentration of
PTEs was detected exceeding the corresponding It is a technique used to find the pollution status of an
background values except for Cd. The mean values individual element (Müller 1997). The contamination
of Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn were three times higher than the level of PTEs is categorized into seven (0–6) enrich-
background values (Akram et al. 2014). The mean ment classes based on the severity of contamination
concentration of Zn, Mn, and Cu was very high as ranging from normal to heavy contamination
compared to other PTEs investigated in bulk road dust (Table 1) (Ali et al. 2017a; Atiemo et al. 2011;
of Thessaloniki (Northern Greece), while the concen- Victoria et al. 2014; Wang et al. 2016).
tration of Cd was found to be lowest (0.2–1 lg g-1). It is calculated using the following formula:
The mean concentration values of all PTEs studied  
2 Csample
were higher as compared to corresponding back- Igeo ¼ log
1:5  Cbackground
ground values except for Co, Mn and V (Bourliva et al.
2016). In the given equation, Igeo represents geo-accumula-
Street dust samples from Tongchuan (China) tion index for different PTEs. Csample represents the
revealed that for Co, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn, the mean concentration of elements in collected samples, while
values were 3.2, 1.7, 1.5, 3.5 and 2.0 times higher Cbackground is the background value. The constant 1.5 is
compared to corresponding background values, while used in order to find out the natural variations and
their maximum values were 10.2, 2.5, 3.3, 6.3 and 8.0 human influences mostly attributed to lithogenicity in
time the background value indicating an alarming dust (Ali et al. 2017b).
level of pollution (Lu et al. 2014). The pollution level
of Pb, Cu, Mn, Zn, Cd, Ni in the street dust of Istanbul Enrichment factor
was found to be significant, and the PTEs properties
varied with the kind of vehicle traffic in the area. The To find out the enrichment factor of PETs in dust, the
use of lead gasoline has increased the level of lead measured elements in dust are standardized against the
contamination in street dust significantly (Sezgin et al. reference element that is characterized by low occur-
2004). Street dust samples from Kavala region rence variability (Taylor and McLennan 1985). The
(Greece) were analyzed to find out the contamination method is also reliable in order to differentiate
level of PTEs. There was a significant level of PTEs, between elements of natural and anthropogenic origin.
and the contamination level was higher than the The technique categorizes pollution status into 5
reference values. The mean concentration of Pb, Cu, enrichment classes based on the severity of contam-
Zn, Ni, Cr, Cd, As and Hg was 300.9, 123.9, 271.6, ination (Table S1) (Atiemo et al. 2011; Victoria et al.
57.5, 196.0, 0.2, 16.7 and 0.1 lg g-1, respectively, 2014):
that was found to be alarming (Christoforidis and
ðCs =CRef Þ
Stamatis 2009). The contamination level of PTEs was EF ¼
investigated in street dust of Baoji, China. The mean ðBs =BRef Þ

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Table 1 Pollution level of PTEs in road and street dust

Location Method Cd Cr Cu Ni Pb Mn Sb Co Zn As V Reference

Hefei, China Igeo – 0.3 1.3 -1 4.4 - 1.3 5.6 - 0.9 1.3 3.6 0.73 Ali et al.
(2017a, b)
Shijiazhuang, EF 38.7 2.4 5.7 1.6 9.5 1.1 – 1.4 7.6 – 1 Wan et al.
China (2016)
Urumqi, Igeo 0.8 - 0.1 0.4 0 0.3 0 – - 0.3 0.5 – – Wei et al.
China (2009)
Inner EF 81.3 5.31 3.74 2.53 19.5 11 – 3.98 8.8 2.57 – Kexin et al.
magnolia (2015)
Pakistan Igeo 0.62 2.09 1.3 1.9 2.57 1.5 – 1.3 0.61 – – Eqani et al.
(2016)
Kathmandu, EF 2.8 – 7 – 2.5 – – – 4.6 – – Raj et al. (2014)
Nepal
Delhi, India Igeo 2.73 1.93 1.6 0.8 0.8 - 0.3 – - 0.5 1.6 – - 0.5 Pathak et al.
(summer) (2013)
Palermo, Italy EF 4 7.2 14 1.9 72 8.2 – 2.1 16.4 – – Varrica et al.
Varrica et al.
(2013)
Bolgatanga, EF 0 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.02 – 0.01 0.003 0.002 – Victoria et al.
Ghana (2014)
Accra, Ghana EF – 3.6 1.6 0.3 8.5 0.8 – – 5.2 – 0.6 Atiemo et al.
(2011)
Ogun, Nigeria Igeo 4.7 3.18 2.76 2.43 2.42 5.2 – 1.71 3.91 1.58 3.16 Olujimi et al.
(2015)
Taraba, EF 17.37 – 48.31 1.32 – – – 61.74 – – Kanu et al.
Nigeria (2015)
Cairo, Egypt Igeo 1.15 - 1.3 – - 1.4 4.68 – – - 3.8 3.06 - 0.18 0.2 Nasser et al.
(2014)
Baghdad, Iraq EF 42.5 3.8 6.6 16.46 107.6 4.9 – – 12.44 – – Hameed et al.
(2013)
Kayseri, EF 190 0.95 5.2 2 111 1 – 2.8 20 – – Kartal et al.
Turkey (2006)
Kayseri, EF 57 1 0.9 3.8 6.2 1 – 1.1 20 – – Tokalioglu
Turkey et al. (2003)
Paris EF 11.5 – – – 126 – – 12 62.5 – – Pagotto et al.
(2001)
Hermosillo, EF 601 17.1 8.07 0.91 39.1 – – 1.69 79.4 – 0.65 Meza-Figueroa
Sonora, et al. (2007)
Mexico

Chemical forms of PTEs and air quality guidelines

where EF indicates the enrichment factor of the
elements. Cs represents concentration in samples, and
Chemical forms of specific elements and its chemical
Bs is the concentration in the reference environment.
forms along with air quality guidelines are demon-
Bref is the concentration of reference element in
strated in Table 2. Zinc is found in a variety of
reference environment, while Cref is the concentration
chemical forms due to its tendency to react with acidic,
of examined element in reference environment (Kartal
alkaline and inorganic compounds (Goodwin 1998).
et al. 2006; Yongming et al. 2006). The Igeo and EF of
According to EPA (environmental protection agency),
PTEs in an urban environment are shown in Table 1.
oral reference dose (RFD) for zinc is 0.3 mg/kg/day;

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Environ Geochem Health

however, no inhalation reference dose is derived yet in five stable isotopic forms including 58Ni, 60Ni, 61Ni,
62
(EPA 1991). The safety limit for zinc oxides set by Ni and 64N with 58Ni to be the most abundant
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (Moynier et al. 2007). OSHA set a legal limit of the
(OSHA) is 5 mg/m3 (Ahsan et al. 2009). Arsenic in legal limit of 1.0 mg/m3 of nickel for 8 h a day (OSHA
air is mostly found attached to PM in the form of 2003). ATSDR set an intermediate duration inhalation
arsenite (As?3) and arsenate (As?5) (Rasheed et al. MRL of 0.02 mg/m3 and chronic duration inhalation
2016). As?3 is considered to be more toxic as MRL of 9 9 10-5 mg/m3 for nickel (ATSDR 2005).
compared to As?5 as it can interfere with enzymatic The EPA has set an oral reference dose of 0.03 mg/
activities by binding to sulfhydryl (–SH) and hydroxyl kg/day for nickel in the form of soluble salts along
(–OH) functional groups (Kligerman et al. 2003; with inhalation unit risk level of 2.4 9 10-4 (IRIS
Rasheed et al. 2016). The oral RFD for arsenic is 2005).
0.003 mg/kg/day and 0.0008 mg/kg/day in case of Copper is mostly found in two stable isotopic forms
dermal exposure set by EPA (ATSDR 2007a). Popu- that are 63Cu and 65Cu with relative abundance of
lation exposure to As occurs at a very low concentra- 69.15 and 30.85% (Savage 2016). It is highly redox
tion of 0.4–30 ng/m3, and according to US EPA, that sensitive and is found in three oxidation states
around 40–90 ng of As is inhaled by human every day including Cu0, Cu? and Cu?2 (Levason and Spicer
(Chung et al. 2014). 1987). Legal limit of 0.1 mg/m3 (copper fumes) and
Chromium is mostly natural in origin with oxida- 1.0 mg/m3 (copper dust) has been set by OSHA for 8 h
tion states ranging from Cr(II) to Cr(VI) (Omole et al. a working day (OSHA 2002a, b). ATSDR derived
2006). Anthropogenic released chromium is mostly in 0.01 mg/kg/day of acute and intermediate duration
Cr(VI) form that is most toxic form and is categorized oral MRL derived by for copper (ATSDR 2004). Until
as human carcinogen (Omole et al. 2006). The now, no inhalation or oral reference dose has been
inhalation RFD set by EPA for chromium (VI) is derived for copper. Vanadium is one of the transition
0.008 lg/m3 in case of dissolved chromium aerosols metals having multiple oxidation states including V?2,
and 0.0001 mg/m3 in case of particulate chromium V?3, V?4 and V?5 (Wu et al. 2016). It is also found in
with oral reference dose of 0.003 mg/kg/day (ATSDR the form of two stable isotopes 51V with relative
2012a). Lead has four stable isotopes including 208Pb, abundance of 99.76% and 50V with 0.24% (Ventura
206
Pb, 207Pb and 204Pb that are decay products of et al. 2015). Legal limit set by OSHA for 8 h a working
uranium, actinium and thorium (Komárek et al. 2008; day is 0.1 mg/m3 of vanadium pentoxide (OSHA
Sanchez-Cabeza et al. 2007). It is found in three 2011a, b). ATSDR has derived acute duration inhala-
oxidation states that are Pb(0), Pb(II) and Pb(IV) tion MRL of 0.0008 mg/m3 and chronic duration
(ATSDR 2007b). Until now, EPA has developed no inhalation MRL 0.0001 mg/m3 for vanadium
reference dose for Pb. It is found in a variety of organic (ATSDR 2012c).
and in organic forms including lead acetate, lead
azide, lead bromide, lead oxide, lead nitrate, lead Emission sources of PTEs
sulfate.
Cadmium in air is mostly found in the form of The anthropogenic activities involved in dust emission
oxide, sulfate, chloride attached to particulate matter include vehicular traffic, industrialization, urbaniza-
or vapors (Williams and Harrison 1984). It is found in tion, construction and demolition activities, engine
eight stable isotopic forms including 106Cd, 108Cd, and brake wear lining. Among natural activates
110
Cd, 111Cd, 112Cd, 113Cd, 114Cd and 11Cd (Chuanwei erosion, weathering and atmospheric deposition are
et al. 2015). Legal limit set by OSHA for 8 h a working more dominant (Ferreira-Baptista and Miguel 2005;
day for Cd is 5 lg/m3 (OSHA 2004). Acute duration Shi et al. 2008). PTEs constitute about 30% of dust
inhalation minimal risk Level (MRL) is 0.03 lg/m3of originated as a result of vehicular emissions, brake,
cadmium is set by ATSDR, while for chronic duration combustion and asphalt fly ash. Elements released as a
inhalation the limit is 0.01 lg/m3 (ATSDR 2012b). result of vehicular and industrial emissions commonly
EPA has derived an inhalation unit risk of 1.8 9 10-3 include Cu, Zn, Pb, Sb, As, Ni, Al, Fe (Gunawardana
(US-EPA 1999). Nickel is found naturally in earth et al. 2012). The high concentration of PTEs in street
crust in association with other elements mostly found dust is due to a wide range of human activities

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Table 2 Air quality guidelines for potentially toxic elements, chemical forms and associated health risks
Element Chemical forms Guidelines for air Health risk Reference

Zinc Zinc oxide 5 mg/m3 Dyspnea, cough, bilateral, pneumothorax NIOSH

(2003a)
Zinc chloride 1 mg/m3 Nausea, leukocytosis, malaise and metal fume fever, birth NIOSH
defects etc. (2003b)
Arsenic As (inorganic) 0.0055 lg/m3 Carcinogen (group 1), skin tumors and lesions, non-cirrhotic MFE (2002)
portal fibrosis, diarrhea, cardiovascular diseases,
hypertension, lungs carcinoma, diabetes mellitus and
neurological disease
Arsine 0.055 lg/m3 MFE (2002)
Chromium Calcium chromate 0.001 mg/m3 Renal damage, asthma, allergies and nose ulcer, dermatitis, ACGIH
cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and neurological health (2007)
problems and cancer
Chromium (III) 0.5 mg/m3 ACGIH
(2007)
Chromium (VI) 0.05 mg/m3 ACGIH
(2007)
Zinc chromates 0.01 mg/m3 ACGIH
(2007)
Lead Lead (inorganic) 0.05 mg/m3 Head ache, loss of memory, irritability, damage body organs ACGIH
(kidney, liver), endocrine and nervous system disruption, (2004)
birth defects.
Cadmium Cadmium 9 mg/m3 Loss in bones mineral density, osteoporosis, disturb ATSDR
olfactory, kidney and pulmonary function, emphysema (2012a, b, c)
Cadmium oxides 9 mg/m3 ATSDR
(2012a, b, c)
Nickel Elemental nickel 1.5 mg/m3 Group 1 carcinogen, birth defects, skin rash, dermatitis, hand ACGIH
eczema, asthma, chronic bronchitis, reduced lungs function, (2003)
lungs and nasal cancer
Nickel inorganic 0.1 mg/m3 ACGIH
(soluble) (2003)
Nickel inorganic 0.2 ACGIH
(insoluble) (2003)
Nickel sub-sulfide 0.1 mg/m3 ACGIH
(2003)
Nickel carbonyl 0.05 mg/m3 ACGIH
(2003)
Copper Cu (fumes) 0.1 mg/m3 Irritation of nose, mouth, and eyes, headaches, dizziness, OSHA
Cu (dust) 1.0 mg/m3 nausea, and diarrhea, vomiting, stomach cramps, damage (2002a, b)
liver and kidney
Vanadium Vanadium metal 1 mg/m3 Cardiac and vascular diseases, stomach inflammation, disrupt NIOSH
and vanadium nervous system, skin rash, lungs damage, neurological (2012)
carbide problems, decreased red blood cells and hypertension.
Vanadium 0.1 mg/m3 OSHA
pentoxide fumes (2011a, b)
Vanadium 0.5 mg/m3 OSHA
pentoxide (2011a, b)
Respirable dust

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Environ Geochem Health

Table 2 continued
Element Chemical forms Guidelines for air Health risk Reference

Antimony Antimony 2.5 mg/m3 Cardiovascular disease, pneumoconiosis, antimoniosis, lung ATSDR
pentasulfide cancer, gastrointestinal diseases, cardiac arrhythmias, (1992a, b)
Antimony 1.7 mg/m3 chromosomal and reproductive disorders ATSDR
potassium (1992a, b)
tartrate
Antimony 0.94 mg/m3 ATSDR
trichloride (1992a, b)
Antimony trioxide 0.6 mg/m3 ATSDR
(1992a, b)

including vehicle emission, atmospheric deposition, ZnO in the tire industry, that is, almost 1.2 million
coal combustion, road surface wear, waste incinera- metric tons (Adamiec 2016; Hwang et al. 2016; Wang
tion and household heating and cooling activities (Lu et al. 1998). Copper (Cu) is mainly used as a friction
et al. 2014). Other than these additional contamina- material in brake pads for the smooth operation of
tions can be attributed to use of white-, yellow-, red- brake and also to avoid high-pitched sound of brake.
and gray-colored paints used as anticorrosive agents An average brake pad contains 1–15% of the copper
(Adamiec 2016; Gunawardana et al. 2012). content (Lifset et al. 2012). Cu contamination in the
Vehicles are the main contributor to lead contam- environment can also be due to the results of alloys
ination in the environment (Ali et al. 2017a; Hwang corrosion used in vehicle cover or any metallic surface
et al. 2016). It is being used in a variety of vehicle parts (Yang et al. 2016). The elements like Ti, Cu, Cr, Ni,
(batteries, rims, wheel balancing, etc.) as well as used Zn, Fe, Ba and Cr are the key PTEs form non-exhaust
as a gasoline additive (Hwang et al. 2016). It was emission sources, and high levels of these elements
added to gasoline as an anti-knocking agent in order to indicated the importance of brake wear emissions in
enhance the octane level in the 1990s. The USA alone roadside pollution (Adamiec 2016; Thorpe and Har-
has released round about 7 million tons of lead into the rison 2008). The high concentrations of Cr and Fe can
environment from gasoline use (Geller et al. 2006; be attributed to the use of gasoline additives, combus-
Newell and Rogers 2003). The high contamination of tion and fugitive dust (Saeedi et al. 2012; Yang et al.
Pb in an urban environment can also be attributed to 2016). Different activities like fossil fuel combustion,
the production of electronic appliances and waste vanadium–titanium–magnetite mining, dyeing indus-
disposal and use of paints (Ali et al. 2017a). Previous tries, iron and steel refineries and electrical appliance
studies have revealed that tire wear, fossil fuel are attributed to high concentration of V and Mn in
combustion and road abrasion are the key factors of road side dust (Cheng et al. 2015a, b; Costigan et al.
road dust pollution and confirmed that PTEs like Pb, 2001). The main natural activities involved in Ni
Cd, Cu, Cr, Co, Hg, Mo and Ni are mainly associated emission include wind-borne dust particles, volcanic
with tires wear emissions. Among all other elements, eruption, forest fire (Omole et al. 2006; Tian et al.
zinc is known to be the most abundant element found 2012). According to WHO, Ni concentration in urban
so far (Adamiec 2016; Hjortenkrans et al. 2007; environment ranges from 1 to 10 ng m-3, while that in
Schauer et al. 2006). The main sources of zinc in the industrial environment ranges from 10 to 180 ng m-3
environment are tires and galvanized metals. ZnO is (WHO 2000). The anthropogenic activities involved
used as a retardant in vehicles tire and also as a in Ni emission include fuel combustion, smelting of
vulcanization accelerator in order to achieve the metals, waste incineration and asphalt pavement
desired properties (Hwang et al. 2016; Ozaki et al. (Ozaki et al. 2004; Tian et al. 2012).
2004; Thorpe and Harrison 2008). Each tire contains
more than 1.5% by weight of Zn and that is the reason
why tires are the main emitters of zinc in the
environment. More than half of the world utilizes

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Urban pollution and associated health risks respiratory mortality (Atkinson et al. 2010). The
studied relationship between PM exposure and mor-
Exposure routes tality in women showed that the mortality increased by
HR 1.26 (95% CI 1.02, 1.54) and coronary heart
The main routes of exposure are ingestion, inhalation disease by HR 2.02 (95% CI 1.07, 3.78) due to long-
and dermal contact. Breathing the air, eating contam- term PM exposure (Puett et al. 2009).
inated food and smoke inhalation in open fireplaces
are common ways of exposure (Abdel-Shafy and Cardiovascular diseases (CVD)
Mansour 2016; Ali et al. 2017a; Lannerö et al. 2008;
Wei et al. 2015). PM pollution is an independent risk factor for
cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the modern
Health risks of PM era (Yousaf et al. 2016a). Fine particulate air pollution
is a major reason for particular cardiovascular disease
Mortality due to PM pollution through components that presumable incorporate
pneumonic and systemic irritation, quicken
Mortality is used as an indicator of health effects atherosclerosis, and change heartbeat capacity (Sarnat
induced by PM in recent epidemiological studies (Kim et al. 2005). Numerous biomedical and clinical studies
et al. 2015). Outdoor air pollution positions eighth conducted in the past revealed that PM pollution has a
heading hazard for mortality among developed nations strong relationship with increased cardiovascular
contributing to 1.3–2 million deaths (WHO 2006). problems including myocardial infarction, ischemic
Previous studies reveal that almost 3% of death due to strokes, vascular dysfunction, cardiac arrhythmias and
cardiopulmonary problems, 5% lung cancer, 1% from hypertension (Bhatnagar 2006; Du et al. 2016). PM
respiratory infections that account for 0.8 million has the ability to induce short-term and long-term
premature deaths and 6.4 years of life loss are cardiovascular problems, and there is a strong relation
attributed to PM pollution worldwide (Cohen et al. between PM and death due to cardiovascular problems
2005; Fang et al. 2013). It was estimated that exposure (Brook et al. 2004, 2009; Qin et al. 2015). The relation
to PM reduces the life expectancy by 8.6 months on between PM and CVD can be recognized through
average age (Krewski 2009). PM exposure can have a different pathways; among them, the first is direct
direct influence on mortality due to cardiopulmonary pathway, in which the PM2.5 translocates directly to
disease and ischemic heart disease (Miller et al. 2007). the blood and targets the body organs (Dockery et al.
In developing countries, PM is a main contributor to 2007; Shrey et al. 2010). The other pathways are
the global burden of disease, accounting for an indirect pathways: one is the initiating pulmonary
estimated 3.5 million deaths and 4.5% of disability- oxidative stress and inflammatory response which is
adjusted life years in 2010 (Nandasena et al. 2013). moderate in nature and shows its effect after several
Children are more susceptible to their surrounding hours or days of inhalation (Simkhovich et al. 2008).
environment, so more negative effects of air pollution The other indirect pathway is the effect on autonomic
commence in childhood, which is not unpre- nervous system (ANS) through lung receptors (Shrey
dictable (Stern et al. 2013). The most common et al. 2010; Simkhovich et al. 2008).
problems faced by infants due to PM exposure are A study conducted in USA by National Morbidity,
bronchiolitis and infection of narrow lungs passages Mortality and Air pollution study (NMMAPS) studied
commonly called bronchiole, which counts for almost selected clinical outcomes in a population of over 50
100,000 hospital admissions and 4500 infants’ death million people. Mortality was independently associ-
each year (Sheffield et al. 2011). An increase of ated with PM, and 20 lg m-3 increase in PM
10 lm m-3 in PM2.5 and PM10 can increase all causes concentration increased cardiopulmonary mortality
of mortality by 0.8–0.6% (Zanobetti and Schwartz by 0.6% daily (Dominici et al. 2003). In case of
2009). A study conducted in London revealed that European Cities, it was observed that the cardiopul-
10 lm m-3 increase in PM10 and PM2.5 can lead to monary mortality increased by 1.5% with 20 lg m-3
0.5% (95% CI 0.0–0.9) increase in all causes of increase in PM concentration (Analitis et al. 2006). A
mortality and 1.6% (95% CI 0.0–0.9) in case of time series study revealed that increase of 10 lg m-3

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Environ Geochem Health

in mean daily concentration of PM2.5 can increase the to lungs and modify the physical and immune system
cardiovascular mortality by 0.4–1.0% (Pope and defense of body against inhaled particles, aggravation
Dockery 2006). A study conducted in Los Angeles of existing respiratory symptoms and cardiovascular
during 1982–2000 by following up 22,905 subjected disease (Ali et al. 2017b; Singh and Sharma 2009).
exposed to chronic air pollution showed that the risk of Inhaling PM2.5 is also found to be associated with
death due to coronary artery disease increased 18%. symptoms like dyspnea (shortness of breath), chest
With an increase of 10 lg m-3 PM2.5, long-term congestion, pain and tightness, coughing and wheez-
exposure can increase the coronary artery disease by ing (Bell et al. 2012; Currie et al. 2009; Guaita et al.
20–49% (Jerrett et al. 2005). Long-term PM exposure 2011).
increased the cardiovascular problems by 24% and A study conducted in Switzerland demonstrated a
death due to CVD by 76% with an increase of positive correlation between respiratory symptoms
10 lg m-3 PM concentration in a period of 6 years (breathlessness, chronic phlegm, chronic cough
(Miller et al. 2007). asthma, wheezing and chest tightness) and annual
mean of SPM and PM10 (Zemp et al. 1999). Bronchitis
Respiratory problems was found to be more common in children with asthma
living in areas with high ambient PM10 (Dockery and
The toxicological effects of PM on respiratory system Pope 1994). Population’s long-term exposure to
of human are determined by nature (physical and elevated PM concentration has high rates of lung
chemical), deposition physics, distribution in respira- cancer, reduction in lung function of children and
tory tract and biological events that occur in response decreased life expectancy (Anderson and Thundiyil
to particles (Dockery et al. 1993; Kumar et al. 2008). 2012; Nagar et al. 2014). A study conducted on
The most dominant factor that affects the deposition of asthmatic children revealed that the risk of bronchitis
particles in respiratory track is particle size (Berico increased 40% (95% CI 10–80%) with the increase of
et al. 1997). Particles having diameter greater than 19 lg m-3 of PM10 concentration, while severe
5 lm are deposited in upper airways of the respiratory asthma symptoms increase 12% (95% CI 2–22%)
system, while small particles are deposited in periph- with 10 lg m-3 increase in PM10 (McConnell et al.
ery of the lungs (Berico et al. 1997). PM is responsible 2003). In case of adults, it was demonstrated that acute
for frequent respiratory allergies because it can reach asthma symptoms increase by 40% (95% CI 16–71%)
easily deep into the respiratory system and effect lungs with 10 lg m-3 increase in PM10 (Desqueyroux et al.
(Nagar et al. 2014). People living in urban in areas and 2002). A case–control study showed that hospital
those specially living by roadside face serious adverse admission due to bronchiolitis increased 9% (95% CI
health effects like respiratory system malfunction, 4–14%) due to 10 lg m-3 increase in PM2.5 (Karr
shortness of breath, redness of eyes, dizziness, cough, et al. 2017), while 6.5 lg m-3 increase in PM10 was
nose congestion, sore throat, phlegm, reduction in lung associated with 15% (95% CI 2–30%) respiratory
function and occupational asthma due to exposure to hospital admissions (Strickland et al. 2010).
PM from industries and vehicular emissions (Nkhama
et al. 2015; Peng et al. 2009). In case of respiratory Lungs cancer
problems, almost 10% of the infections may be
attributed to urban air pollution and the severity is Particulate matter air pollution has been designated as
because of poor air quality and a large number of human carcinogen recently (Hamra et al. 2014;
people exposure (Bahauddin and Uddin 2010; Gurung Tomczak et al. 2016). Studies conducted previously
and Bell 2013). The effects of air pollution include illustrated a positive association between PM pollu-
respiratory and breathing troubles, provocation of tion and development of lung cancer (Brunekreef et al.
already present respiratory disease, harm to lung 2009; Hales et al. 2012; Raaschou-Nielsen et al. 2011).
tissue, carcinogenesis and premature death, changes in The health outcomes due to PM pollution depend upon
the body defense systems against foreign materials the size of the PM, as fine particles having diameter
(Boman et al. 2006; Lebowitz 1996). The detrimental less than 2.5 lm have the ability to penetrate deep into
effects on human health include not only premature lungs air ways and alveoli and can cause damage
mortality from acute pollution events but also damage (Churg and Brauer 2000; Valavanidis et al. 2008). It

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was found that 10 lg m-3 increase in PM2.5 can bronchitis, pneumonia and tuberculosis was high in
increase the risk of lung cancer incidence by 11% people exposed to PM (Estévez-Garcı́a et al. 2013). A
(Chen et al. 2015). In case of mortality due to lungs study conducted in China showed that population
cancer, it was found that 10 lg m-3 increase in PM exposed to ambient PM pollution have increased
concentration can increase lung cancer-induced mor- chances of young age menarche (p = 0.001), high
tality by 8% (Pope et al. 2002). A study conducted in family history of breast cancer (p = 0.034), invasive
USA found there was 31% increase in lung cancer cancer (p = 0.028) along with high grades of tumor
incidents with incremental increase in PM2.5 and (p = 0.028) and estrogen receptors (ER-positive sta-
10 lg m-3 increase in PM2.5 increased the lung tus) (p = 0.022) as compared to unexposed population
cancer hazard by HR = 1.31 (95% CI 0.87–1.97) (Huo et al. 2013). PM has detrimental effects on skin.
(Gharibvand et al. 2017). It was believed that 5% of It penetrates into skin through hair follicles or
the death globally due to lung cancer are attributed to transdermally and can cause oxidative stress which
PM (Fang et al. 2013). A follow-up study observed leads to skin aging, solar elastosis and telangiectasia
1100 lung cancer deaths in 26 years and revealed that (Poonam et al. 2017). Occupational exposure to
there was 15–27% increase in lungs cancer mortality particulate matter which is a mixture of chemicals is
with 10 lg m-3 increase in PM2.5 and the case was known to develop symptoms of eye irritation (con-
same in case of both male and female (Turner et al. junctivitis) and skin allergies like skin inflammation
2011). A study was conducted in 17 European cohorts and itching (Kim et al. 2013). About 44% of the
to find out relationship between lung cancer and air population having different types of skin allergies like
pollution. The results showed a positive association skin itching and hives were attributed to particulate
between PM10 and lung cancer incidence with a matter exposure (Poonam et al. 2017; Pothikamjorn
hazard ratio (HR) of 1.22 (95% CI 1.03–1.45), while in et al. 2002). Epidemiological studies reveal that
case of PM2.5 the HR value was 1.18. It was also exposure to fine particulate matter from solid fuel
revealed that 4000 vehicles kilometer within 100 m of enhances the production of elicit inflammatory
residence increases the risk of lung cancer with a response associated with cytokines production which
hazard ratio of 1.09 (0.99–1.21) (Raaschou-Nielsen leads to watering of eyes (Alves et al. 2014; Dolk and
et al. 2013). A study conducted previously revealed Vrijheid 2003). Previous studies also found a signif-
that long-term exposure to PM pollution was signif- icant association between high PM level and endothe-
icantly associated with respiratory disease and lung lial dysfunction, plasma viscosity and alteration in
cancer in Japan. The results showed that during a autonomic control of heart (Sun et al. 2010).
follow-up of 8.7 years out of 6687 deaths 518 were
due to lungs cancer and the hazard risk increased by Health risks of PTEs
1.24 (95% CI 1.2–1.37) with 10 lg m-3 units increase
in PM2.5 (Katanoda et al. 2011). PTEs are the key environmental contaminants that are
of major concern in modern world, and a lot of
Other health effects research is focusing on pollution level of PTEs and its
impacts on human health (Mafuyai et al. 2015). These
Apart from these health effects, PM is responsible for are considered to be key indicators of environmental
many other health problems. Previous studies show contamination, i.e., soil, sediment and PM pollution
that long-term exposure to PM can lead to infant low (Ullah et al. 2017, 2018; Ubwa et al. 2015). The
birth weight and preterm deliveries and there is presence of PTEs in road dust can have a great effect
possibility of infant and fetal deaths (Bell et al. on human health due to its small size and long-range
2012). A study by national US epidemiologic found a transport which can increase the chances of direct and
significant correlation between adult diabetes and PM indirect exposure through different pathways (Fer-
pollution (Pearson et al. 2010). A study conducted in reira-Baptista and Miguel 2005; Zheng et al. 2010a).
Boston revealed that 15.5 increase in PM2.5 is The risk factor depends on gastrointestinal solubility
responsible for decrease in vagal tone and heart rate and body absorption, and exposure to these elements
variability reduction (Gold et al. 2000). A study beyond a critical value can result in chronic toxicity.
conducted in Bogota showed that the prevalence of Due to its non-biodegradable nature, it can easily get

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absorbed into tissues containing fatty acids (Sezgin essential nutrients required by body in a specific
et al. 2004; Tang et al. 2013). PTEs in roadside dust amount that is 8–15 times high as compared to other
can disturb the normal function of body organs, essential elements (Walsh et al. 1994). An increased
disruption of endocrine and nervous system, renal dose of Zn can harm the epithelial tissues of body,
problems, cardiovascular and reproductive system pancreatic enzyme level, change copper metabolism
malfunction (Christoforidis and Stamatis 2009; Li in body and also disturb immunological system
et al. 2013). The bio-accumulative nature of these (Prasad et al. 1978; Walsh et al. 1994). High concen-
metals makes it possible to reach up to threshold level tration of Zn during embryogenesis can interfere with
that can harm human health (Censi et al. 2006; Olujimi normal development of fetus and can cause birth
et al. 2015). Young children are considered to be most defects (Maret and Sandstead 2006). Al is the 3rd
susceptible among the community that can be affected abundant element commonly found on earth.
by PTEs contamination as they can ingest a substantial Although it does not get absorbed easily in body, still
amount of dust while playing irrespective of unhealthy a high concentration of Al can cause diarrhea, skin and
hygiene (Ali et al. 2017a; Bargagli 1998; Olajire and mouth ulcers, arthritic pain, nervous system disruption
Ayodele 1997; Zheng et al. 2010b). and vomiting (Clayton 1989; Krewski et al. 2009). It is
Previous literature shows that As inhalation can also considered as a risk factor for developing
lead to lungs carcinoma while ingestion of arsenic in Alzheimer disease and can also contribute to contact
the form of food, drugs, etc., can lead to a variety of and irritant dermatitis (Jaishankar et al. 2014).
skin, respiratory, cardiovascular and neurological High concentration of Fe can lead to the formation
diseases along with diabetes and bladder tumors of radicals that can harm body tissues, cells and
(Goering et al. 1999; Tchounwou et al. 2004). An biomolecules (Albretsen 2006). The high dosage can
international organizations like WHO, US EPA, lead to vomiting, diarrhea and intestinal bleeding,
European Union have designated Ni as one of the whereas in extreme cases it leads to hepatic necrosis,
acutest toxic elements. Moreover, the international hypotension shocks, tachycardia leading to possible
agency for the research on cancer (IARC) has declared death in some cases (Jaishankar et al. 2014; Osweiler
Ni compound as a cancer causing agent of group 1, et al. 1985). Hg is the most toxic element found in
whereas the elemental Ni to be a possible carcinogenic environment, and it can combine with other elements
agent (Tian et al. 2012). A low-level Cd exposure can to form organic and inorganic mercury complexes that
lead to the decrease in bones minerals density, can cause brain, fetus and kidney damage (Martin and
osteoporosis and olfactory function while chronic Griswold 2009; Morais et al. 2012). Moreover, it can
exposure can disturb pulmonary and kidney function result in tremors, headache, fatigue depression and
that can lead to emphysema (Åkesson et al. 2006; hair loss (Alina et al. 2012). Barium exposure can
Davison 1988; Gallagher et al. 2008; Mascagni et al. cause muscular weakness, low blood pressure, breath-
2003; Schutte et al. 2008). Exposure to Cr beyond the ing difficulties, ramps and diarrhea and in severe cases
safe level can cause skin disease like dermatitis, and high blood pressure, paralysis and even death (Martin
other than this can cause renal damage, asthma, and Griswold 2009).
allergies and nose ulcer (ATSDR 2012a; Klaassen
2008). Exposure to a high dose of Cr can result in
extreme respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal Conclusion
and neurological health problems and sometimes leads
to mortality (Chen et al. 2010; WHO/IPCS 1998). The Numerous studies were conducted in order to inves-
nervous system is most vulnerable to Pb toxicity. tigate the pollution status of PM in association with
Different symptoms including headache, loss of PTEs concentrations which in most cases exceed the
memory and irritability are common in case of Pb world air quality guidelines. At present stage, a lot of
toxicity (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention work is done in order to monitor the emission sources
2001). It can damage body organ including kidney, of these pollutants properly, but emission manage-
liver, nervous system, reproductive system and ment, estimation and reporting are still in the primary
endocrine system (Casas and Sordo 2011). Zn is stages of development. Anthropogenic activities
normally a non-toxic element, and it is one of the mainly vehicular and industrial sector have increased

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the burden of these pollutants in urban environment. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 2016,
Most of these pollutants are possible human carcino- 188–369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5377-1.
Ahsan, S. A., Lackovic, M., Katner, A., & Palermo, C. (2009).
gens along with a variety of human health effects and Metal fume fever: a review of the literature and cases
therefore need to be monitored frequently. Consider- reported to the Louisiana Poison Control Center. Journal of
ing the increasing burden of these pollutants in urban the Louisiana State Medical Society, 161, 348–351.
environment and the health consequences it can pose, Åkesson, A., Bjellerup, P., Lundh, T., Lidfeldt, J., Nerbrand, C.,
Samsioe, G., et al. (2006). Cadmium-induced effects on
proper guidelines should be implemented in order to bone in a population-based study of women. Environ-
minimize the pollution burden and negative impacts of mental Health Perspectives, 830, 830–834. https://doi.org/
these pollutants. 10.1289/ehp.8763.
Akram, W., Madhuku, M., Shahzad, K., Awais, A., Ahmad, I.,
Acknowledgements This work was supported by the National Arif, M., et al. (2014). Roadside dust contamination with
Basic Research Program of China (973 Program, toxic metals along industrial area in Islamabad, Pakistan.
2014CB238903) and the National Natural Science Foundation Nuclear Science and Techniques, 030201, 1–6. https://doi.
of China (41672144 and 41402133). The authors greatly org/10.13538/j.1001-8042/nst.25.030201.
acknowledged the Chinese Academy of Science (CAS), Albretsen, J. (2006). The toxicity of iron an essential element.
China, and The World Academy of Science (TWAS), Italy, Veterinary Medicine-Bonner Springs then Edwardsville,
for providing the CAS-TWAS President’s fellowship. We also 101, 82–90.
greatly appreciate the thoughtful comments and valuable Ali, M. U., Liu, G., Yousaf, B., Abbas, Q., Ullah, H., Munir, M.
suggestions from anonymous reviewers for the improvement A. M., et al. (2018). Compositional characteristics of black-
of this manuscript. carbon and nanoparticles in air-conditioner dust from an
inhabitable industrial metropolis. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 180, 34–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.
2018.01.161.
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