1 against Many

The Tantric temples of Java

Dr Uday Dokras

1
2
3
4
5
6
 C
CO N T E N T S

Chapter 1-Mountains of Borobudur and Prambhanan -The Mystic SHIKHARA

Chapter 2-The Tantric Candi SukuhTantric traditions and Shaktism page 40
Chapter 3 Theravada(? )Buddhist architecture in the locus of Java-Indonesia page 52
Chapter 5- ANCIENT ABODES OF SHIVA AND SHAKTI IN INDONESIA FEATURING
THE PRAMBHANAN PAGE 85
About the Author page 110

7
 Chapter 1

Hinduism in prehistoric period (3rd and 2nd millennia BCE)

Indigenous prehistoric religion

The prehistoric culture of the Indus valley arose in the latter centuries of the 3rd
millennium BCE from the metal-using village cultures of the region. There is considerable
evidence of the material life of the Indus people, but its interpretation remains a matter of
speculation until their writing is deciphered. Enough evidence exists, however, to show that
several features of later Hinduism may have had prehistoric origins.

In most of the village cultures, small terra-cotta figurines of women, found in large quantities,
have been interpreted as icons of a fertility deity whose cult was widespread in the
Mediterranean area and in western Asia from Neolithic times (c. 5000 BCE) onward.
This hypothesis is strengthened by the fact that the goddess was apparently associated with
the bull—a feature also found in the ancient religions farther west.

Religion in the Indus valley civilization

The Harappa culture, located in what is now Pakistan, has produced much evidence of what may
have been a cult of a goddess and a bull. Figurines of both occur, female figures being more
common, while the bull appears more frequently on the many steatite seals. A horned figure,
possibly with three faces, occurs on a few seals, and on one seal he is surrounded by animals. A
few male figurines, one apparently in a dancing posture, may represent deities. No building has
been discovered at any Harappan site that can be positively identified as a temple, but the Great
Bath at Mohenjo-daro may have been used for ritual purposes, as were the ghats (bathing steps
on riverbanks) attached to later Hindu temples. The presence of bathrooms in most of the houses
and the remarkable system of covered drains indicate a strong concern for cleanliness that may
have been related to concepts of ritual purity but perhaps merely to ideas of hygiene.

Many seals show what may be religious and legendary themes that cannot be interpreted with
certainty, such as seals depicting trees next to figures who may be divinities believed to reside in
them. The bull is often depicted standing before a sort of altar, and the horned figure has been
interpreted overconfidently as a prototype of the Hindu god Shiva. Small conical objects have
been interpreted by some scholars as phallic emblems, though they may have been pieces used in
board games. Other interpretations of the remains of the Harappa culture are even more
speculative and, if accepted, would indicate that many features of later Hinduism were already in
existence 4,000 years ago.

Survival of archaic religious practices

Some elements of the religious life of current and past folk religions—notably sacred animals,
sacred trees (especially the pipal, Ficus religiosa), and the use of small figurines for worship—
are found in all parts of India and may have been borrowed from pre-Vedic civilizations. On the

8
other hand, these things are also commonly encountered outside India, and therefore they may
have originated independently in Hinduism as well.

The Vedic period (2nd millennium–7th century BCE)

The people of the early Vedic period left few material remains, but they did leave a very
important literary record called the Rigveda. Its 1,028 hymns are distributed throughout 10
books, of which the first and the last are the most recent. A hymn usually consists of three
sections: an exhortation; a main part comprising praise of the deity, prayers, and petition, with
frequent references to the deity’s mythology; and a specific request.

The Rigveda is not a unitary work, and its composition may have taken several centuries. In its
form at the time of its final edition, it reflected a well-developed religious system. The date
commonly given for the final recension of the Rigveda is 1200 BCE. During the next two or
three centuries it was supplemented by three other Vedas and still later by Vedic texts called
the Brahmanas and the Upanishads (see below Vedas).

Challenges to Brahmanism (6th–2nd century BCE)

Indian religious life underwent great changes during the period 550–450 BCE. This century was
marked by the rise of breakaway sects of ascetics who rejected traditional religion, denying the
authority of the Vedas and of the Brahmans and following teachers who claimed to have
discovered the secret of obtaining release from transmigration. By far the most important of
these figures were Siddhartha Gautama, called the Buddha, and Vardhamana,
called Mahavira (“Great Hero”), the founder of Jainism. There were many other heterodox
teachers who organized bands of ascetic followers, and each group adopted a specific code of
conduct. They gained considerable support from ruling families and merchants. The latter were
growing in wealth and influence, and many of them were searching for alternative forms of
religious activity that would give them a more significant role than did orthodox Brahmanism or
that would be less expensive to support.

The scriptures of the new religious movements throw some light on the popular religious life of
the period. The god Prajapati was widely believed to be the highest god and the creator of the
universe; Indra, known chiefly as Shakra (“The Mighty One”), was second to him in importance.
The Brahmans were very influential, but there was opposition to their large-scale animal
sacrifices—on moral, philosophical, and economic grounds—and to their pretensions to
superiority by virtue of their birth. The doctrine of transmigration was by then generally
accepted, though a group of outright materialists—the Charvakas, or Lokayatas—denied the
survival of the soul after death. The ancestor cult, part of the Indo-European heritage, was
retained almost universally, at least by the higher castes. Popular religious life largely centred
around the worship of local fertility divinities (yakshas), cobra spirits (nagas), and other minor
spirits in sacred places such as groves. Although these sacred places were the main centres of
popular religious life, there is no evidence of any buildings or images associated with them, and
it appears that neither temples nor large icons existed at the time.

About 500 BCE asceticism became widespread, and increasing numbers of intelligent young
men “gave up the world” to search for release from transmigration by achieving a state of
psychic security. The orthodox Brahmanical teachers reacted to these tendencies by devising the

9
doctrine of the four ashramas, which divided the life of the twice-born after initiation into four
stages: the brahmacharin (celibate religious student); the grihastha (married householder);
the vanaprastha (forest dweller); and the sannyasin (wandering ascetic). This attempt to keep
asceticism in check by confining it to men of late middle age was not wholly successful.
Thereafter Hindu social theory centred on the concept of varnashrama dharma, or the duties of
the four classes (varnas) and the four ashramas, which constituted the ideal that Hindus were
encouraged to follow.

The first great empire of India, the Mauryan empire, arose in the 3rd century BCE. Its early
rulers were non-Brahmanic; Ashoka (reigned c. 265–238 BCE), the third and most famous of the
Mauryan emperors, was a professed Buddhist. Although there is no doubt that Ashoka’s
patronage of Buddhism did much to spread that religion, his inscriptions recognize the Brahmans
as worthy of respect. Sentiments in favour of nonviolence (ahimsa) and vegetarianism, much
encouraged by the non-Brahmanic sects, spread during the Mauryan period and were greatly
encouraged by Ashoka. A Brahmanic revival appears to have occurred with the fall of the
Mauryas. The orthodox religion itself, however, was undergoing change at this time, as theistic
tendencies developed around the gods Vishnu and Shiva.

Inscriptions, iconographic evidence, and literary references reveal the emergence of

devotional theism in the 2nd century BCE. Several brief votive inscriptions refer to the
god Vasudeva, who by this time was widely worshipped in western India. At the end of the 2nd
century, Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador of King Antialcidas of Taxila (in Pakistan), erected a
large column in honour of Vasudeva at Besnagar in Madhya Pradesh and recorded that he was
a Bhagavata, a term used specifically for the devotees of Vishnu. The identification of Vasudeva
with the old Vedic god Vishnu and, later, with Vishnu’s incarnation, Krishna, was quickly
accepted.

Near the end of the Mauryan period, the first surviving stone images of Hinduism appear.
Several large, simply carved figures survive, representing not any of the great gods but rather
yakshas, or local chthonic divinities connected with water, fertility, and magic. The original
locations of these images are uncertain, but they were probably erected in the open air in sacred
enclosures. Temples are not clearly attested in this period by either archaeology or literature. A
few fragmentary images thought to be those of Vasudeva and Shiva, the latter
in anthropomorphic form and in the form of a lingam, are found on coins of the 2nd and 1st
centuries BCE.
Early Hinduism (2nd century BCE–4th century CE)

The centuries immediately preceding and following the dawn of the Common Era were marked
by the recension of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata (the latter
incorporating into it the Bhagavadgita). The worship of Vishnu, incarnate as Krishna in
the Mahabharata and as Rama in the Ramayana, developed significantly during this period (see
below Epics and Puranas), as did the cult of Shiva, who plays an active role in the Mahabharata.
The rise of the major sects: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism
The Vedic god Rudra gained importance from the end of the Rigvedic period. In the
Svetashvatara Upanishad, Rudra is for the first time called Shiva and is described as the creator,
preserver, and destroyer of the universe. His followers are called on to worship him with

10
devotion (bhakti). The tendency for the laity to form themselves into religious guilds or societies
—evident in the case of the yaksha cults, Buddhism, and Jainism—promoted the growth of
devotional Vaishnavism and Shaivism. These local associations of worshipers appear to have
been a principal factor in the spread of the new cults. Theistic ascetics are less in evidence at this
time, though a community of Shaivite monks, the Pashupatas, existed by the 2nd or 3rd
century CE.

The period between the fall of the Mauryan empire (c. 185 BCE) and the rise of the Gupta
dynasty (c. 320 CE) was one of great change, including the conquest of most of the area of
Pakistan and parts of western India by a succession of invaders. India was opened to influence
from the West as never before, not only by invaders but also through flourishing maritime trade
with the Roman Empire. The effects of the new contacts were most obvious in art and
architecture. One of the oldest freestanding stone temples in the subcontinent has been excavated
at Taxila, near Rawalpindi, Pakistan. During the 1st century BCE the Gandhara school of
sculpture arose in the same region and made use of Hellenistic and Roman prototypes, mainly in
the service of Buddhism. Hindu temples of the period probably were made of wood, because no
remains of them have survived; however, literary evidence shows that they must have existed.

By the time of the early Gupta empire the new theism had been harmonized with the old Vedic
religion, and two of the main branches of Hinduism were fully recognized. The Vaishnavas had
the support of the Gupta emperors, who took the title paramabhagavata (“supreme devotee of
Vishnu”). Vishnu temples were numerous, and the doctrine of Vishnu’s avatars (incarnations)
was widely accepted. Of the 10 incarnations of later Vaishnavism, however, only two seem to
have been much worshipped in the Gupta period (4th–6th century). These were Krishna, the hero
of the Mahabharata, who also begins to appear in his pastoral aspect as the cowherd and flute
player, and Varaha, the divine boar, of whom several impressive images survive from the Gupta
period. A spectacular carving in Udayagiri (Madhya Pradesh) dating from about 400 CE depicts
Varaha rescuing the earth goddess, Vasudha. Temples in Udayagiri (c. 400) and Deogarh
(c. 500) also portray Vishnu reclining on the serpent Ananta (“Without End”).

The Shaivites were also a growing force in the religious life of India. The sect
of Pashupata ascetics, founded by Lakulisha (or Nahulisha), who lived in the 2nd century CE,
is attested by inscriptions from the 5th century; it is among the earliest of the sectarian religious
orders of Hinduism. Representations of the son of Shiva, Skanda (also called Karttikeya, the war
god), appeared as early as 100 BCE on coins from the Kushan dynasty, which ruled northern
India, Afghanistan, and Central Asia in the first three centuries of the Common Era. Shiva’s
other son, the elephant-headed Ganesha, patron deity of commercial and literary enterprises, did
not appear until the 5th century. Very important in this period was Surya, the sun god, in whose
honour temples were built, though in modern times he is little regarded by most Hindus. The
solar cult had Vedic roots but later may have expanded under Iranian influence.

Vishnu and Lakshmi

Several goddesses gained importance in this period. Although goddesses had always been
worshipped in local and popular cults, they play comparatively minor roles in Vedic
religion. Lakshmi, or Shri, goddess of fortune and consort of Vishnu, was worshipped before the
beginning of the Common Era, and several lesser goddesses are attested from the Gupta period.
11
But the cult of Durga, the consort of Shiva, began to gain importance only in the 4th century, and
the large-scale development of Shaktism (devotion to the active, creative principle personified as
the mother goddess) did not take place until medieval times.

The development of temples

The Gupta period was marked by the rapid development of temple architecture. Earlier temples
were made of wood, but freestanding stone and brick temples soon appeared in many parts of
India. By the 7th century, stone temples, some of considerable dimensions, were found in many
parts of the country. Originally, the design of the Hindu temples may have borrowed from the
Buddhist precedent, for in some of the oldest temples the image was placed in the centre of the
shrine, which was surrounded by an ambulatory path resembling the path around a stupa (a
religious building containing a Buddhist relic). Nearly all surviving Gupta temples are
comparatively small; they consist of a small cella (central chamber), constructed of thick and
solid masonry, with a veranda either at the entrance or on all sides of the building. The earliest
Gupta temples, such as the Buddhist temples at Sanchi, have flat roofs; however,
the sikhara (spire), typical of the north Indian temple, was developed in this period and with time
was steadily made taller. Tamil literature mentions several temples. The
epic Silappatikaram (c. 3rd–4th centuries), for instance, refers to the temples of Srirangam, near
Tiruchchirappalli, and of Tirumala-Tirupati (known locally as Tiruvenkatam).

The Buddhists and Jains had made use of artificial caves for religious purposes, and these were
adapted by the Hindus. Hindu cave shrines, however, are comparatively rare, and none have been
discovered from earlier than the Gupta period. The Udayagiri complex has cave shrines, but
some of the best examples are in Badami (c. 570), the capital of the Chalukya dynasty in the 6th
century. The Badami caves contain several carvings of Vishnu, Shiva, and Harihara (an
amalgamation of Vishnu and Shiva), as well as depictions of stories connected with
Vishnu’s incarnation, Krishna. Near the Badami caves are the sites of Aihole and Pattadakal,
which contain some of the oldest temples in the south; some temples in Aihole, for example, date
to approximately 450. For this reason these sites are sometimes referred to as the “laboratory” of
Hindu temples. Pattadakal, another capital of the Chalukya empire, was a major site of temple
building by Chalukyan monarchs in the 7th and 8th centuries. These temples incorporated styles
that eventually became distinctive of north and south Indian architecture.

In the Pallava site of Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram), south of Chennai, a number of small

temples were carved in the 7th century from outcroppings of rock; they represent some of the
best-known religious buildings in the Tamil country. Mamallapuram and Kanchipuram, near
Chennai in the state of Tamil Nadu, were major cities in the Pallava empire (4th–9th centuries).
Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital, is sometimes called the “city of a thousand temples.” Some of
its temples date to the 5th century, and many feature magnificent architecture. Dedicated to
local manifestations of Shiva, Vishnu, and various forms of the Great Goddess, the temples
were patronized by royalty and aristocrats but also received donations and endowments from the
larger population.

Evidence for contact between the Pallava empire and Southeast Asia is provided by some of the
earliest inscriptions (c. 6th–7th centuries) of the Khmer empire, which are written in “Pallava
style” characters. There are also several visual connections between temple styles in India and in

12
Southeast Asia, including similarities in architecture (e.g., the design of temple towers) and
iconography (e.g., the depiction of Hindu deities, epic narratives, and dancers in carvings on
temple walls). Yet there are also differences between them. For example, the Cambodian Shiva
temples in Phnom Bakheng, Bakong, and Koh Ker resemble mountain pyramids in the
architectural idiom of Hindu and Buddhist temples in Borobudur and Prambanan on the island of
Java in present-day Indonesia.

The spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific

Hinduism and Buddhism exerted an enormous influence on the civilizations of Southeast Asia
and contributed greatly to the development of a written tradition in that area. About the
beginning of the Common Era, Indian merchants may have settled there, bringing Brahmans and
Buddhist monks with them. These religious men were patronized by rulers who converted to
Hinduism or Buddhism. The earliest material evidence of Hinduism in Southeast Asia comes
from Borneo, where late 4th-century Sanskrit inscriptions testify to the performance of Vedic
sacrifices by Brahmans at the behest of local chiefs. Chinese chronicles attest an Indianized
kingdom in Vietnam two centuries earlier. The dominant form of Hinduism exported to
Southeast Asia was Shaivism, though some Vaishnavism was also known there. Later, from the
9th century onward, Tantrism, both Hindu and Buddhist, spread throughout the region.

Beginning in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, many of the early kingdoms in Southeast
Asia adopted and adapted specific Hindu texts, theologies, rituals, architectural styles, and forms
of social organization that suited their historical and social conditions. It is not clear whether this
presence came about primarily through slow immigration and settlement by key personnel
from India or through visits to India by Southeast Asians who took elements of
Indian culture back home. Hindu and Buddhist traders, priests, and, occasionally, princes
traveled to Southeast Asia from India in the first few centuries of the Common Era and
eventually settled there. Enormous temples to Shiva and Vishnu were built in the ancient Khmer
empire, attesting to the power and prestige of Hindu traditions in the region. Angkor Wat, built
in the 12th century in what is now Cambodia, was originally consecrated to Vishnu, although it
was soon converted to (and is still in use as) a Buddhist temple. One of the largest Hindu temples
ever built, it contains the largest bas-relief in the world, depicting the churning of the ocean of
milk, a minor theme of Indian architecture but one of the dominant narratives in Khmer temples.

Despite the existence in Southeast Asia of Hindu temples and iconography as well as Sanskrit
inscriptions, the nature and extent of Hindu influence upon the civilizations of the region is
fiercely debated by contemporary scholars. Whereas early 20th-century scholars wrote about the
Indianization of Southeast Asia, those of the late 20th and early 21st centuries argued that this
influence was very limited and affected only a small cross section of the elite. It is nevertheless
certain that divinity and royalty were closely connected in Southeast Asian civilizations and that
several Hindu rituals were used to valorize the powers of the monarch.

The civilizations of Southeast Asia developed forms of Hinduism and Buddhism that
incorporated distinctive local features and in other respects reflected local cultures, but the
framework of their religious life, at least in the upper classes, was largely Indian. Stories from

13
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata became widely known in Southeast Asia and are still
popular there in local versions. In Indonesia the people of Bali still follow a form of Hinduism
adapted to their own genius. Versions of the Manu-smriti were taken to Southeast Asia and were
translated and adapted to indigenous cultures until they lost most of their original content.

Claims of early Hindu contacts farther east are more doubtful. There is little evidence of direct
influence of Hinduism on China or Japan, which were primarily affected by Buddhism.

The rise of devotional Hinduism (4th–11th century)

The medieval period was characterized by the growth of new devotional religious movements
centred on hymnodists who taught in the popular languages of the time. The new movements
probably began with the appearance of hymns in Tamil associated with two groups of poets:
the Nayanars, worshipers of Shiva, and the Alvars, devotees of Vishnu. The oldest of these date
from the early 7th century, though passages of devotional character can be found in earlier Tamil
literature.

The term bhakti, in the sense of devotion to a personal god, appears in the Bhagavadgita and the
Shvetashvatara Upanishad. In these early sources it represents a devotion still somewhat
restrained and unemotional. The new form of bhakti, associated with singing in the languages of
the common people, was highly charged with emotion and mystical fervour, and the relationship
between worshiper and divinity was often described as analogous to that between lover and
beloved. The Tamil saints, south Indian devotees of Vishnu or Shiva from the 6th to the 9th
century, felt an intense love (Tamil: anbu) toward their god. They experienced overwhelming joy
in his presence and deep sorrow when he did not reveal himself. Some of them felt a profound
sense of guilt or inadequacy in the face of the divine. In Tamil poems the supreme being is
addressed as a lover, a parent, or a master. The poets traveled to many temples, many of them
located in southern India, singing the praises of the enshrined deity. The poems have a
strong ethical content and encourage the virtues of love, humility, and brotherhood. The ideas of
these poets, spreading northward, probably were the origin of bhakti in northern India.

The devotional cults further weakened Buddhism, which had long been on the decline. The
philosophers Kumarila and Shankara were strongly opposed to Buddhism. In their journeys
throughout India, their biographies claim, they vehemently debated with Buddhists and tried to
persuade kings and other influential people to withdraw their support from Buddhist monasteries.
Only in Bihar and Bengal, because of the patronage of the Pala dynasty and some lesser kings
and chiefs, did Buddhist monasteries continue to flourish. Buddhism in eastern India, however,
was well on the way to being absorbed into Hinduism when the Muslims invaded the Ganges
valley in the 12th century. The great Buddhist shrine of Bodh Gaya, the site of the Buddha’s
enlightenment, became a Hindu temple and remained as such until recent times.

At the end of its existence in India, Buddhism exhibited certain philosophical and
cultural affinities with Hinduism. Among the Buddhist Tantrists appeared a new school of
preachers, often known as Siddhas (“Those Who Have Achieved”), who sang their verses in the
contemporary languages—early Maithili and Bengali. They taught that giving up the world was
not necessary for release from transmigration and that one could achieve the highest state by
living a life of simplicity in one’s own home. This system, known as Sahajayana (“Vehicle of the

14
Natural” or “Easy Vehicle”), influenced both Bengali devotional Vaishnavism, which produced a
sect called Vaishnava-Sahajiya with similar doctrines, and the Natha yogis (mentioned below),
whose teachings influenced Kabir and other later bhakti masters.

Tantra, (Sanskrit: “Loom”) any of numerous texts dealing with the esoteric practices of
some Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain sects. In the orthodox classification of Hindu religious literature,
Tantra refers to a class of post-Vedic Sanskrit treatises similar to the Puranas (medieval
encyclopaedic collections of myths, legends, and other topics). In this usage Tantras are,
theoretically, considered to treat of theology, Yoga, construction of temples and images, and
religious practices; in reality, they tend to deal with such aspects of popular Hinduism as
spells, rituals, and symbols. They are distinguished along Hindu sectarian lines between the
Shaiva Agamas, the Vaishnava Samhitas, and the Shakta Tantras.

The lists of the Shakta Tantras differ considerably from one another but suggest that the earliest
manuscripts date from about the 7th century. They emphasize the goddess Shakti as the female
personification of the creative power or energy of the god Shiva. This view taken to its extreme
holds that Shiva without his Shakti is like a corpse. In the Tantras that deal with Yoga, Shakti is
identified with the kundalini, or the energy that lies coiled at the base of the spine until brought
up through the body by yogic disciplines. The Tantras also stress the efficacy of yantras
and mandalas (ritual diagrams) and of mantras (mystic syllables or sacred formulas). Among the
major Shakta Tantras are the Kularnava-tantra, which treats of “left-hand” practices, such as
ritual copulation; the Kulacudamani-tantra, which discusses ritual; and the Sharadatilaka-tantra,
which deals almost exclusively with magic.

Hinduism: Shakta Tantras

The Buddhist Tantras are traced to the 7th century or earlier, the Tathagataguhyaka being an
early and extreme work. They were translated into Tibetan and Chinese from about the 9th
century onward, and some texts have been preserved only in those languages, the Sanskrit
originals having been lost. Among the Buddhist Tantras an important text is the Kalacakra-
tantra.

Tantric ritual and magical practices

The ritual of the left-hand Tantrists was one in which all of the taboos of conventional Hinduism
were conscientiously violated. Thus, in place of the traditional five elements (tattvas) of the
Hindu cosmos, these Tantrists used the five m’s: mamsa (flesh,
meat), matsya (fish), madya (fermented grapes, wine), mudra (frumentum, cereal, parched grain,
or gestures), and maithuna (sexual union). This latter element was made particularly antinomian
through the involvement of forbidden women—such as the wife of another man or a low-caste
woman—who was identified with the Goddess. Menstrual blood, strictly taboo in conventional
Hinduism, was also used in Tantric rites. Such rituals, which are described in Tantric texts and in
tracts against Tantrists, made the Tantrists notorious. It is likely, however, that the rituals were
not regularly performed except by a small group of highly trained adepts; the usual Tantric
ceremony was purely symbolic and even more fastidious than the pujas in Hindu temples.

15
The cult of the Shaktas is based on the principle of the ritual sublimation of natural impulses to
maintain and reproduce life. Shakta adepts are trained to direct all their energies toward the
conquest of the Eternal. The sexual act and the consumption of consecrated meat or liquor are
esoterically significant means of realizing the unity of flesh and spirit, of the human and
the divine. They are considered not sinful acts but effective means of salvation. Ritual union—
which may also be accomplished symbolically—is, for both partners, a form of sacralization, the
act being a participation in cosmic and divine processes. The experience of transcending space
and time, of surpassing the phenomenal duality of spirit and matter, of recovering the primeval
unity, the realization of the identity of God and his Shakti, and of the manifested and
unmanifested aspects of the All, constitute the very mystery of Shaktism.

The interpretation of doctrines and ritual practice is varied. Extreme Shakta communities, for
example, are said to perform the secret nocturnal rites of the shrichakra (“wheel of radiance,”
described in the Kularnava-tantra), in which they avail themselves of the natural
and esoteric symbolic properties of colours, sounds, and perfumes to intensify their sensual
experiences. Most Tantrists, however, eliminate all but the verbal ritual.

Individual and collective Yoga and worship, conducted daily, fortnightly, and monthly “for the
delectation of the deity,” are of special importance. After elaborate purifications, the worshipers
—who must be initiated, full of devotion toward the guru and God, have control over
themselves, be well prepared and pure of heart, know the mysteries of the scriptures, and look
forward to the adoration with eagerness—make the prescribed offerings, worship the power of
the Divine Mother, and recite the relevant mantras. Having become aware of their own state of
divinity, they are qualified to unite sexually with the Goddess. If a woman is, in certain rituals,
made the object of sexual worship, the Goddess is first invoked into her; the worshiper is not to
cohabit with her until his mind is free from impurity and he has risen to divine status. Union with
a low-caste woman helps to transcend all opposites. Union with a woman who belongs to another
man is often preferred because it is harder to obtain, nothing is certain in it, and the longing
stemming from the separation of lover and beloved is more intense; it is pure preman (divine
love). Adoration of a girl of age 16 aims at securing the completeness and perfection of which
this number is said to be the expression. However, the texts reiterate how dangerous these rites
are for those who are not initiated; those who perform such ritual acts without merging their
minds in the Supreme are likely to go to one of the hells.
The esoteric Vaishnava-Sahajiya cult, which arose in Bengal in the 16th century, was another
emotional attempt at reconciling the spirit and the flesh. Disregarding social opinion, its
adherents, using the natural (sahaja, “born with”) qualities of the senses and stressing the sexual
symbolism of Bengal Vaishnavism, reinterpreted the Radha-Krishna legend and sought for the
perpetual experience of divine joy. Based on this understanding of the legend, members of the
Vaishnava-Sahajiya cult held that, after arduous training, the realization of love can be
experienced, because Krishna’s nature is love and the giving of love and because man is identical
with Krishna. Women, as the embodiment of a theological principle, could even become spiritual
guides, like Radha, conducting the worshipers in their search for realization. After reaching this
state, a devotee remains in eternal bliss and can dispense with guru and ritual and be completely
indifferent to the world, “steadfast amidst the dance of maya.”

16
Tantric and Shakta ethical and social doctrines
These ethical and social principles, though fundamentally the same as those promulgated in the
classical dharma works, breathe a spirit of liberality: much value is set upon family life and
respect for women (the image of the Goddess); no ban is placed on traveling (conventionally
regarded as bringing about ritual pollution) or on the remarriage of widows. Although Tantric
and Shakta traditions did not oblige their followers to deviate in a socially visible way from the
established order, they provided a ritual and a way of life for those who, because of sex or caste,
could not participate satisfyingly in the conventional rites.

The ancient Tantric tradition, based on the esoteric tantra literature, has become so interwoven
with orthodox Hinduism that it is difficult to define precisely. Although it recognizes an identity
between the soul and the cosmos, it emphasizes the internalization of the cosmos rather than the
release of the soul to its natural state of unity. The body is the microcosm, and the ultimate state
is not only omniscience but total realization of all universal and eternal forces. The body is real,
not because it is the function or creation of a real deity but because it contains the deity, together
with the rest of the universe. The individual soul does not unite with the One—it is the One, and
the body is its function.

Tantrism, though not always in its full esoteric form, is a feature of much modern mystical
thought. In Tantrism the consciousness is spoken of as moving—driven by repetition of
the mantra and by other disciplines—from gross awareness of the material world to realization of
the ultimate unity. The image is of a serpent, coiled and dormant, awakened and driven upward
in the body through various stages of enlightenment until it reaches the brain, the highest
awareness. The 19th-century mystic Ramakrishna describes the process, which is also what
many Hindus seek in their quest for a spiritual experience:

When [the serpent] is awakened, it passes gradually through [various stages], and
comes to rest in the heart. Then the mind moves away from [the gross physical
senses]; there is perception, and a great brilliance is seen. The worshiper, when he
sees this brilliance, is struck with wonder. The [serpent] moves thus through six
stages, and coming to [the highest one], is united with it. Then there is samadhi.…
When [the serpent] rises to the sixth stage, the form of God is seen. But a slight
veil remains; it is as if one sees a light within a lantern, and thinks that the light
itself can be touched, but the glass intervenes.…In samadhi, nothing external
remains. One cannot even take care of his body any more; if milk is put into his
mouth, he cannot swallow. If he remains for twenty-one days in this condition, he
is dead. The ship puts out to sea, and returns no more.

Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism

Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia refers to
the traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in the 7th
century along the maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesian
islands of Java and Sumatra as well as in Malaysia. These esoteric forms were spread by pilgrims
and Tantric masters who received royal patronage from royal dynasties like the Sailendras and
the Srivijaya. This tradition was also linked by the maritime trade routes with Indian Vajrayana,
Tantric Buddhism in Sinhala, Cham and Khmer lands and in China and Japan, to the extent that it
is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of a complex of "Esoteric Buddhism

17
of Mediaeval Maritime Asia." Many key Indian port cities saw the growth of Esoteric
Buddhism, a tradition which coexisted alongside Shaivism.
Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism in the region, with monumental
architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The capital of the Buddhist empire of Srivijaya
in Palembang, Sumatra was another major center.
The decline of Buddhist states and the rise of Islamic states in the region during the 13th–16th
centuries saw the steep decline of this tradition.

A painting by G.B. Hooijer (c. 1916–1919) reconstructing the scene of Borobudur during its heyday

18
 13th century Javanese statue of Prajnaparamita, from the Cungkup Putri
ruins near Singhasari temple

The diffusion of Esoteric Buddhism in the region began with the arrival of Indian Buddhist
monks in the 7th century. These include the central Indian Atikuta (fl. 650s), the Chinese
Punyodaya (fl 650s), Yijing (635-713), the South Indian Dharmaruci/Bodhiruci (d. 727),
Nagabodhi, Vajrabodhi and Bianhong (the 8th century teacher of Kukai). The Chinese Buddhist
monk Yijing reports that in the 7th century there was a Buddhist center in Java named Kalinga
(Heling) to which Chinese monks traveled in order to study.
Another source of this Indonesian Tantric tradition was from Sri Lanka's Abhayagiri vihāra, a well
known center of Vajrayana study and practice, which even established a branch monastery in
Central Java in the 8th century with Sailendra patronage.
A stronghold of Esoteric Buddhism, the empire of Srivijaya (650 CE–1377 CE) patronized
Buddhist monks and institutions and thus attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of
Asia. These included the Chinese monk Yijing, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra on
his way to study at Nalanda University in India in 671 and 695, and the Bengali Buddhist
scholar Atisha (982-1054 CE) who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana Buddhism
in Tibet. Yijing praised the high level of Buddhist scholarship in Srivijaya and advised Chinese
monks to study there prior to making the journey to the great institution of
learning, Nalanda Vihara, India. He wrote:
In the fortified city of Bhoga, Buddhist priests number more than 1,000, whose minds are bent
on learning and good practice. They investigate and study all the subjects that exist just as in
India; the rules and ceremonies are not at all different. If a Chinese priest wishes to go to the
West in order to hear and read the original scriptures, he had better stay here one or two years
and practice the proper rules.
Yijing was also responsible for the translation of a large numbers of Buddhist scriptures from
Sanskrit into Chinese. He translated more than 60 sutras into Chinese such as the Golden Light
Sutra. The Account of Buddhism sent from the South Seas & Buddhist Monks Pilgrimage of Tang

19
Dynasty are two of Yi Jing's best travel diaries, describing his adventurous journey to Srivijaya
and India, the society of India and the lifestyles of various local peoples.
In Java, the 8th century Shailendra dynasty promoted large scale Buddhist building projects such
as Borobudur. Later central Javanese bronze and silver Buddhist images show Tantric themes
such as mandalas and the Five Tathagatas.
In the 13th century Buddhism thrived in Eastern Java, the Singhasari kingdom of
King Kertanegara of Singhasari patronized Vajrayana. Buddhism continued to thrive under the
Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire (1293–1527). Their capital Trowulan had many annual
festivities for Buddhism, Shaivism, and Vaishnavism. Some of their kings were Vajrayana
practitioners, such as King Adityawarman (1347–79) whose inscriptions state he was "always
concentrated on Hevajra".A feature of Javanese Buddhism was the deification and worship of
kings as Buddhas or Bodhisattvas. Important Buddhist deities included Prajnaparamita, Tara,
Bhairava and Lokesvara.
The fall of Majapahit and the rise of Muslim states such as the Sultanate of Malacca saw the
decline of Buddhism in the region. Many escaped to the island of Bali after the end of Majapahit
rule fleeing persecution, where Buddhism was merged into Balinese Hinduism. This process of
merging Buddhism and Hinduism predated the fall of the Majapahit however, and many textual
sources from the later Hindu-Buddhist kingdom state that Hinduism and Buddhism are both two
paths to the same reality and also equate the five Buddhas with five forms of Shiva. Likewise,
some Majapahit temples depict both Buddhist and Shaiva elements.
The oldest extant esoteric Buddhist Mantrayana literature in Old Javanese, a language
significantly influenced by Sanskrit, is enshrined in the San Hyan Kamahayanikan (possibly 8th
century). The San Hyan Kamahayanikan claims that its teachings come from Dignaga. The
Tibetan Buddhist canon includes translations of texts written by Javanese masters, such as
the Durbodhaloka (a commentary on the Abhisamayalamkara) of Suvarnadvipa Dharmakīrti.[
Another work by an Indonesian Tantric Buddhist is Bianhong's Ritual Manual for Initiation into
the Great Mandala of the Usnisa-Cakravartin which survives in the Chinese Taisho Tripitaka (T.
959). The Japanese master Kukai wrote a biography of Bianhong.

A R C H I T E C T U R E

20
Bahal temple I, in Padang Lawas, North Sumatra. One of the remnants of Pannai Kingdom/ The statue of Dhyani

Buddha Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani inside the Mendut temple

Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most
common of which is the stone Candi which shows Indic influences as has been interpreted as a
symbol of Mount Meru.
The Sailendras built many Buddhist structures in Java, including the
massive stupa of Borobodur, as well as Candi Sukuh, Candi Mendut, Candi Kalasan and Candi
Sewu. The Srivijayans also built Buddhist temple complexes in Sumatra, such as Muara
Takus and Bahal temple and also in the Malay Peninsula, such as in their regional capital
at Chaiya. Majapahit also built Candis, such as Jabung, and Penataran.
Other architecture types include punden, small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains
and pertapaan, hermitages built on mountain slopes.
Borobodur
The largest Buddhist stupa in the world is the 9th-century complex at Borobudur in central Java,
built as a Mandala, a giant three-dimensional representation of Esoteric Buddhist cosmology.
The temple shows Indian and local influences and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504
Buddha statues. The reliefs depict stories from the Lalitavistara Sutra, Jataka tales and
the Gandavyuha sutra.
Borobudur was abandoned sometime in the classic period, whether caused by human activity; of
war or political turmoil, or natural disasters, as it lies on a volcanic plain of Merapi and other
active volcanoes in central Java. There is no mention of Borobudur in any of Majapahit sources,
implies that this structure already forgotten in the last classic-period. A major restoration project
was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO and the
monument is now a World Heritage Site. It is the most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia and
it is still used by Buddhists for pilgrimage.

21
Candi Sukuh

Candi Sukuh is a fifteenth-century Javanese-Hindu-Buddhist temple (candi) that

demonstrates strong tantric influence. Candi Sukuh is located on the western slope of Mount
Lawu (elev. 3,000 feet (910 m) above sea level) on the border between Central and East
Java provinces. The monument was built around 1437, as written as a chronogram date on the
western gate, meaning that the area was under the rule of the Majapahit Kingdom during its end
(1293–1500). The distinctive Dancing Ganesha relief in Candi Sukuh has a similarity with the
Tantric ritual found in the history of Buddhism in Tibet written by Taranatha. The Tantric ritual
is associated with several figures, one of whom is described as the "King of Dogs"
(Sanskrit: Kukuraja), the mahasiddha who taught his disciples by day, and by night
performed Ganacakra in a burial ground or charnel ground. Importantly, Ganesha also appears
in Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also portrayed as a
Hindu demon form also called Vināyaka. Ganesha's image may be found on Buddhist sculptures
of the late Gupta period. As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, Ganesha is often shown dancing, a form
called Nṛtta Ganapati that was popular in North India and adopted in Nepal and then into Tibet.

Kala Bhairava embodies the wrathful side of the Lord Shiva. ASHTA
BHAIRAVAS:

22
Of the 64 incarnations of Lord Shiva, the most intense form is that of Kalabhairava with his
skull, leopard skin, body with serpents and weapons, which tells a lot about the origins of this
devata. In the Shiva Purana, to quell the arrogance of Lord Brahma, Shiva severs his fifth head.
Brahma’s skull is then taken around the three worlds afflicting himself the sin of
Brahmahatya.To atone for this sin, he then comes to Kashi to the temple of Kashika Pureshan,
and still remains as the protector of the presiding deity of the temple and the whole of Kashi.
Kalabhairava temples can be found adjacent to all jyotirlinga temples.

Many Bhairava temples are found across India. Tamil Nadu is the most populous, with the deity
seen as the protector of the village (Grama devata) and the one who grants protection. The major
temples of Kala Bhairava in India are Varanasi, Ujjain, and Kalbhairaveshwar in Karnataka, as
well as in 52 Shakti Peetas, 52 Bhairava can be seen as protection detava. Beyond India,
Kalabhairava is worshipped in Nepal, Tibet -Vajrayana and Sri Lanka- in a different name- is
given high prominence. A terrifying form of kalabhairava can be seen in Hanuman Dhoka in
Kathmandu, Nepal as a 12 feet tall statue. In Kerala , Parashinikadavu is an abode for
Kalabhairava along with his pack of dogs.

The protective force of the cycle of time, the one who dispels the fear of time and therefore he is
also known as Kalachakra Bhairav. Also the Ashta Bhairavs are said to be the protectors of all

23
the eight directions of this universe, Asitanga, Ruru, Chanda, Krodha,Unmatta, Bhishana,Kapala,
Samhara Ashta Bhairavas. The feminine part ( Shakti) of these Ashta bhairavas are the Ashta
Mathrukal (8 Mothers), Below each Ashta Bhairavas, eight other Bhairavas comes under,
making a combination of 64 Bhairavas along with 64 Yoginis makes the Bhairava Chakra. It is
the Bhairava Chakra that burns the fears of the samsara (cycle of life) and maintains a flow to
creation , sustenance and destruction. It is Maha Kalabhairava that controls all these acts , thus
Tantra holds a great importance to this devata. In Tantra , masculine energy is also called
Bhairava.

According to astrology, Kalbhairav is the lord of Saturn. Even severe Saturn doshas and
Dashasandhis will be reduced by KalaBhairava bhajan, as well as the fear of enemies, fear of
death, strong ghostly afflictions, past life dosham and Brahmahatya sin can be overcome by
performing Kalabhairava Pooja along with Mrityunjayam. Daily recital of Kalabhairava
ashtakam can prevent infliction from enemies (internal & external) , fear . Feeding the dogs - the
vehicle of Kala Bhairava, will provide relief from a lot of inflictions. Upasana of
Swarnakarshana Bhairava boons the Upasaka with immense wealth and royal status.
Kashmiri Shaiva tantra, Trika and Agora Sambradayas consider Kalabhairava as a form of
Parabrahma and thus is highly regarded. He is also considered as the protector of women and
siddhas equally.His upasana is an intense form of worship. Diksha taken carefully from an adept
enlightened Guru can take the upasaka to Mukti and experience the highest.

Yam Yam Yam Yaksha Roopam Dashadishividinam Bhumikabayamanam

Sam Sam Samharamoorthim ShiramukudaJatasekharam Chandrabimbam
Dam Dam Dam Dirkhakayam Vikrithanakha Mukham Jordhwaromam Karaalam
Pam Pam Pam Paapanasham Pranamatha Sathatham Bhairavam Kshetrapaalam

In Tantrism, the three letters of Bhairava are taken to mean: ‘Bha’ means
bharana or maintenance; ‘ra’ means ravana or withdrawal and ‘va’ means
creation of the universe. Bhairva manifestation is traced in the Shiva Purana.
Lord Shiva takes the form of Kala Bhairava to behead Brahma in a superiority
contest between Vishnu and Brahma.

Thus, Kala Bhairava embodies the wrathful side of the Lord Shiva.

He can be invoked for destroying negative energies and for protecting us as

well.

These tremendous energies emphasize why it is important to honor Kala

Bhairava, the Lord of Time.

24
He is shown carrying Brahma’s decapitated head. Since he killed a Brahmin,
Shiva was forced to carry this skull and roam as Bhikshatana until his sins
were absolved in Kasi.

In the rural settings, Bhairava is a grama devata. In the South and among
Tamil speaking bhaktas, He is known as Vairavar or Annadhani.

He is the caretaker and punisher. Iconographically, Bhairava is accompanied

by his dog, Shvan.

His consort is Bhairavi, another fierce and terrifying aspect of Goddess Devi.

Maha Bhairavar is a reference to Lord Shiva himself.

The traditional listing of eight manifestations of Bhairavas are:

1. Asithanga Bhairavar,
2. Ruru Bhairavar,
3. Chanda Bhairavar,
4. Krodha Bhairavar,
5. Unmatta Bhairavar,
6. Kapala Bhairavar,
7. Bhishana Bhairavar and
8. Samhara Bhairavar.

DEPICTION:

Bhairava deity is usually situated in north or south facing direction.

As a deity, Bhairava appears in a standing position with four hands.

His weapons are damaru, pasam noose, trine and skull.

Sometimes, Bhairava is shown with more hands. He appears semi or fully

naked.

He is accompanied by his Vahana, a dog.

The dog is not just a means of transport but is an seaul participant in

Bhairava’s ferocious activities.

Bhairava has protruding teeth and looks terrible. His garland is made of red
flowers.

ATTRIBUTES of the Ashra Bhairavas are:

25
(1) Asitanga Bhairava: golden complexion, with well-formed limbs, and
carries the Trishula, Damaru, Pasha noose and Khadga sword

(2) Ruru Bhairava: pure white, adorned with ornaments set with rubies. Ruru
carries the akshmala rosary, a Pustaka book, Ankusha, elephant goad and a
Vina lute.

(3) Canda Bhairava: Blue color and good-looking. Canda carries Agni, Shakti
spear, Gada mace and Kunda water pot

(4) Krodha Bhairava: smoke color carrying Khetaka shield, a long Khadga
sword and Parashu (axe).

(5) Umnatta Bhairava: white color, good-looking and carry in their hands the
Kunda, iron bludgeon, the Khetaka, club studded with iron, the Parigha iron
club and Bhindipala javelin.

(6) Kapala Bhairava: yellow color, carrying the same weapons as Unmatta.

(7) Bhishana Bhairava: red colour.

( Samhara Bhairava: Lightning color. Kapala, Bhishana and Samhara

Bhairavas carry the same weapons as Unmatta.

Each of the Bhairava manifestations represent, Akash, air, fire, water and
earth and the other three being sun, moon and atma. Each of the Bhairavas
are different in appearance, have different weapons, different bahanas. They
also represent the Ashta Lakshmis.

It is to be noted that by and large, Bhairava conception of Lord Shiva gave

birth to Aghora and Bhairava groups carrying skull-bowls, wearing garlands
of skulls or severed heads. They besmear ashes of burnt human bodies and
are usually unshaven and appear disorderedly with unfurling locks of hair.
Their prayers are cemetery-clad and steeped in mystery.

DIRECTIONS:

Conceptualized as Shani, Guru of the planet Saturn, Bhairava is the moving

form of Lord Shiva and they guard the directions.The eight Maha Bhairavars
control the eight directions of this universe. This is also the depiction of the
rural grama devata, Vairavar who is said to guard the ‘ettu tikku’ or eight
directions which he stands to safeguard bhaktas.Each Bhairavar has eight
sub- Bhairavars under them. All of the Bhairavars are ruled and controlled by
one Maha Sorna Kala Bhairavar, who is the supreme.

26
DIRECTIONS IN BUDDHISM:

There is a parallel in Buddhism with Darmapala or Defenders of the law.

Grouped in eight called the ‘The Eight Terrible Ones’ they have an Vedic
origins as Dikpalas or the Guardian of Directions.

They are

(1) Indra, Lord of East,

(2) Agni, Lord of the South-east,

(3) Yama, of the South,

(4) Nirti, of the South-west,

(5) Varuna, of the West,

(6) Vayu, of the North-west,

(7) Kubera, of the North,

(8) Ishana of the North-east.

64 FORMS:

The 64 forms of Kala Bhairava are eight types of Bhairavas from each of the
main forms.

Their worship beings individual benefits.

1.Asidanga Bhairava: Gives creative ability;

2. Guru Bhairava: Divine educator;

3. Chanda Bhairava: Gives incredible energy, cuts competition and rivals;

4. Kroda Bhairava: Gives you the power to take massive action;

5. Unmatta Bhairava: Controls negative ego and harmful self talk;

6.Kapala Bhairava: Ends all unrewarding work and action;

7. Bhishana Bhairava: Obliterates evil spirits and negativity and

8. Samhara Bhairava: Complete dissolution of old negative karmas

KSHETRABALAR:

27
Sometimes Bhairava plays the role of Kheshtrabalar or Kshetrapalakar.

Sometimes prayers are made to the kshetrabakar independent of the main

deity.

This is His guardian role in the Shaktipeeths and Jyotirlinga temples.

In Shaktipeeth temples, a separate temple is dedicated to Bhairava.

In Jyotirlinga temples, Bhairava’s shrines are present within the sanctum

sanctorum are not far away from the Linga.

SWARNA AKARSHANA BHAIRAVA:

Other than these eight forms there is yet another form called Swarna
Akarshana Bahiravar.

He has red complexion and clothed in golden dress.

He has moon in his head.

He has four hands.

In one of his hands, he carries a golden vessel. He gives wealth and

prosperity

 Ashta Bhairava
 Asithaanga Bhairava
 Ruru Bhairava
 Chanda Bhairava
 Krodha Bhairava
 Unmattha Bhairava
 Kapaala Bhairava
 Bheeshana Bhairava
 Samhaara Bhairava

Then there is a concept of Ashta-Matrikas which are as follows:

 Brahmani
 Vaishnavi
 Maheshvari
 Indrani
 Kaumari
 Varahi
 Chamunda

28
  Narasimhi

These Ashta Bhairava’s got married to Ashta Matrikas. These Ashta

Bhairava’s and Ashta Matrika’s have dreadful forms. From these Ashta
Bhairava’s and Ashta Matrika’s, 64 Bhairava’s and 64 Yogini’s were created.

The names of 64 yoginis or joginis with respective Bhairavas are as follows:

1. jaya — nilakanta bhairava

2. vijaya — vishalaksha bhairava
3. jayanti — martanda bhairava
4. aparajitha — mundana prabhu bhairava
5. divya mohini — svacanda bhairava
6. maha yogini — athi santhushta bhairava
7. siddha mohini — kechara bhairava
8. ganeshara yogini — samhara bhairava
9. prethasini -vish!a rupa bhairava
10. dakini — viribaaksha bhairava
11. kali — nana rupa bhairava
12. kaalaratri — parama bhairava
13. nicashari — dandha karna bhairava
14. dannkari — shudha patra bhairava
15. vethalya — chirithan bhairava
16. humkari — unmatta bhairava
17. urtla keshi — megha natha bhairava
18. virubakshii — mano vegha bhairava
19. sushkaanggi — kshetrabala bhairava
20. nara bojini — karala bhairava
21. petkari — nirbaya bhairava
22. virabatra — bishitha bhairava
23. pitha — maha bhairava
24. dhrotaki .tara — balana bhairava
25. mantra yogini — loka bala bhairava
26. ghora raktakshi — bhumi garbha bhairava
27. rakshasi dhumrakshi — pralaya bhairava
28. varahi — runda maala bhairava
29. pretha vahini — samhara bhairava
30. tvankshini — apra rupa bhairava
31. malini — maha kaala bhairava
32. vira koumari — kula bala bhairava
33. dhumranki — vishnu bhairava

29
 34. maha mari — kula bhairava
35. cakrini — bishana bhairava
36. bhairavi — pingalekshna bhairava
37. dhirga lamboshdi — raktangga bhairava
38. kadgini — vatuka natha bhairava
39. yama dhuti — antakha bhairava
40. munda dharini — prekshatha bhairava
41. kalaha priya — pracandha bhairava
42. candika — ghada dhara bhairava
43. vishla rupi — mantra nayaka bhairava
44. kan kaali — kapala bhairava
45. uma — rudrabhairava
46. bhuvaneshvari — praja balana bhairava
47. kaali — vajra hasta bhairava
48. abayankari — kapala bhushana bhairava
49. totyami — sashi vahana bhairava
50. kaarmukhi — sarva bhutha bhairava
51. thunkshini — bayankara bhairava
52. durjadi — ishana bhairava
53. vyakrini — kalagni bhairava
54. karaali — ghora natha bhairava
55. pretha rupini — maha routra bhairava
56. vishalanka — bhutha vethala bhairava
57. keshini — bukti mukti pala pradha bhairava
58. gorya — dakshinapistitha bhairava
59. karal — varada bhairava
60. nir varani — tripurantaka bhairava
61. roma janke — parvatha vahana bhairava
62. vishali — sarvagnya bhairava
63. atho mukhi — sarva deva bhairava
64. mundakra dharini — trinetra bhairava

In Shiva temples, regular puja starts with Surya and ends with Bhariavar. The
best time for Bhairava worship is the midnight puja on a Friday.

The Kala Bhairava Tantra in Indonesia

Javanese Shaivism and Javanese Yoga

30
In Java, a succession of Hindu kingdoms flourished for 1500 years. In Java, the strongest form of
Hinduism was Javanese Shaivism, rooted in the very ancient Shaiva Siddantha tradition.
Javanese Shaivism is a religious system that postulates Shiva as God Almighty, the Ultimate
reality, the origin and final destination of all. It made a significant contribution to fields of
metaphysics, religion and culture. It is a system of thought that covers ethics and rituals as well as
Yoga.

Among all schools of Shaivism, it is a distinctive system shaped by Javanese specificity. Its
principles are written in Sanskrit and Old Javanese (Kawi) sources, and in modern Balinese. Over
the centuries, it developed into an advanced form of Shaivism, blending Indian and Javanese
forms of spirituality as well as Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism.

Javanese Shiva Mahadeva — Image source: Didi Trowulanesia

 The Shaivism of Dvipantara
 Core beliefs of Javanese Shaivism
 Tantrayana, the root of Javanese culture?
 The 3 tattwas of Shiva
 The Trimurti
 Tantric Shaivism and the Shiva-Buddha religion
 The Javanese Shaiva scriptures
 The Javanese Yoga
The Shaivism of Dvipantara
Since ancient times, the dominant form of Hinduism in Dvipantara (Southeast Asia)
was Shaivism. Chinese chronicles attest of a Shaivite kingdom in Vietnam in the 2nd century. It is

31
believed however that Shaivism predates the earliest material remains that have been found in
Dvipantara.
It is both the Shaiva (Hindu) and Buddhist Tantra which spread the most throughout the region, as
they were most compatible with the existing local religions and practices.
Javanese Shaivism adopted and assimilated the religious beliefs of all the peoples with whom the
early Shaivas came into contact. It did not destroy local beliefs (kawruh) but absorbed them.
It was able to assimilate hundreds of differing religious beliefs under its umbrella, because
ultimately, as the famous Upanishadic aphorism puts it, ‘Ekam Sat vipra bahudha vadanti‘ (“God
is One, and the sages call Him by different names”).

As a result, in Indonesia, “Hinduism” is a synergistic blend of almost all Dharmic spiritual

traditions (such as Vajrayana Buddhism, Shaiva Siddantha, Kala Bhairava Tantra, etc.) in a very
refined form.
Today, Bali and Java provide spiritualists with precious knowledge about Hinduism and
Buddhism which had vanished in India itself.
Javanese Shaivism matured first in Central and East Java, where the teachings of Tantrayana
developed. The area of Kahuripan around Mount Penanggungan was a core center of the ancient
Javanese wisdom and is considered a sacred region.

Core beliefs of Javanese Shaivism

• A belief in one supreme being called ‘Ida Sanghyang Widi Wasa’, or Shiva
• A belief that all of the gods are manifestations of this supreme being (Hyang, Dewata and
Batara-Batari)
• A belief in the Trimurti, consisting of: Brahma, the Creator, Vishnu, the Preserver, and Shiva,
the Dissolver of the Universe.
• Lord Shiva is also worshiped in other, lower manifestations for different purposes, such as
Batara Guru and Mahadeva, who are closely identified with the Sun as per the Upanishads.
• An observance of the Catur Purusartha, or four proper goals of human life: dharma (pursuit of
moral and ethical living), artha (pursuit of wealth and creative activity), kama (pursuit of joy and
love) and moksha (pursuit of self-knowledge and liberation).

Indonesian Hindus believe in One Supreme God, with the other gods just being manifestations of
him, or different layers of Reality that can be more easily addressed for different purposes.
In Sanskrit, He is named Acintya, but Indonesian Hindus know him as Tunggal or Sanghyang
Widhi Wasa (the most common name among modern Balinese). Prayers and offerings are not
given directly to Tunggal, but to his more precise manifestations as various deities.
Tunggal is God Almighty in the Javanese Wayang (shadow puppets theater). Tunggal is often
represented as the Spiritual Sun (as explained in the Upanishads — where the Sun is seen as the
best representation for Acintya, or Brahman, and not just a solar deity). In most depictions, there
are spiritual flames around him.

32
 The omnipresence
of Tunggal, or Acintya, or Shiva, or God Almighty is revered through the padmasana.

Tantrayana, the root of Javanese culture?

It all started in the dialogue between goddess Parwati and Sang Hyang Sada-Siwa about goddess
Durga who descended on Earth to save the world from the chaos of human actions. Durga’s role
in saving the earth is called Kalimosada, or Kali-Maha-Usada.

From here came Shaktism, where people praised Shakti, the energy of Shiva, and from there came
the term ‘Bhairawa’, which means ‘great, magnificent power’.

Tantrayana is focused on the balance of both worldly life and spiritual well-being. Tantrayana
praises the various gods and goddesses as the passive magnificent powers of God. In practice,
Tantrayanas emphasize tapa brata. Tapa comes from the Sanskrit root tap, which means heat.
Tapa is also meditation. In meditation, a person focuses his mind, and in this process, he generates
heat in his body that will cleanse his body, mind and soul. Brata is spiritual discipline.

Tantrayana also focuses on cleansing rituals, that’s why sesajen or offerings are always used in
Java as a medium for cleansing. This is why all the scenes in the Serat Centhini symbolize rituals
to respect the Earth and cleanse it.

Javanese Yoga developed from such roots. The Javanese practiced Yoga as a comprehensive and
holistic system for general wellbeing. They did not create any dogma or doctrine around it, nor
did they reduce it to a sectarian teaching.

The 3 tattwas of Shiva

33
The teachings of Javanese Shaivism consider Shiva as the Supreme Reality, or God
Almighty. However, Shiva is an almost identical name used for his 3 highest tattwas, or layers of
existence.
• The first tattwa is Siwattatwa which is non-existent (intangible), and
called Parashiva or Parameshvara.
• The second tattwa is Sadasiwattatwa or Consciousness/Matter. That is why Shiva is said to be
married to Parvati (also called Shakti, Uma, Durga, according to the circumstances), or Matter
(tangible reality).
• The third tattwa is the Trimurti (or Trisamaya) , which is sakala (tangible) and directly related
to the Creation (manifested as Batara Brahma), Preservation (manifested as Batara Vishnu) and
Dissolution (manifested as Batara Shiva Mahadeva) of all things.
Hence Shiva-Mahadeva of the Trimurti is an inferior tattwa (layer) to Sada Shiva, which is
inferior to the Absolute Shiva, or Parashiva.
God Almighty in Javanese Shaivism therefore expresses Himself in 3 layers of existence:
 As the Trimurti — Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva Mahadeva
 As the Cosmic Couple of Sada Shiva and Parvati/Devi/Uma/Durga/Shakti
 On top of the pyramid, as the first tattva, is a shapeless, formless, Absolute Truth,
called Brahman, or Parabrahman, or Parashiva. This Absolute Reality is denoted by the
sound Om.

The Trimurti
The third tattwa from the Godhead in Javanese Shaivism is the Trimurti, which consists of:
1. Batara Brahma, who creates the world. Lord Brahma is only worshiped for practical purposes
such as wealth and prosperity, since he represents the aspect of Creation.
2. Batara Wisnu, who maintains the world. Basic householders tend to attach themselves to Lord
Vishnu.
3. Bhathara Shiva-Mahadeva, who dissolves the world. People looking for high spiritual
achievements rather become worshipers of Lord Shiva-Mahadeva.
This was the core teaching of the early Hinduism, which then developed into various schools.

Depiction of Shiva-Mahadeva as Adi Yogi, the lord of the yogis

Tantric Shaivism and the Shiva-Buddha religion
In Java, Bali and Lombok, Shaivism and Buddhism are considered two different lineages of the
same religion. King Sindok is credited for the harmonious merging of the Shaivist and Buddhist
cosmologies and is considered the founder of the Indonesian Shiva-Buddha religion.
In particular, the merging of the Kalacakratantra and of local esoteric philosophy (kawruh), can be
said to be the source of the union of Shiva-Buddha.
In the upakara and yajna ceremonies in Java and Bali, is clearly visible the influence of Tantra,
which is where the merging between Shaivism and Buddhism occurred in Indonesia, and came to
be the dominant religion.
The kings of Medang, Kahuripan and Kediri then temporarily embraced Vaishnavism, but during
the reign of Sri Kartanegara the Shiva-Buddha religion re-emerged until the time of the
Majapahit, when the typical Hindu-Javanese teaching was perfected and called ‘Saiwasiddhanta
Jawa’, or Javanese Shaiva Siddantha.

The Javanese Shaiva scriptures

34
The body of Javanese Shaiva religious scriptures is known as tutur and tattva. In addition to
normative Shaivist texts, some of the most well known Javanese scriptures include:
• The Vrhaspati Tattva was specifically intended for the Javanese people. In this scripture,
Pratyahara or withdrawal of the sense objects and senses is given first priority. The emphasis is
also placed upon tarka, or Contemplation and Thought.
• The Tattvajnana
• The Dharma Pātañjala, presents a typically Javanese form of Shaiva Yoga.
• The Arjunawiwāha — The Marriage of Arjuna of Mpu Kanwa
• The Śiwarātrikalpa of Mpu Tanakun
• Some of the Javanese Shaiva scriptures are also written in Sundanese script, in a class of text
known as Merapi-Merbabu manuscripts.

The Javanese Yoga

To understand the specificity of Javanese Yoga, there is perhaps no better source than to study the
recent translation of the Dharma Patanjala, a Kawi-Sanskrit Shaiva scripture rediscovered a few
years ago on a Sundanese palm-leaf manuscript.
While it is the Shaiva Sadangayoga that is usually dominant in Javanese scriptures, the Dharma
Patanjala instead attunes the Patanjala Astangayoga to a Shaiva philosophy.

35
The Dharma Patanjala documents an early tradition of Tattva scriptures, which was previously
known only through two Javanese scriptures, the Vrhaspatitattva and the Tattvajnana. This
important text sheds light upon our understanding of Javanese Shaiva Yoga and philosophy.
In this book, Andrea Acri, a researcher at the Nalanda-Sriwijaya Centre, presents a study of the
relationship between the Tutur and Tattva literature of Java and Bali:
 Part I — Cultural and doctrinal background of the text
 Part II — Annotated edition of the text
 Part III — A systematic study focusing on the interpretation of the doctrines taught in the
Dharma Patanjala in comparison with related Sanskrit and Kawi scriptures

When the powerful King Kertanegara of Singosari ascended to the throne, his title was Bhattara
Shivabuddha, which glorified his embrace of the syncretic Indonesian Shiva-Buddha religion.
Lesser known is that he was also an adept of the esoteric Kala Bhairava Tantra Hindu-Buddhist
lineage. His deified statue is that of Bhairava, who is portrayed standing on a pedestal of skulls,
wearing a chain of human heads around his naked body, a crown of skulls on his head and
holding a skull drinking cup.

This esoteric lineage was based on the worship of Shiva Bhairava, a wrathful manifestation of
Shiva. Bha means Creation, ra means Sustenance and va means Dissolution. Therefore, Bhairava
is the One who creates, sustains and dissolves. He is Para Shiva, or the Supreme God in that
spiritual lineage.

Shiva Bhairava, or Kala Bhairava is depicted as ferocious because he protects his devotees from
all sins such as greed, lust and anger and at the same time protects his devotees from his enemies.
Worshiping him destroys enemies. He is also described as the protector of timid people.
Sri Maharajadiraja Sri Kertanegara Wikrama Dharmatunggadewa, Kritanagara,
or Sivabuddha (died 1292), was the last and most important ruler of the Singhasari kingdom
of Java, reigning from 1268 to 1292. Under his rule Javanese trade and power developed
considerably, reaching the far corners of the Indonesian archipelago.
Kertanegara was the fifth ruler of Singasari and was the son of the previous king,
Wisnuwardhana (r. 1248–1268). He effectively held power from 1254 and officially succeeded
his father when the latter died in 1268. The Singasari dynasty had come to power in Java
following the overthrow of the previous Kediri Kingdom by Ken Arok, the first Singhasari ruler
in 1222.
Kertanegara was a follower of a mystical Tantric syncretism of Hinduism and Buddhism, and
presented himself as the divine god-king incarnation of Shiva and Buddha.[3] Kertanegara
celebrated many religious festivals and commissioned sculptures and metal plaques during his
reign.

36
Singosari temple at Singosari, East Java, Indonesia /Statue of Amoghapasa presented by
Kertanegara of Singhasari to the Melayu Kingdom of East Sumatra
Singhasari reached the height of its power during Kertanegara's rule, which saw the dramatic
expansion of Javanese power into Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and Bali. He extended Javanese
involvement in the lucrative spice trade with the Maluku Islands. He also put down rebellions in
Java by Cayaraja (Bhayaraja) in 1270 and Mahisha Rangkah in 1280.
Kertanegara was the first Javanese ruler with territorial ambitions that extended beyond the
island of Java. In 1284, he subjected nearby Bali to vassalage. Kertanegara managed to form an
alliance with Champa, another dominant state in Southeast Asia.
Late in his reign, the Pamalayu expedition succeeded in gaining control of the Melayu
Kingdom in eastern Sumatra, and possibly also gained control over the Sunda Kingdom and
hegemony over the Strait of Malacca. Other areas in Madura Island and Borneo also offered their
submission to Kertanegara.
Following the conquest of Song China, the Mongol Yuan dynasty sought to extend its power
in Southeast Asia. In 1289 Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis khan, sent his
own ambassadors to Java, demanding tribute and submission to the Yuan dynasty. Kertanegara
took grave offense to the request and arrested the envoys. He branded their faces, cut their ears
and sent them back to China with disfigured faces. Knowing that the Mongols would send a
military expedition to punish him, Kertanegara tried to solidify his power. Around 1290, he
launched the Pamalayu expedition to Sumatra, in order to conquer Jambi in the south, one of
successor states to Srivijaya. Jambi was one of the first Indonesian polities where Islam had
established its presence, and it already entertained cordial relationships with Yuan China.

37
Kublai Khan ordered that a strong punitive naval expedition be launched against the remote
equatorial islands in order to punish Kertanegara in 1292.
In the meantime, Kertanegara had dominated all of Java, but before the Mongol fleet arrived, a
dramatic political change occurred. Jayakatwang, prince of Kediri and one of Singhasari's most
powerful vassals, rebelled against his overlord. With the bulk of the Javanese army in campaign
overseas and Singasari's defence weakened, Jayakatwang seized his chance and launched a coup
against Kertanegara. He launched a diversionary attack to northern East Java, where his troops
drew the remaining Singhasari troops left on the island away from the capital. With Kutaraja, the
Singhasari capital defenseless, Jayakatwang attacked the capital city unnoticed from the
mountainous southern region.
Kertanegara was killed along with many courtiers in his palace in Singhasari in May or June
1292. Jayakatwang then declared himself ruler of Java and king of the restored Kediri Kingdom.
Among the few surviving relatives of Kertanegara was his son-in-law, Raden Wijaya, who fled
to Madura Island, where he was sheltered by its regent, Arya Viraraja. Vijaya then established
himself in the lower Brantas delta, where he built a settlement that would grow into the mighty
empire of Majapahit.
Kertanegara had no male heir, but through his daughter Gayatri Rajapatni, who married Raden
Wijaya, Kertanegara became the ancestor of Rajasa dynasty, the ruling dynasty of Majapahit. His
daughter Gayatri and his granddaughter Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi would become queen
regnant of Majapahit. His great-grandson Hayam Wuruk became the greatest king of Majapahit,
which under his rule became one of the greatest empires in Nusantara.
Kertanegara was later eulogized as Mahaksobya Dyani Buddha by his descendants in the Wurare
Inscription.

Bhairawa Tantrayana in Java and Sumatra

Bhairawa Tantra is a secret lineage that emerged from the syncretism of Tantrayana
Buddhism and Shaivism. This lineage first appeared in the 6th century AD in Bengal. From there
it quickly spread across the land and maritime routes of Asia through Tibet, China, Japan,
Malaysia and Indonesia.

The Bhairawa Tantra lineage first appeared in Java in 674 AD in the Kalingga kingdom, led by
Queen Shima. It also flourished under King Dharma Udayana Warmadewa and his empress
Mahendradhatta around the 10th century.

Tantrayana was widespread in Indonesia for a thousand years, in Java, Sumatra, Bali and
Kalimantan, in both its Buddhist and Shaivist form. Its most powerful and elitist aspect was the
Kala Bhairava lineage. Followers of the Bhairava Tantra tried to achieve enlightenment (moksa)
in the shortest possible way. In pure Shaivite tradition, meditations were conducted in the
cremation grounds, to remind the practitioner of the impermanence of existence.
Bhairava Tantrayana was an elite lineage that merged the teachings of both Saivism and
Buddhism and was at the core of Indonesian civilization for almost a thousand years.
38
The Age of the priest-kings

Bhairava is also worshiped in Esoteric Buddhism, where various Bhairava forms are
called Mahākāla, Vajrabhairava, or Heruka). Buddhist Bhairava Tantrayana has its own set of
scriptures, the Vajrabhairava tantras. Bhairava is central to Newar Buddhism, where the spiritual
practices associated with Bhairava focus on the transformation of anger and hatred into
understanding.

King Kertanegara was a devout follower of the Indonesian Buddhist Tantra. In both
the Pararaton and Negarakertagama, Kertanegara is referred to as an expert in the Kalachakra
Bhairava Tantra.

The famous Joko Dolog statue of Buddha Akshobya in honor of King Kertanegara, Surabaya
There were three main Bhairava lineages in Indonesia:
 Bhairava Kalacakra (mostly in West and Central Java)
 Bhairava Heruka (mostly in Sumatra)
 Bhairava Bima Sakti (mostly in East Java and Bali).
Kertanegara followed the Bhairava Kalachakra to balance the influence of Emperor Khu Bhi Lai
Khan of China who adhered to Bhairava Heruka. Meanwhile, Singasari adhered to Bhairava
Bhima and Adityawarman his successor followed Bhairava Kalachakra as well to balance the
Pagaruyung kings in western Sumatra who embraced Bhairava Heruka.
Interestingly, the only three remaining Bhairava statues in Indonesia today are: Bhairava Heruka
in Sumatra, Bhairava Kalacakra in East Java, and Adityawarman as Bhairava Bima in Bali.

Adityawarman in Sumatra
After Kertanegara, Adityawarman was another powerful priest-king, also initiated in this
lineage. Adityawarman was the Majapahit ruler in Swarnadvipa. He was named the leader of
Pagaruyung (Minangkabau) after successfully expanding Majapahit to Bali with Gajah Mada.
Adityawarman’s statue show him grasping a sacrificial knife and stand on skulls — the skulls
represent the ineluctable advance of Time and Death. He also stands on a corpse with a throne
made of skulls.

An inscription states that King Adityawarman was ordained while silently dwelling in a seat in
the form of a pile of corpses under the name Wicesadharani, which means “a person of high
concentration”. “Meanwhile, the large human casualties emit an unbearable foul odor, but for
those who have been ordained as the fragrance of tens of thousands of flowers” — again, all
symbolic statements, that have been taken literally by some people.

The corpse field according to the Kala Bhairava Tantra is considered a place where the bonds
of Samsara were released. This is the place where worldly life ends. The corpse field, or
cremation ground is therefore the most appropriate holy place to carry out on it important
ceremonial acts, and especially meditations.

39
The mystical area of Tanah Toba, North Sumatra was a center of Adityawarman’s lineage. The
ruins of the Padang Lawas temples show the image of Heruka dancing on a pile of corpses,
symbol of the victory of the mystics over Death itself.

Kala Bhairava sasana in Java.

Left: Bhairava Shiva in sampada (standing with feet together) with right hand showing the
vitarkamudra signifying teaching and the left hand resting on a gada (cudgel). Right:
Adityawarman as Bhairava in sampada on a pedestal of skulls with the right hand holding a
kāpalā (skull bowl) and the left hand a kaḍitula (sacrificial knife).

Shiva Bhairava worship

According to Kala Bhairava Tantra, Shiva Bhairava is the supreme ruler of the Universe, as per
the Shaiva scriptures (āgama). Bhairava is the ultimate form of manifestation or pure “I”
consciousness.

Ritual worship of Bhairava is performed with ghee bath (abhiṣeka), red flowers, ghee lamp,
unbroken coconut, honey, fruits etc. The right time to pray to Bhairava is midnight. At that time it
is said that Bhairava and his consort Bhairavi will appear (give darśana) to their devotees. The
most appropriate time is a Friday midnight.

Bhairava is called upon as protector, as he guards the Eight Directions of the Universe, by
splitting Himself into the Ashta Bhairava, who control of the eight cardinal points. There are 64
Bhairavas in total, grouped under 8 categories and each category is headed by one major
Bhairava.

Each of the eight Bhairavas are different in appearance, have different weapons, different mantras
and vāhanas (vehicles) and they bless their devotees with the Eight Types of Wealth (Ashta
Lakshmis). All the different forms of Bhairava emanate from the Mahā Bhairava.
The eight different manifestations of Kala Bhairava are:

 Asitanga Bhairava — Grants creative skill, powers to generate new ideas and
conceptions
 Guru Bhairava — Gives divine education, success in all ventures, spiritual knowledge
 Chanda Bhairava — Destroys evil and enemies and enhances confidence, removes
fears, clears path to progress and provides incredible energy to attain success
 Kroda Bhairava — Gives strength and courage to take massive action that ends in
success, emerge victorious by overcoming hurdles and oppositions.
 Unmatta Bhairava — Controls negative emotions like depression, mood swings,
anxiety, mental disorders, ego etc.
 Kapala Bhairava — Ends all profitless work and action. He helps overcome delays in
major projects and assures matters are settled in a fulfilling manner.
 Bhishana Bhairava — Eliminates evil spirits and negative energy. Installing this form
in your space emits positive and energetic vibrations.

40
  Samhara Bhairava — Though benevolent, this form of Kala Bhairava looks fierce and
eliminates bad karma effects and bestows them with fresh vigor.

In India, Bhairava shrines are present within or near all the 12 sacred Jyotirlinga temples.
Kalabhairava is also celebrated every year with the Kalabhairava Ashtami, celebrated with the
chanting of Nirvana Shatakam — the famous chant written by Adi Shankaracharya over a
thousand years ago.

Death and Time

In Bhairava Tantrayana worship, the devotees seek to unite with higher and higher manifestations
of Shiva. This is why the famous statue of Kertanegara depicted as Bhairava presents lots of
similarities with depictions of the Goddess Kali, one of the manifestations of Parvati (called
Bhairavi in Kala Bhairava Tantra).
Kali is the personification of Time and is usually portrayed as a black woman with a terrible face,
covered in blood and wearing skulls and snakes. Skull-bearing in all representations of deities is a
symbol of Death and Time. Her tongue sticks out as a symbol that everyone will be swallowed by
Time.

Misunderstood rituals and fantastic rumors

Often, the highly symbolic representations of deities drinking blood and eating human flesh —
symbols of overcoming the human condition through meditation — were taken literally by the
outsiders. Yet the depictions of corpses are there to remind the devotees of the untemporality of
everything and of the ineluctable presence of Time, or Kala.

The Kala Bhairava rituals were secret, which led to the most fantastic and even ridiculous
rumors. Among uninformed commoners, the Tantric symbolism often aroused the wrong
interpretations. The simple-minded Moslems took all this literally instead of symbolically and
interpreted this as ‘’cannibalism’’ and other absurdities.

This lead to legends and accusations of “human sacrifice”, “eating corpses”, “sacrificing virgins”
and others, which are still propagated by Indonesian Moslem books until today, and even by
certain uninformed Western authors.
In the same way, the Tantric sexual practices that were well-known all around Dvipantara at that
time, were basely interpreted by the sex-shy Moslems as ‘orgies’.

Due to the secrecy surrounding them, the Bhairava rituals were usually totally misunderstood,
such as the Pancamakara puja, or ‘five Ms’ ritual. The five Ma are said to
be matsya (fish), mamsa (meat), madya (drink), madra (dance to ecstasy), and maithuna (sexual
tantra), all actions and substances considered ritually or socially impure by the orthodox Hindu
tradition.

The pancha-makara is actually a cleansing of the panca tattva — a worship of deities in order to
eradicate five types of sins — quite the opposite of what it is made up to be. Each metaphorical
substance relates in reality to one of the elemental principles: wine is Fire, Air is flesh, Water is
fish, cereals represent Earth and sexual union, Ether. It is related to the bhuta shuddhi process.

41
Kala Bhairava Tantrayana in Bali
The development of Tantrayana in Bali began in the 10th century, around the time of the marriage
of the king of Dharma Udayana Warmadewa with a daughter of the king of East Java named
Mahendradhatta. It is around that time that the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan was compiled, which
outlined the teachings of Indonesian Tantric Buddhism.
Empress Mahendradhatta worshiped Hyang Bhairawi (or Bhatari Durga). When she died, she was
celebrated in Gianyar in the form of a large statue of Durga Mahisasuramardhini. This statue
reminds us that Mahendradhatta was following a Shakta lineage.

Then around the 13th century in East Java King Kertanegara ruled as the last king of the Singasari
kingdom. Then he occupied Bali in 1280 and the Kala Bhairawa lineage spread there.
In the courtyard of the Kebo Edan temple in Bali are other giant statues that are reminiscent of the
Bhairawa statue found in Singasari temple, East Java. The attribute on the statue’s hand is a large
knife, trident, drum and skull bowl.

Similar statues are also found in Biaro Bahal II Temple, Padang Lawas, Batak and Central
Sumatra, which show an Indonesia-wide distribution of the Kala Bhairawa teachings.

42
The Shiva Bhairava statue in Pura Kebo Edan in Bali. The shape of the statue is similar to the
Bhairava statue in Singasari. Around the 13th century the Shiva Bhairava Tantrayana started to
develop widely in Bali from East Java.

The Kala Bhairawa’s resistance to islamization in Java

The spread of Islam in Indonesia is officially attributed to a group of nine semi-mythical ‘Wali
Songo’ missionaries. One of these Moslem proselityzers was Sunan Bonang, who reported having
encountered the strongest resistance in Kediri from the followers of Kala Bhairawa.
Of all the Indonesian islands, the Javanese were already the most difficult to accept the foreign
religion because of their powerful Shiva-Buddha tradition. Violent sporadic conflicts lasted for
the next two centuries before the Moslems could take a hold in South and East Java.

Bonang gave up on East Java and emigrated to Demak, where he continued his preaching,
becoming a mosque priest there. This time he focused more on slowly changing the Javanese
culture to make it more porous to Moslem beliefs, instead of confronting the Javanese directly
with his Semitic religion.

His student, Sunan Kalijaga, a former highway robber converted to Islam, continued his task by,
instead of preaching directly, opting for a cultural approach. He chose to progressively strip
Javanese culture — such as batik and wayang — of its most obvious Hindu meanings, opting for
a more creeping approach to islamization.
Kalijaga also attempted to replace the popular Javanese literature of the time with his own poetic
creations, such as the “Wijuk Wijil”, in which he had translated some Persian Sufi teachings to
woo more followers.

After leaving his position as “imam” (priest) of the Demak Mosque, Bonang was told to go to
Lasem and used there his experience in Islamic proselytism, using the lessons he learned from the
difficult experiences he had received while preaching in Kediri.
There again, Bonang had difficulties with his preaching strategy, and sought, instead of
convincing people to convert directly, to slowly infuse the Javanese customs with Moslem ideas.
Bonang started by copying Javanese rituals and practice a parallel, islamized version of the
Javanese ritual with his followers, for example replacing mantra japa with the Mohammedan
‘’tahlil’’ and so on.

43
Then he got the idea to imitate the Hindu custom of forming a circle (cakra) and
eating tumpeng with the local congregation, but with the ceremony being given an Islamic style
instead. This is still known today as the selamatan.

Worship of the fierce form of Lord Ganesha is also part of

Kala Bhairava rituals

After years of failure, Bonang finally stoke a chord in the population with his islamicized version
of the selametan which then spread to almost all parts of Java. The famous Panca-makara-
puja ritual was then Islamized into ‘five taboos’ for Javanese people. The “five M” made up by
Bonang were: Thieving (stealing), Madhat (smoking opium), Drinking (drinking liquor),
Gambling) and Madon (prostitution).

Bonang was later also known as Sunan Wahdat Cakrawati, derived from the word cakra (circle in
Sanskrit) because he had taken over the Hindu circular ritual through the selamatan.
This selamatan tradition is now itself under attack by the radical Moslems of today for being part
of Islam Nusantara, because the selamatan’s tumpeng is a symbol of Mount Meru and of
the Javanese Cosmic Mountain.

Eventually Islam slowly prevailed in Java due to a combination of proselytizing, economic

conversions, opportunistic political rivalries and the financial influence of the Moslem merchants
entrenched along the Northern coast of Java.Yet important pockets of Hindu-Javanese subsisted
in the interior — especially in East Java — well into the 19th and 20th centuries.

The Sang Dwija Naga Naraswara — the Javanese version of Shiva’s trishula, with Nāga on the
sides. Image source: Aurela Arsyifa
The Bagelen (Purworejo) spiritual center
The city of Bagelen in Central Java (2 hours from Yogyakarta, 15 minutes from Borobudur) had
been a center of the development of the Shiva-Buddha religion since the Galuh-Tarumanagara
kingdom.

44
Bagelen used to include parts of Wonosobo (a name derived from the Sanskrit Vanasabha, which
means “gathering place in the forest”), and was known as a place of escape for the Majapahit
elite. The Bagelen countryside is still dotted with Shivalingas from that era.
The regency is crossed by a river called Bagawanta, which comes from the word Begawan,
because it is along this riverbank the monks settled.
The regency is rich in caves that were used for meditation retreats. In the Seplawan Cave, a gold
statue of Shiva and Parvati was found.
=--=

In Bagelen were concentrated many powerful Kala Bhairava Tantrayana priests and mystics.
Bagelen had long been a famous place for Buddhist monks to live and meditate. Many were
skilled in martial arts. The region was known to produce many tough soldiers as well.
During the islamization of Java, with such a background, there was no other choice for the
Moslem proselytizers such as Sunan Kalijaga than to first accommodate the Kala Bhairava values
in order to get a foothold in the place.
Even after they were islamized, the Bagelen resistance against the Dutch was stiff, and most
of Prince Diponegoro’s followers came from this region. In order to break the identity of Bagelen
as a strong region, this area was reduced by Dutch authorities to become only a district within the
Kedu Residency. The Dutch built a new settlement in this area and built a highway dividing it to
make it easier to monitor.
That is the origin of today’s Purworejo. Before 1830 the area covered Berangkal (now
Purworejo), Semawung (Kutoarjo), Ngaran (Kebumen), and Karangduwur (southern Wonosobo),
but after 1830 Bagelen remained only in an area of four districts east of Purworejo.
Today, the area is entirely islamized, but the inhabitants mostly follow Kejawen Islam, which
keeps many of the ancient traditions alive. The peaceful energies of the place are still felt there
today.

Tantric Ganesh- Also featuring in part I -All you

wanted to know about the Elephant God
Dr Uday Dokras

Lord Ganesha or the elephant god has an elephant face and a huge belly, due to his fondness of
sweets. He is the son of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvathi. He is the benevolent protector of the

45
innocent, yet the ruthless destroyer of all evils. His mount is a rat.The size of his mount tells us
about the significance of even the very smallest of beings. Hindu traders from the 10th century
onwards introduced Ganesha to the rest of Asia. Along with
Brahma,Mahesh and Vishnu, Ganesha was assimilated into Buddhism. In the an mahayana
sutra the lord ganapati is actually lord Ganesha.Lord Ganesha is a very powerful protector. He
loves to protect true practitioner. The buddhist story of Lord Ganesha.
T. A. Gopinatha notes, "Every village however small has its own image of Vighneśvara
(Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below
pīpaḹa (Sacred fig) trees [...], in a niche [...] in temples of Viṣṇu (Vishnu) as well as Śiva (Shiva)
and also in separate shrines specially constructed in Śiva temples [...]; the figure
of Vighneśvara is invariably seen." Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India,
including southeast Asia, Nepal (including the four Vinayaka shrines in the Kathmandu valley),
and in several western countries.

Rise to prominence and First appearance

Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly recognizable deity with well-defined
iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries.Shanti Lal Nagar says that the earliest
known iconic image of Ganesha is in the niche of the Shiva temple at Bhumra, which has been
dated to the Gupta period.His independent cult appeared by about the 10th century. Narain
summarizes the controversy between devotees and academics regarding
the development of Ganesha as follows:

[W]hat is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaņeśa on the historical scene.

His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and
territorial limits, are indeed amazing.On the one hand there is the pious belief of
the orthodox devotees in Gaņeśa's Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the
confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology.On the other hand there are doubts about
the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity" before the fourth to fifth century A.D. ... [I]n
my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence of the existence of this divinity prior to the
fifth century.

Possible influences

Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including
supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:
In this search for a historical origin for Gaņeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside
the Brāhmaṇic tradition....
These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all
speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to
in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come into Brāhmaṇic religion from
the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that
produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations.

There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there

46
any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in
the Purāṇic literature and the iconography of Gaņeśa.Thapan's book on
the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in
early India but concludes that, "although by the second century CE the elephant-
headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka.There is
no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early
stage. Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut."

The 4 Vinayaka Theorey

One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with
the four Vinayakas (Vināyakas).In Hindu mythology, the Vināyakas were a group of four
troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties but who were easily propitiated.

The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist
Tantras.Krishan is one of the academics who accepts this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, "He is
a non-vedic god.His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of
the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering".

Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear
in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century.According to Ellawala, the elephant-
headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre-
Christian era.

Vedic and epic literature

The title "Leader of the group" (Sanskrit: gaṇapati) occurs twice in the Rig Veda, but in neither
case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for
Brahmanaspati, according to commentators.While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati,
it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today.In rejecting any claim that this
passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it "clearly refers to
Bṛhaspati—who is the deity of the hymn—and Bṛhaspati only".Equally clearly, the second
passage (RV 10.112.9) refers to Indra, who is given the epithet 'gaṇapati', translated "Lord of the
companies (of the Maruts)."However, Rocher notes that the more recent
Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha .

Two verses in texts belonging to Black Yajurveda, Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā (2.9.1) and Taittirīya
Āraṇyaka (10.1), appeal to a deity as "the tusked one" (Dantiḥ), "elephant-faced" (Hastimukha),
and "with a curved trunk" (Vakratuņḍa).

These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentator Sayana explicitly
establishes this identification.The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk (vakratuṇḍa)
and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane, and a club, is so characteristic of
the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says "we cannot resist to accept his full identification with
this Vedic Dantin".However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions.Thapan
reports that these passages are "generally considered to have been interpolated".Dhavalikar says,
"the references to the elephant-headed deity in the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā have been proven to be

47
very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of
the deity".

Ganesha does not appear in Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period. A late
interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata says that the sage Vyasa (Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to
serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him.Ganesha agreed but only
on condition that Vyasa recite the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing.The sage agreed,
but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have
to ask for clarifications.The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the
critical edition of the Mahabharata, in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an
appendix.

The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during
preparation of the critical edition.Ganesha's association with mental agility and learning is
one reason he is shown as scribe for (Vyāsa's dictation of the Mahabharata in this
interpolation.Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and Moriz Winternitz
concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the Mahabharata some
150 years later.Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of
the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend.The term vināyaka is found in some
recensions of the Śāntiparva and Anuśāsanaparva that are regarded as interpolations.

A reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām ("Creator of Obstacles") in Vanaparva is also believed to be an

interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.

Puranic period

Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas "defy
precise chronological ordering", the more detailed narratives of Ganesha's life are in the late
texts, c. 600–1300.Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and
how he acquired an elephant's head are in the later Puranas, which were composed from c. 600
onwards.He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas,
such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th
centuries.In his survey of Ganesha's rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes
that:

Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous of his stories
concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three:
his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in
the texts, but to a far lesser extent.

Ganesha's rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century, when he was formally included as
one of the five primary deities of Smartism.The 9th century philosopher Śaṅkarācārya popularized
the "worship of the five forms" (pañcāyatana pūjā) system among orthodox Brahmins of
the Smarta tradition.This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devī,
and Sūrya.Śaṅkarācārya instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these
five major sects on an equal status.

48
 This formalized the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.

Scriptures

Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Brahmanism,
some Brahmins (brāhmaṇas) chose to worship Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed
the Ganapatya tradition, as seen in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.The date of
composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana—and their dating relative to one
another—has sparked academic debate.Both works were developed over time and contain age-
layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comments about dating and provides her own judgement.

"It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries", she says, "but was later interpolated."

Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana to be between
1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.
R.C. Hazra suggests that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana, which he dates
between 1100 and 1400.However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and
concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned
with Ganesha.She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence,
the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the
four Puranas (the Brahma, the Brahmanda, the Ganesha, and the Mudgala Puranas) which deal at
length with Ganesha.While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th
and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions.

There are numerous interesting stories about the various Gods, their rivalries, jealousy and follies
they commit just like humans There is an interesting story behind the birth of Lord Ganesha.
Ganesha is known as Vighnavinayaka or one who removes all obstacles. He is considered to be
the god of wisdom, prudence and prosperity.In the Ganapathi Upanishad, Ganesha is identified
with the Supreme Self. The legends that are connected with Lord Ganesha are recorded in
the Ganesha Khanda of the 'Brahma Vivartha Purana.' Here are two such popular stories - 'The
Curse of the Moon' and 'Who is Elder?'Lord Ganesh is the elephant-headed God, with one tusk.
The legend of how he got his elephant head and one tusk is a fascinating one.Ganesha (Sanskrit:
गणेश; IAST: Gaṇeśa; About this sound listen (help·info)), also spelled Ganesa, also known
as ]]Pillaiyar\\, Ganapati (Sanskrit: गणपति; IAST: Gaṇapati) and Vinayaka, is one of the best-
known and most widely worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon. His image is found
throughout India and Nepal. Hindu sects worship him regardless of
affiliations. Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains, Buddhists,
and beyond India.

49
Although he is known by many other attributes, ]]Ganesha's\\ elephant head makes him
particularly easy to identify.Ganesha is widely revered as the Remover of Obstacles and more
generally as the [[Lord of Beginnings\\ and the Lord of Obstacles, patron of arts and sciences,
and the deva of intellect and wisdom.He is honored at the beginning rituals and ceremonies and
invoked as the Patron of Letters during writing sessions. Many Texts ate mythological anecdotes
associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography.Ganesha emerged as
a distinct deity in a clearly recognizable form in the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during the Gupta
Period, although he inherited traits from Vedic and pre-Vedic precursors.His popularity rose
quickly, and he was formally included among the five primary deities of Smartism
(a Hindu denomination) in the 9th century.

Sect of devotees called the Ganapatya (Sanskrit: गाणपत्य

A sect of devotees called the Ganapatya (Sanskrit: गाणपत्य; IAST: gāṇapatya), who
identified Ganesha - the supreme deity, arose during this period he principal scriptures dedicated
to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa.

Etymology and other names

1. Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets,

50
including Ganapati and Vighneshvara.

2. The Hindu title of respect Shri (Sanskrit: श्री; IAST: śrī; also spelled Sri or Shree) is often
added before his name.

3. One popular way Ganesha is worshipped is by chanting a Ganesha Sahasranama, a litany of "a
thousand names of Ganesha".

4. Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolizes a different aspect
of Ganesha. At least two different versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama exist; one version is
drawn from the Ganesha Purana, a Hindu scripture venerating Ganesha.

5. The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana (Sanskrit: गण;
IAST: gaṇa), meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and isha (Sanskrit: ईश; IAST:
īśa), meaning lord or master.

6. The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, a troop
of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva (IAST: Śiva).

7.The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation.

8.Some commentators interpret the name "Lord of the Gaņas" to mean "Lord of Hosts" or
"Lord of created categories", such as the elements.

9.Ganapati (Sanskrit: गणपति; IAST: gaṇapati), a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound

composed of gaṇa, meaning "group", and pati, meaning "ruler" or "lord".

10. The Amarakosha, an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms

of Ganesha : Vinayaka, Vighnarāja (equivalent to Vighnesha), Dvaimātura (one who has two
mothers), Gaṇādhipa (equivalent to Ganapati and Ganesha), Ekadanta (one who has one
tusk), Heramba, Lambodara (one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly),
and Gajanana (IAST: gajānana); having the face of an elephant).

11.Vinayaka (Sanskrit: विनायक; IAST: vināyaka) is a common name for Ganesha that appears
in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.This name is reflected in the naming of the eight
famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak (aṣṭavināyaka).

12. The names Vighnesha (Sanskrit: विघ्नेश; IAST: vighneśa) vighneśvara (Lord of
Obstacles) or Vignaharta refers to his primary function in Hindu theology as the master and
remover of obstacles (vighna).A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is [[Pille
(Tamil: பிள்ளை) or Pillaiyar (பிள்ளையார்) (Little Child).A. K. Narain differentiates
these terms by saying that pille means a "child" while pillaiyar means a "noble child".He adds
that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify "tooth or tusk",
also "elephant tooth or tusk".Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in
the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant "the young of the elephant", because
the Pali word pillaka means "a young elephant".
51
In the Burmese language, Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne, derived from Pali Mahā
Wināyaka. The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Phra Phikhanet or Phra
Phikhanesuan, both of which are derived from Vara Vighnesha and Vara
Vighneshvara respectively, whereas the name Khanet (from Ganesha) is rather rare.In Sri
Lanka in the North-Central and North Western areas with Buddhist population, Ganesha is
known as Aiyanayaka Deviyo while in other Singhala buddhist areas he is known as Gana
deviyo.

Iconography

Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art.

Worldwide Variations

Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations

and distinct patterns changing over time. He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically
taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down or on an
elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations.

52
 D

Rajesh Pasupathi-1000 year old statue of Lord Ganesh,Chicago Art Institute.9th–10th century, Andesite
(volcanic stone), h. 74.4 cm
To RIGHT sandstone statue of Ganesha from India, Chandela dynasty, 1000s CE. (Museum Rietberg, Zürich).

Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century.The 13th century statue
pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900–1200, after Ganesha had been well-established
as an independent deity with his own sect.This example features some of Ganesha's common
iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973–1200 by Paul
Martin-Dubost, and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya
Pal. Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly.This statue has four arms, which is
common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and
holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif
of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a
particularly archaic feature.

A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the
7th century.Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the
standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a noose in
the other upper arm.The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be
seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha.In one modern form, the only variation from
these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned
towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (abhaya mudra).

53
Mask of Ganesh from Indonesia- Tantric Ganesh sculprure found in the Thervada temple of Candi Sukuh( More about
that Later)

Common Attributes

The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is
a very popular theme.Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early
stages of his appearance in Indian art.Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got
his elephant head. One of his popular forms, Heramba-Ganapati, has five elephant heads, and
other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.While some texts say
that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories .The
most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay
to protect her and Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati.
Shiva then replaced Ganesha's original head with that of an elephant.Details of the battle and
where the replacement head came from vary from source to source. Another story says
that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva's laughter.Because Shiva considered Ganesha too
alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.

Ganesha's earliest name was Ekadanta (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other
being broken.Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk.The
importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana, which states that
the name of Ganesha's second incarnation is Ekadanta.Ganesha's protruding belly appears as
a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th
centuries).This feature is so important that, according to the Mudgala Purana, two
different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: Lambodara (Pot Belly, or, literally,
Hanging Belly) and Mahodara (Great Belly).Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his
belly (udara).The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all

54
the universes (i.e., cosmic eggs; IAST: brahmāṇḍas) of the past, present, and future are present in
him. The number of Ganesha's arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen
arms.Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and
codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts. His earliest images had two
arms.Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries.

The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms.

According to the Ganesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck. Other
depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread (IAST: yajñyopavīta) wrapped around
the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne.
Upon Ganesha's forehead may be a third eye or the Shaivite sectarian mark (IAST: tilaka), which
consists of three horizontal lines.The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a
crescent moon on-the forehead.A form of Ganesha called Bhalachandra (IAST: bhālacandra;
"Moon on the Forehead") includes that iconographic element. Ganesha is often described as red
in color. Specific colors are associated with certain forms. Many examples of color associations
with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise
on Hindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations as Heramba-
Ganapati and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage).

Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualized as blue during meditation in that form.

55
 A large statue of Ganesha was
excavated in Dieng Wetan Village of
Wonosobo District, Central Java in
Indonesia. The Central Java Institute for
Preservation of Cultural Heritage (BPCB)
has done the excavation on 12 January.

The statue is made of andesite and is

140 cm in height and 120 cm in width.
However, the head and the hand part
remaining missing.

"This is the largest Ganesha statue found

in Dieng, but we have yet to find its
head and arms. We first unearth and
save it, and then bring it along with the
other stones found around the site of the
Dieng Museum," Head of the institute's
Dieng Temple Unit, Eri Budiarto said.

Dieng plateau is the location of Hindu

temples from the Kalingga Kingdom, one
of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms
in Java. They are estimated to be built
between 7th century to end of 8th
century AD. The statue was discovered
by a farmer when he was ploughing his
paddy field at a depth of 50 cm in
December 2019.

Vahanas-or-Vehicles-(.carriers)

The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana (mount/vehicle). Of the

eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana, Ganesha uses a
1. mouse (shrew) in five of them,
2. a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda,
3. a peacock in his incarnation as Vikata, and
4. Shesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation as Vighnaraja.
5. Mohotkata uses a lion,
6. Mayūreśvara uses a peacock,
7. Dhumraketu uses a horse, and
8. Gajanana uses a mouse, in the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana.
9. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse, elephant, tortoise, ram,
or peacock.

56
The rat, it is said, began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central
and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet. Mouse as a
mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda
Purana and Ganesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in last incarnation. Ganapati
Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on
his flag.The names Mūṣakavāhana (mouse-mount) and Ākhuketana (rat-banner) appear in
the Ganesha Sahasranama.

The mouse is interpreted in several ways.

1. According to Grimes, "Many, if not most of those who interpret Gaṇapati's mouse, do so
negatively; it symbolizes tamoguṇa as well as desire".

2. Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolizes those who wish to
overcome desires and be less selfish.

3. Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops.

The Sanskrit word mūṣaka (mouse) is derived from the root mūṣ (stealing, robbing).

4. It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that
needed to be overcome.

5. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates

his function as Vigneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as
a folk grāma-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.

6. Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat,
penetrates even the most secret places.

Associations

I. Obstacles: Ganesha is Vighneshvara or Vighnaraja or "Vighnaharta"(marathi),

the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order. He is popularly worshipped as a
remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need
to be checked.Paul Courtright says that "his task in the divine scheme of things, his dharma, is to
place and remove obstacles. It is his particular territory, the reason for his creation."Ganesha's
names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time.The quick ascension
of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the Ganapatyas,is ascribed to this shift
from vighnakartā (obstacle-creator) to vighnahartā (obstacle-averter).However, both functions
continue to be vital to his character.

II. Buddhi (Knowledge); Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning.

57
In Sanskrit, the word buddhi a feminine noun that is variously translated - intelligence, wisdom,
or intellect.The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha,
especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence.
One of Ganesha's names from Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Ashranam n or1,000 names
is Buddhipriya.This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the Ganesha
Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important.The word priya can mean "fond of", and
in a marital context it can mean "lover" or "husband", so the name may mean either "Fond
of Intelligence" or "Buddhi's Husband".Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Aum -
Sanskrit:ॐ also spelled Om. The term oṃkārasvarūpa (Aum is his form), when identified
with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound. The Ganapati
Atharvashirsa attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as
follows:

(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trinity) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You
are fire (Agni) and air (Vāyu). You are the sun (Sūrya) and the moon (Chandrama).
You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka earth, Antariksha-loka (space),
and Swargaloka heaven. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).

Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha's body in iconography and the
shape of Aum in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts.

III First chakra: According to Kundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the first chakra,
called Muladhara (mūlādhāra). Mula means "original, main"; adhara means "base, foundation".
The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion
of primordial Divine Force rests. This association is also attested to in the Ganapati
Atharvashirsa. Courtright translates this passage as follows:

"[O Ganesha,You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine (mūlādhāra
cakra)."

Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara.Ganesha holds, supports
and guides all other chakras, thereby "governing the forces that propel the wheel of life".

IV. Family and consorts.Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati,
the Puranic myths give different versions about his birth.He may have been created by Parvati, or
by Shiva and Parvati, or may have appeared mysteriously and was discovered
by Shiva and Parvati.The family includes his brother the war god Kartikeya, who is also
called Subramanya, Skanda, Murugan and other names. Regional differences dictate the order of
their births.In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in
the south, Ganesha is considered the first born.

In northern India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE,
when worship of him declined significantly in northern India. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose.
Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers and may reflect sectarian tensions.

58
V. Ganesha's marital status-Unmarried: the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies
widely in mythological stories. One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an brahmacari or
unmarried. This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India.He also may be
shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: daşi).

Married: Another pattern associates him with intellect Buddhi, Siddhi (spiritual power),
and Riddhi (prosperity); these qualities are sometimes personified as goddesses, said to
be Ganesha's wives.Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and
the arts, Sarasvati or Śarda (particularly in Maharashtra).He is also associated with
the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi. Another pattern, mainly prevalent in
the Bengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo.

Children: The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons: Kşema (prosperity)
and Lābha (profit).In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to
be Śubha (auspiciouness) and Lābha.The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa
shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma,
the goddess of satisfaction.This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and
Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma's cult as evidence of Ganesha's continuing evolution as a
popular deity.

Beyond India and Hinduism

Commercial and cultural contacts extended India's influence in SE Asia. Ganesha is one of
many Hindu deities who reached foreign lands as a result.Ganesha was particularly worshipped
by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures.The period from
approximately the 10th century onwards was marked by the development of new networks of
exchange, the formation of trade guilds, and a resurgence of money circulation.During
this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.The earliest inscription
invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with
the merchant community.Hindus migrated to the Malay Archipelago and took their culture,
including Ganesha, with them. India and Hinduism has influenced many countries in other
parts South Asia, East Asia and Southeast Asia as a result of commercial and cultural
contacts. Ganesha is one of many Hindu deities who reached foreign lands as a result.
Ganesha was a deity particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for
commercial ventures. The period from approximately the tenth century onwards was marked by the
development of new networks of exchange, the formation of trade guilds, and a resurgence of money
circulation, and it was during this time that Ganesha became the principal deity associated with
traders. The earliest inscription where Ganesha is invoked before any other deity is by the merchant
community.

Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the Malay Archipelago in great numbers, often
beside Shiva sanctuaries.The forms of Ganesha found in Hindu art of Java, Bali, and Borneo
show specific regional influences.The gradual spread
of Hindu culture to southeast Asia established Ganesha in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia,
59
and Thailand.In Indochina, Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced side by side, and
mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region.
In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam, Ganesha was
mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.

BUDDHISM
Ganesha also appears in Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also
portrayed as a Hindu deity form also called Vināyaka. His image may be found on Buddhist
sculptures of the late Gupta period. As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, he is often shown dancing, a
form called Nṛtta Ganapati that was popular in North India and adopted in Nepal and then into
Tibet. A dancing Ganesha is evident in the Malay archipelago in the temple of Candi Sukuh.
Tibetan Buddhism-Jambhala § Red Jambhala

Vignantaka trampling Vinayaka///Ganapati, Maha Rakta/ Dancing Red Ganapati of the Three Red
Deities, Rubin Museum of Art

This form of Ganapati belongs to a set of three powerful deities known as the 'mar chen kor sum' or
the Three Great Red Deities included in a larger set called 'The Thirteen Golden Dharmas' of Sakya.
The other two deities are Kurukulle and Takkiraja.
In depictions of the six-armed protector Mahakala (Skt: Shad-bhuja Mahakala, Wylie: mGon po
phyag drug pa), an elephant-headed figure usually addressed as Vinayaka is seen being trampled by
the Dharma Protector, but he does not appear distressed. In Vajrayana and cognate Buddhist art, He
is depicted as a subdued god trampled by Buddhist deities like Aparajita, Parnasabari and Vignataka.
The Tibetan Ganesha appears, besides bronzes, in the resplendent Thangka paintings alongside the
Buddha. In "Ganesh, studies of an Asian God," edited by Robert L. BROWN, State University of
New York Press, 1992, page 241–242, he wrote that in the Tibetan Ka'gyur tradition, it is said that
the Buddha had taught the "Ganapati Hridaya Mantra" (or "Aryaganapatimantra") to
disciple Ananda.

60
Japanese Buddhism-Kangiten

Dual-bodied (Sōshin) Kangiten

Vinayaka, the Buddhist equivalent to Ganesha, is known in Japanese as Shōten ( 聖 天 , lit. "sacred
deva" or "noble deva"; alternatively Shōden) or Kangiten ( 歓喜天 , "deva of bliss") and is worshiped
mainly in the Shingon and Tendai schools.
Vinayaka's inclusion in the two primary mandalas of East Asian esoteric Buddhism (Tangmi) -
brought to Japan from Tang China by Kūkai (774–835), the founder of Shingon Buddhism -
facilitated his introduction to Japan, where he (like most other Hindu deities assimilated into
Buddhism) was first considered a minor deity. By the Heian period (794–1185), an
individualized cult centered around Vinayaka (as Shōten / Kangiten) emerged. He was then
increasingly identified and conflated with a number of Buddhist and native Japanese deities,
eventually being regarded in some texts in a henotheistic way as a kind of transcendent god who is
the source of all the other gods. Although this development shares a number of parallels with the
Hindu tradition of Ganapatya, it does not seem that Shōten benefited from a group whose members
defined themselves exclusively as his worshipers as Ganesha did.
Although some traits are common to both Vinayaka (Shōten) and Ganesha, there are also some
notable differences between the two. For instance, the Buddhist Vinayaka was originally negatively
portrayed as the creator of obstacles and the leader of a horde (gaṇa) of obstructive demons
called vinayakas; indeed, some legends portray him as originally being a malevolent demon king
who was subjugated by the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara (Kannon in Japanese), who took the form of
a vinayaka demoness to tame and reform him. As Shōten grew in stature, however, he was
increasingly disassociated from his vinayaka underlings, ultimately becoming regarded as a
manifestation of the cosmic buddha Vairocana. Also, unlike his Hindu counterpart, whose image
is prominently displayed and venerated in temples and homes, Shōten is regarded as a 'hidden'
god too sacred to be seen: images of the deity in temples are permanently kept hidden from

61
public view, rituals centered on him are performed in private by qualified monks, and lay
devotees are discouraged from venerating iconographic depictions of the god at home.
Shōten is invoked both for enlightenment and for worldly gains - more for the latter than the
former. Regarded as a god who grants all wishes (including impossible ones), he is widely
worshiped for success in love, relationships, and business. He is usually offered daikon, sake,
and a deep-fried sweet confection called Kangidan (歓喜団, "bliss bun"), which is based on the
Indian modak, said to be a favorite of Ganesha.
Although he is sometimes depicted as an elephant-headed single male deity similar to Ganesha,
he is more commonly portrayed as an embracing elephant-headed male-female couple in an
iconographic depiction known as the Dual(-bodied) Kangiten (双身歓喜天, Sōshin Kangiten).
:: Shinto and Shingon Buddhism ::

In Japan, Ganesha is considered a minor deity in the Buddhist pantheon, where he is known as
Shōten (聖天), Daishokangi-ten (大聖歓喜天), Kangiten (歓喜天), Ganabachi (Ganapati), Binayaka-ten
("Vinayaka") (毘那夜迦天).

Ganesha worship was brought to Japan by early Buddhists through China. In Japan the Ganesha
cult was first mentioned in 806 CE. Scholars commonly date the presence of Ganesha in Japan
with the age of Kukai (774- 834), the founder of the Shingon sect of Japanese Buddhism. The
centrality of the worship of Ganesha or Vinayaka or Kangiten, as he is popularly called in Japan,
is a distinguishing feature of this cult. The doctrines, rituals and beliefs of the sect have a number
of parallels with the cult of Ganapatya.
Also called the Deva of bliss, Ganapati is invoked both for enlightenment and for worldly gains -
more for the latter than the former. Kangiten - Vinayaka is offered "bliss - buns" (made from
curds, honey and parched flour), radishes, wine, and fresh fruits. The offerings are later partaken
in the same spirit as Hindus take prasad.

It should also be noted that in Japan that the Hindu Ganesha is displayed more than Buddha in a
famous temple in Futako Tamagawa, Tokyo. In the Hozan-ji temple on Mt. Ikoma in Nara, Sho-
ten is worshipped mainly by the merchants. In Osaka we have the biggest temple of Sho-ten
named Kaishozan Shoenji Temple, where, besides devotees, a permanent priest offers prayers
daily. A special temple is consecrated to the esoteric Twin Ganesa at the Jingoji monastery of
Takao where every year worship is held in his honor.

Dr. Lokesh Chandra,Director,International Academy Of Indian Culture explains: "German

scholar Philipp Franz von Siebold has written that in 1832 there were 131 shrines dedicated to
the goddess (Benzaiten) and 100 to Lord Ganesha in Tokyo itself. A 12th-century temple of
Ganesha in Asakusa suburb of Tokyo has been declared a national treasure of Japan."

Ganesha is worshipped as god of love by many young boys and girls for achieving success in
their courtship. The old worship him for success in business, Dr Chandra said.

:: Kangi figures ::

There are more than thirty distinguishable forms of Ganesha in the Japanese iconographic

62
tradition.

There are several dual forms. The most typical dual form is the Embracing Kangi. In this form
two tall figures with elephant heads and human bodies, male and female, stand in embrace. A
new concept of Vinayaka couple both elephant-headed – a unique development in the religious
history of Japan. The concept of this twin form of Ganesha (with Ganeshani) could not develop
in India. There are at least three variant types of Embracing Kangi figures. Orthodox Shingon
Buddhism interprets the details of all three types as sophisticated allegorical symbols. Sanford
believes that these orthodox Shingon interpretations, of considerable eventual importance in
Japanese worship of Ganesha, developed during the Heian period in an attempt to legitimize
Ganesha as a figure in Japanese Buddhism.

:: Vignantaka trampling Vinayaka ::

This form of Ganapati belongs to a set of three powerful deities known as the 'mar chen kor sum'
or the Three Great Red Deities included in a larger set called 'The Thirteen Golden Dharmas' of
Sakya. The other two deities are Kurukulle and Takkiraja.
In depictions of the six-armed protector Mahakala (Skt: Shad-bhuja Mahakala, Wylie: mGon po
phyag drug pa), an elephant-headed figure usually addressed as Vinayaka is seen being trampled
by the Dharma Protector, but he does not appear distressed. In Vajrayana and cognate Buddhist
art, He is depicted as a subdued god trampled by Buddhist deities like Aparajita, Parnasabari and
Vignataka.

The Tibetan Ganesha appears, besides bronzes, in the resplendent Thangka paintings alongside
the Buddha.In "Ganesh, studies of an Asian God," edited by Robert L. BROWN, State
University of New York Press, 1992, page 241-242, he wrote that in the Tibetan Ka'gyur
tradition, it is said that the Buddha had taught the "Ganapati Hridaya Mantra" (or
"Aryaganapatimantra") to disciple Ananda. The sutra in which the Buddha teaches this mantra
can be found here.

Buddha In Hinduism-Buddha as avatar of Ganesha

Buddha appears as a name of Ganesha in the second verse of the Ganesha Purana version of
the Ganesha Sahasranama. The positioning of this name at the beginning of the Ganesha
Sahasranama indicates that the name was of importance to the authors of that scripture, who
were Ganapatya Hindus.
Bhaskararaya's commentary on the Ganesha Sahasranama says that this name for Ganesha means
that the Buddha was an incarnation (Avatar) of Ganesha. This interpretation is not widely known
even among Ganapatya, and the Buddha is not mentioned in the lists of Ganesha's incarnations
given in the main sections of the Ganesha Purana and Mudgala Purana. Bhaskararaya also
provides a more general interpretation of this name as simply meaning that Ganesha's very form
is "eternal enlightenment" (nityabuddaḥ), so he is named Buddha.

63
 Ganesha statue at Sanggar Agung Temple, Surabaya-Indonesia, worshiped by
the Chinese, Hindus, Buddhist and even the Kejawen

Hindus spread through Maritime Southeast Asia and took their culture with them, including
Ganesha, statues of whom are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The
forms of Ganesha found in Hindu art of Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional
influences. The gradual emigration of Hindus to Indochina established Ganesha in modified
forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina Hinduism and Buddhism were practiced
side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in Ganesha iconography of that region.
In Myanmar
The King of Brahmas called Arsi, lost a wager to the King of Devas, Śakra (Thagya Min), who
decapitated Arsi as agreed but put the head of an elephant on the Brahma's body who then
became Ganesha.
In Thailand

64
Ganesha at of the merumat of King Bhumibol Adulyadej

Patterns of Buddhist-Hindu amalgamation emerge across most of Southeast Asia: Several

thousand Hindus of Indian origin live in Thailand, mainly in the larger cities. Besides this group
of "traditional Hindus", Thailand in its earliest days was under the rule of the Khmer Empire,
which had strong Hindu roots, and the influence among Thais remains even today. There are also
some ethnic Cham Hindus living in Thailand. The popular Ramakien epic based on Buddhist
Dasaratha Jataka is very similar to the Hindu Ramayana. The former capital of Ayutthaya was
named for Ayodhya, the Indian birthplace of the Rama, the protagonist of the story. There is a
class of brahmins who perform rituals for Hindu gods. [84] Brahmin rituals are still common.
Hindu-Buddhist deities are worshipped by many Thais and statues and shrines
of Brahma, Ganesh, Indra, Shiva, Vishnu, Lakshmi and other Hindu-Buddhist gods are a
common sight (for example the Erawan Shrine area). Another relic of Hinduism is Garuda, now
a symbol of the monarchy.

The 600-year-old shrine of Wat Phra That Doi Suthep, a Theravada wat (temple) in Chiang Mai,
a city in the mountainous northern region of Thailand, has many large and small statues of
Buddha, beautifully crafted out of semiprecious materials like jade, emerald, and other stones.
The stupas are coated with gold leaf.

65
 The scene of Ravan fighting with Jatayu (in the triangular panel on the top right corner of the
front façade) of Wat Xieng Thong in Luang Prabang./The slim Ganesha at Doi Suthep.

Amidst this rich Buddhist imagery unlike the typical Indian Ganesh, with a pot-belly and a kind
look on his face, a slim version of the Thai Ganesh appears like a king.Thai people worshipped
Ganesh to grant them inner harmony and peace. The Thais, pray to Buddha for a good next life,
and Ganesh for inner peace in the present life. Even in India—where Hinduism and Buddhism
originated—there is no close association between these two religions other than the fact that
Hinduism, in its effort to absorb Buddhism, declared Buddha as the ninth incarnation of Vishnu.
In the market around the hotel further revealed Hinduism’s influence on Thailand. I was
surprised to see many paintings and statues of Lord Ganesh, despite the fact that Hindus are a
minority in Thailand.

• In Luang Prabang, the ancient capital of the Luang Prabang province in northern Laos, while
the inner sanctums of temples narrate stories about Buddha’s life in paintings, the exterior is
usually adorned with scenes from the Ramayana, painted or carved onto walls or doors. The
front façade of a 600-year-old temple has a panel depicting Ravan fighting with Jatayu, who tries
to stop him from kidnapping Sita.
• Yet another old Buddhist shrine has colorful statues of Hanuman and Ravan standing on each
side of the entrance. Even more surprising was the fact that people had worshipped both with
floral offerings, revealing that in this part of the world, Ravan is not considered evil. The reasons
could vary: some may believe that both good and evil balance each other, while for some, the
fact that Ravana was a great devotee of Lord Shiva makes him worthy of worship.( Some parts
from Heritage: What Is Ganesh Doing in Buddhist Thailand?Text and Photos By Jaidev Dasgupta)

World’s tallest Ganesha statue is in Thailand, the city is known as the city of Ganesha

Bronze statue of Ganesha at the Khlong Khuean Ganesh International Park, Khlong
Khuean, Chachoengsao.RIGHT PIC- Wat Phra Kaew, the most sacred Theravada Buddhist temple in Bangkok-
Read later

66
Chachoengsao is regarded as Thailand’s “city of Ganesha,” featuring three massive Hindu-
Buddhist gods Ganesha sculptures in three separate temples: The tallest seated Ganesha in
Thailand is 49m high at “Phrong Akat Temple,” while the highest standing Ganesha in Thailand
is 39m high at “Khlong Khuean Ganesh International Park.” The tallest resting Ganesha in
Thailand is 16m high and 22m long at “Saman Wattanaram Temple.”

Many films or television series begin production without a Hindu ceremony in which Ganesha is
prayed to and offerings offered to him. Ganesha shrines may be found all across Thailand. The
Royal Brahmin Temple, near the Giant Swing in downtown Bangkok, is one of the most
respected temples, with some of the oldest images. Other antique Ganesha sculptures may be
found all across Thailand, including a 10th-century bronze figure with Tamil and Thai
inscriptions uncovered in Phang-Na.

Wat Phra Sri Umadevi, a Hindu temple in Silom, also has a Ganesha figure that was brought
from India in the late 1800s. Due to unclear Buddhist/Hindu mythology, Thai Buddhists
regularly pay reverence to Ganesha and other Hindu deities.

Sri Mahamariamman Temple Bangkok (Wat Khaek Silom)//Prasat Phnom Rung, Thailand/ The Ganesha
Shrine, located at the Huai Khwang Intersection

The Ganesha Shrine, located at the Huai Khwang Intersection, the four corners of
Ratchadaphisek and Pracha Songkhro and Pracha Rat Bamphen Roads on the boundary between
Din Daeng and Huai Khwang Districts, is another widely respected Ganesha shrine in
Bangkok.This shrine was erected on the site of the old marble factory in the year 2000. It is
respected by both Thais and Chinese alike.

67
Department of Fine Arts Thailand Emblem having GANESH, Ministry of Culture

Ganesha or Phra Phikanet or Phra Phikanesuan is revered as the THAI god of prosperity
and success, as well as the conqueror of problems. In Thailand, Ganesha is called Phra
Phikanet (พระพิฆเนศ) or Phra Phikanesuan (พระพิฆเนศวร) and is worshipped as
the deity of fortune and success, and the remover of obstacles In Thailand, Ganesha is featured in
the Department of Fine Arts’ emblem. When business is booming, he is rewarded with Motaka,
sweets, and fruit, and when business is bad, he is rendered silly by turning his portrait or statue
upside down. He rests on a towering pedestal outside Bangkok’s CentralWorld (previously
World Trade Center), where visitors give flowers, incense, and a respectful Sawasdee as lord of
business and economy.

He is associated with arts, education and trade. Ganesha appears in the emblem of
the Department of Fine Arts in Thailand. Large television channels and production companies
have shrines in his honour in front of their premises. Few movies or television shows begin
shooting with a Hindu ritual in which prayers and offerings are made to Ganesha. There are
shrines to Ganesha across Thailand. One of the most revered shrines is the Royal Brahmin
Temple in central Bangkok by the Giant Swing, where some of the oldest images can be found.
Other old Ganesha images can be seen throughout Thailand, including a 10th-century bronze
image found at Phang-Na with both Tamil and Thai inscriptions. The Hindu temple Wat Phra Sri
Umadevi in Silom also houses a Ganesha image which was transported from India in the late
19th century. Thai Buddhists frequently pay respect to Ganesha and other Hindu deities as a
result of the overlapping Buddhist/Hindu cosmology.
He is honoured with Motaka, sweets and fruit, when business is good, and he is made ridiculous
by putting his picture or statue upside down, when business is down. As lord of business and
diplomacy, he sits on a high pedestal outside Bangkok's CentralWorld (formerly World Trade
Center), where people offer flowers, incense and a reverential sawasdee.

68
Ganesh Temple at Bali facing SEA/San Phra Kan is a shrine which was dedicated to Hindu God Vishnu in Lop
Buri.? Roadside Ganesh Shrine

Another highly revered Ganesha shrine in Bangkok, is the Ganesha Shrine at the corner of Huai
Khwang Intersection, the four-corners of Ratchadaphisek and Pracha Songkhro with Pracha Rat
Bamphen Roads on the border between Din Daeng and Huai Khwang Districts.
This shrine was built in 2000 on the site of a former marble factory. It is popularly worshiped by
both Thais and Chinese.
Chachoengsao is known as the "city of Ganesha in Thailand", with 3 huge Hindu-
Buddhist deity Ganesha (Phra Phikanet or พระพิฆเนศ in thai language) statues in 3
different temples around Chachoengsao: 49 meters tall sitting Ganesha at "Phrong Akat
Temple" which is the tallest sitting Ganesha in Thailand, 39 meters high standing Ganesha
at "Khlong Khuean Ganesh International Park" which is the tallest standing Ganesha in
Thailand, and 16 meters high and 22 meters long reclining Ganesha at "Saman Wattanaram
Temple".
In Indonesia

With regards to Indonesia, European scholars call him the 'Indonesian God of
Wisdom'. Bandung boasts a Ganesha Street. A Ganesha statue from the 1st century AD was
found on the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan Island, the Ujung Kulon National Park,

69
West Java. While there are not temples dedicated specifically to Gaṇeśa, he is found in every
Śiva shrine throughout the islands An 11th-century AD Ganesha statue (seen in the picture
below) was found in eastern Java, Kediri is placed in The Museum of Indian Art (Museum für
Indische Kunst), Berlin-Dahlem. The 9th century statue of Ganesha resides in western cella
(room) of Prambanan Hindu temple.
Ganesha is also featured in reliefs from Cambodian temples.
Ganesha is represented as having anywhere from one to five heads, so depictions with two heads
are not reliable evidence of a connection with JanusRepresentations of Ganesha with two heads
are uncommon, and according to Nagar, textual references to the adoration of Ganesha with two
heads are difficult to traceThere are no other examples of two-headed forms in which one head is
human other than the Dwimukhi-Ganesha form. In the thirty-two mediation forms of Ganesha
that are described in the Sritattvanidhi only one has two heads (Dwimukhi Ganapati, the
Ganapati with two faces), and both of those are heads of elephants, like all the other forms
described.

Ganesha in Ta Prohm, Angkor

Another highly regarded scripture, the Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during
the 16th or 17th centuries.How is Lord Ganesha being converted protect Buddhism ? Ganesh is
a popular deity of Shingon Sect, known as Kankiten 歓喜天.The Guan , Pusa changed herself into a
very beautiful woman and approached Lord Ganesha. Lord Ganesha fell in love with her
immediately and wanted to marry her.The Guan Yin Pusa agreed to marry him only upon
his vows to protect Buddhism. Lord Ganesha happily agreed to do so.
In the Buddhist version, Lord Ganesha is the husband Avalokitesvara.taoist chinese tradition he
is associated with loyalty, fortune (zheng cai) medicine (healing) qualities.He is also the God of
Wealth in Tibetan Buddhism. In Hinduism he is the God of Education, God of clearing obstacles
and blessed marriage and God of Businessmen. He is one of the protector of Buddhism. Not
known in mahayana ,but more in vajrayana. The Ganesha of Buddhism is quite at variance with
the god that Hindus are familiar with. He is the only Hindu god regarded as a bodhisattva a
(Buddha-to-be).Ganesha is an ambivalent figure in Tibetan Buddhism. Some scriptures depict
him as Vinayaka, a demon who must be propitiated in order to avoid destruction.He is also
shown being trampled upon by a Buddhist deity, Mahakala.

In another form, he is the Destroyer of Obstacles, Nrtta Ganapati, the dancing god who made his
way into Tibet through Nepal. As a red, many-limbed and fearfully armed deity, he is
emanation of Avalokiteswara, the Buddhist deity.The early Buddhists took Ganesha with them
to Japan, where he became minor deity called Kangiten.Several rituals and beliefs practiced by
his worshippers in Japan correspond with the Indian cult of Ganapatya.Many temples have been
70
dedicated to Ganesha in Japan. While businessmen propitiate him for success in their enterprises,
young lovers pray to him for a fruitful courtship. Every religious ceremony is started, even today
after invoking his blessings by reciting the shloka "Om-Ganeshaya-Namaha".Even today
in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success.Before
the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of
both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practiced.A few examples of sculptures from the 5th to the
7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the
region.Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism, not only in the form of
the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name. His image
appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period.

In the Burmese language, Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne, derived from Pali Mahā
Wināyaka. The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Phra Phikhanet or Phra
Phikhanesuan, both of which are derived from Vara Vighnesha and Vara
Vighneshvara respectively, whereas the name Khanet (from Ganesha) is rather rare. ‘

In Sri Lanka in the North-Central and North Western areas with majority Buddhists, Ganesha is
known as Aiyanayaka Deviyo while in other Singhala buddhist areas he is known as Gana
deviyo.

Nepal and Tibet: As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, he is often shown dancing. This form,
called Nṛtta Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet.
In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as Heramba, is very popular; he has five heads and
rides a lion. Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him. Tibetan
representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him In one Tibetan form he is shown
being trodden under foot by Mahākala, a popular Tibetan deity Other depictions show him as the
Destroyer of Obstacles, sometimes dancing Ganapati, Maha Rakta (Tibetan: ཚོགས་བདག
tsog gi dag po, mar chen. English: The Great Red Lord of Hosts or Ganas) is a Tantric Buddhist
form of Ganapati (Ganesha) related to the Chakrasamvara Cycle of Tantras. This form of
Ganapati is regarded as an emanation of Avalokiteshvara.
"...beside a lapis lazuli rock mountain is a red lotus with eight petals, in the middle a blue rat
expelling various jewels, [above] Shri Ganapati with a body red in colour, having an elephant
face with sharp white tusks and possessing three eyes, black hair tied in a topknot with
a wishing-gem and a red silk ribbon [all] in a bundle on the crown of the head. With twelve
hands, the six right hold an axe, arrow, hook, vajra, sword and spear. The six left [hold] a pestle,
bow, khatvanga, skullcup filled with blood, skullcup filled with human flesh and a shield
together with a spear and banner. The peaceful right and left hands are signified by the vajra and
skullcup filled with blood held to the heart. The remaining hands are displayed in a threatening
manner. Wearing various silks as a lower garment and adorned with a variety of jewel
ornaments, the left foot is extended in a dancing manner, standing in the middle of the bright
rays of red flickering light." (Ngorchen Konchog Lhundrup, 1497–1557).

71
 tshogs bdag

A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is tshogs bdag. In one Tibetan form, he is shown being
trodden under foot by Mahākāla,(Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity. Other depictions show him as
the Destroyer of Obstacles, sometimes dancing.

China and Japan: Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that
show distinct regional character.In northern China, the earliest known stone statue
of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531.In Japan, where Ganesha is known as Kangiten,
the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention
the worship of Ganesha.

Jainism; However, Ganesha is worshipped by most Jains, for whom he appears to have taken
over certain functions of Kubera.Jain connections with the trading community support
the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections.The earliest
known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century.A 15th century Jain text lists
procedures for the installation of Ganapati images. Images of Ganesha appear in
the Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Ganesha is worshipped by only some Jainas, for whom he appears to have taken over certain
functions of Kubera. Jaina connections with the trading community support the idea that Jainism
took up the worship of Ganesha as a result of commercial connections.
The Jaina canonical literature does not mention Ganesha.The earliest literary reference to
Ganesha in Jainism is in Abhidhāna chintāmani of Hemachandra (c.a. third quarter of twelfth
century). It refers to several appellations of Ganesha such
as Heramba, Ganavigneṣa and Vinayaka and visualizes him as elephant headed, pot-bellied,
bearing an axe and riding a mouse. In Swetambara Jaina work, Ācāradinakara of
Vardhamānasūri (c. AD 1412), Ganapati is propitiated even by the gods to get desirable things. It
is further mentioned that He is worshipped at the beginning of every auspicious ceremony and
new project. This practice is still very common in the Swetambara community. The text provides
procedures for the installation of Ganapati images.
The popularity is however not met with in Digambara texts. Excepting two medieval figures
carved at Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves, Orissa and an early figure at Mathura, his
representations are not found in any Digambara sites.The earliest known Jaina Ganesha statue at
Mathura with Jaina YakshiAmbika(the Jaina name for Gauri). dates to about the 9th century AD.
Images of Ganesha appear in the Jaina temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat. In the tenth-
century Mahavir at Ghanerav and eleventh-century temple in Osian, Rajasthan; Ganesha images
are found.

Worship and festivals

Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions; especially at the beginning of
ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business. K.N. Somayaji says, "there can hardly
be a (Hindu) home [in India) which does not house an idol of Ganapati. [..] Ganapati, being the
most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the

72
country".Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he gives protection against adversity
and prosparity. Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity, and Hindus of all denominations invoke him at
the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies.Dancers and
musicians, particularly in southern India, begin performances of arts such as
the Bharatnatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha.Mantras such as

1.Om Shri Gaṇeshāya Namah (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used.

2. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ

Ganapataye Namah (Om, Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts). Devotees offer Ganesha sweets
such as modaka and small sweet balls (laddus). He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets,
called a modakapātra.Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshiped with
red sandalwood paste (raktacandana) or red flowers. Dūrvā grass (Cynodon dactylon) and other
materials are also used in his worship.

Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesh Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in

the śuklapakṣa (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month
of bhādrapada (August/September) and the Gaṇeśa jayanti (Gaṇeśa's birthday) celebrated on
the cathurthī of the śuklapakṣa (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month
of māgha (January/February)."
Ganesha Chaturthi is an annual festival honors Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha
Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September. The festival begins
with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising Ganesha's visit.
The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi, when idols (murtis) of Ganesha are
immersed in the most convenient body of water. Some families have a tradition of immersion on
the 3rd, 5th, or 7th day.Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great
fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra.The festival also assumes huge
proportions in Indian cities of Mumbai, Pune, and in the surrounding belt
of Ashtavinayaka temples.

Temples

Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as an acolyte or subordinate deity (pãrśva-
devatã); as a deity related to the principal deity (parivāra-devatã); or as the principal deity of
the temple (pradhāna), treated similarly as the highest gods of the Hindu pantheon. As the god of
transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which
is analogous to his role as Parvati’s doorkeeper.
In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which aṣṭavināyaka meaning
"eight Ganesha (shrines)") in Maharashtra are particularly well known.

Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city of Pune, each of these eight shrines celebrates a
particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore and legend.The eight shrines are:
Morgaon, Siddhatek, Pali, Mahad, Theur, Lenyadri, Ozar and Ranjangaon.

There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations:

Wai in Maharashtra;

73
 1. Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Jodhpur,
2. Nagaur and Raipur (Pali) in Rajasthan; Baidyanath in Bihar;
3. Baroda, Dholaka, and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh.
4. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following:
5. Kanipakam in Chittoor;
6. the Jambukeśvara Temple at Tiruchirapalli;
7. Rameshvaram and Suchindram in Tamil Nadu;
8. Malliyur, Kottarakara, Pazhavangadi, Kasargod in Kerala,
9. Hampi, and Idagunji in Karnataka; and
10. Bhadrachalam in Andhra Pradesh.

If the origin of Ganesha can be found to the elephant found on Harappan seals, or to words
like Ganpati (lord of the group) in the Vedas, but there is no way to prove these references
embody what Ganesha means to the Hindu today. Likewise, we can trace the origin of the
prosperity-bestowing, elephant-headed Binayaka-ten and Kangi-ten found in contemporary
Japanese Buddhist temples to the Tantrik Ganeshas of 8th century India, but they clearly
embody a very different tributary of Oriental thought today. Of course, in times of religious
chauvinism, we can see these as proof of Hinduism’s impact on history and geography,
denied by Westernised scholarship.

The visual connection between Ganesha and the dwarf-like misshapen corpulent yakshas ,
keepers of treasures, also found in Buddhist and Jain lore is unmistakable. He appears as a
distinct deity in the Gupta period, which witnessed the waning of the old Vedic (Nigama, or
Shrauta) ways and the rise of the new Puranic (Agama, or Smarta) ways.

Ganapatyas Sect --The Tantric followers of GANESH

We know that 1,200 years ago, Ganesha was a major deity with a sect of his own, known as
the Ganapatyas. Around this time, a rock-cut shrine was built for him, in the era of the
Pallava kings, in Tiruchirappalli in Tamil Nadu. Here, he was more popularly known as
Pillaiyar, which probably means ‘venerable young elephant’. About 500 years ago, the
Ganapatya saint, Morya Gosavi, popularised the worship of Ganesha in Maharashtra, where
Ganesha eventually became a patron deity of the Peshwas.

1. The first and most popular sect of the Ganesha cult worshipped ‘the Great’ Maha
Ganesha, a red skinned, three eyed, ten armed figure carrying his broken tusk, a
pomegranate, a club, Kama’s sugarcane bow, noose, blue lotus, a jewel box, a paddy sprig,
discus and a mace, which can all be seen in the picture above37, depicting this specific
aspect. Accompanied by a white ‘Shakti’ on his left, he is the representation of Ganesha as
the Supreme Being, and stands for happiness, prosperity and brilliance. 36 The Maha
Ganapatyas believe that he existed before the Universe, created it, and will continue to live
even after it has been destroyed

2. The second sect of the Ganapatyas are the Haridra Ganapatyas who worship Haridra
Ganapati (also known as Ratri Ganapati), whose picture can be seen above38. Golden in
color, dressed in yellow clothing, and sitting on an ornamental golden throne, the four

74
armed and three eyed Haridra Ganapati, holds his tusk, a modak, a noose to bring his
devotees forward and a goad to push them on.

3.Ucchista Ganapatyas is the third sect is the who follow the deity of ‘Blessed Offerings’
and the ‘Tantric Guardian of Culture’, as pictured above.39 Six armed and blue
complexioned, he holds a vina, pomegranate, a paddy sprig, a blue lotus and a rosary.
Accompanied by his consort, Ganesha has his trunk on her lap, and is often seen as an
erotic form because of her often nude appearance. This particular aspect is worshipped
when the devotee is in the sacrilegious state (Ucchista) state to get what is desired.

4. The fourth sect is the Lakshmi Ganapatya sect which worships the Lakshmi Ganapati for
his Intelligence and Accomplishment, as pictured above

5. The fifth sect is the Heramba Ganapatya which worships the Heramba aspect for protecting
the weak. This sect is particularly popular in Nepal, where the Tantric worship of Ganesha is
most popular. He is depicted with five faces – four facing the four directions and one raised to
the top, looking upwards - in white, riding a big lion to protect the weak. His hands are in varada
and abhay mudra to show protection and boon giving, while holding a rosary, noose, his tusk, a
modak, a battle-axe and mallet. He is worshipped with Devi or Shakti as his consort, which are
reincarnations of his mother Parvati. Heramba.

6. sixth most popular sect of the Ganesha cult is the Shakti Ganapatyas which worship the aspect
which combines the Maha, Urdhava, Ucchista, Lakshmi and Pingala aspects into one Tantric
form, as seen above. Eight armed and white, the Shakti Ganapati holds a parrot, a pomegranate, a
lotus, a water vessel, a gold set with rubies, goad, noose. He embraces his consort Sakti on his
left knee, and is known for guarding the household. His right hand is in abhay mudra
representing protection and hence, the Ganapatyas worship this aspect to bring peace and safety
to their households.

Female Ganapati

An interesting thing to note would be that a female form of Ganesha exists

which is known as Vinayaki or Ganeshvari, an elephant headed Hindu goddess.
Despite her mythology and iconography being undefined, she is a definite Matrika
goddess, as a Brahmanical consort of Ganesha because of her elephant headed
appearance.57
However. apart from Vinayaki, Ganapatyas individually worship all other
forms of Ganesha, focussing on some specific forms like the Ucchista Ganesha or the
Urdhava Ganesha or the Lakshmi Ganesha, depending on what sort of blessing they
hope to get. By following the tantric way of living, the Ganapatyas worship Ganesha as
the Supreme Lord, to ask for his help to purify things, rectify mistakes, sacrifice
themselves or get his blessings before starting something new.58 In conclusion, as
humble were the beginnings of this half human - half animal deity, it was the same
humble beginnings that lead to the rise of such a massive following in current times, as
without appealing to the lower parts of society, there would have been no way the
Ganesha cult would have gotten to where it is today as one fifth of the Panchayatana

75
Puja, affecting so many people all across the world.

Om Shri Siddhi Buddhi Sahitaye Mahaganapataye Namaha

Om Shri Ucchistha Ganapataye Namaha
Uchchhishta Ganapati (Sanskrit: उच्छिष्ट-गणपति, Ucchiṣṭa Gaṇapati) is a Tantric aspect
of the Hindu god Ganesha (Ganapati). He is the primary deity of the Uchchhishta
Ganapatya sect, one of six major schools of the Ganapatyas. He is worshipped primarily by
heterodox vamachara rituals. He is one of the thirty-two forms of Ganesha, frequently mentioned
in devotional literature. Herambasuta was one of the exponents of the Uchchhishta
Ganapatya sect.
The god derives his name from Uchchhishta ("leftovers"). The word refers to the food left over
at the end of a ritual, but in this context refers to its Tantric connotation. Uchchhishta is the food
kept in the mouth, which is contaminated with saliva, thus ritually impure and a taboo in
Hinduism. Uchchhishta Ganapati is the patron of the Uchchhishta Ganapatya sect, one of the six
major schools of the Ganapatya sect. They follow Tantric Vamachara ("left-handed") practices.
The sect may have been influenced by the Kaula worship of Shaktism (Goddess-oriented sect).
As per Vamachara practices, the deity is worshipped when the devotee is in
the Uchchhishta ("ritually impure") state, that is, nude or with remnants of food (Uchchhishta) in
his mouth.
Uchchhishta Ganapati is also associated with six rituals of abhichara (uses of spells for
malevolent purposes) by which the adept can cause the target to suffer delusions, be overcome
with irresistible attraction or envy, or to be enslaved, paralysed or killed.

76
Lord Ganesha is the god of success and the destroyer of evils and obstacles . He is the beloved
son of Aadi Shakti , the Supreme energy . Lord Ganesha is also worshiped as Mahaganapati and
Ucchista-Ganapati and many other forms . Mahaganapati is the higher form of Ganesha and
Ucchista Ganapti is the tantric Ganesha which is worshiped according to the Kaula form of left
hand worship of the Mother Goddess . Mahaganapati has the body smeared in Sindoor just like
his Mother , His colour is a reference to the dawn. He is often depicted with a third eye on his
forehead, a crescent moon over his head ten arms which hold a lotus, a pomegranate fruit, a gada

77
(mace), a chakra (discus), his own broken tusk, a pasha (noose), a jewelled water vessel or a pot
of jewels, a blue lotus, a rice sprig and a sugarcane bow. An alternate depiction replaces the
pomegranate with a mango and the gada with a shankha (conch) and elaborates that the jewelled
pot contains amrita which is the menstrual blood which is the symbol of fertility and birth in the
tantric.worship. Mahaganapati is considered the most powerful of all gods and is considered
equal or more powerful to Bramha , Vishnu and Shiva as he being trigunatma has all the three
important gunas ( Sattwa , Rajas and Tamas ) given by Mother Shakti . Parvati his Mother
becomes his Shakti and sits on his lap and provides him the power to perform the tasks of
creation , preservation and destruction . Mahaganapati is also worshiped as the supreme being in
the Ganapatya sect of Ganesha . He is the bestower of all wealth and happiness to his devotees
and removes the obstacles from their lives.

Ucchistha Ganapati is the Tantric Ganesha, is not necessarily a Buddhist deviation or

adaptation.It is an ancient Hindu concept which is an amalgam of good fortune in getting good
sex. Ucchistha means the left overs. The elephant-headed god is described to be reddish in
colour in the Mantra-maharnava, while mentioned as dark in the Uttara-kamikagama. The deity
is described to have four or six arms. He is described to be seated, sometimes specifically noted
in on padmasana (a lotus pedestal). The Uttara-kamikagama elaborates that he wears a ratna
mukuta (jewelled crown) and has a third eye on his forehead. The Kriyakramadyoti mentions
that the god carries in his six hands: a lotus (in some descriptions, a blue lotus),a pomegranate,
the veena, an akshamala (rosary) and a rice sprig.As per the Mantra-maharnava, he carries a bana
(arrow), a dhanus (bow), a pasha (noose) and an ankusha (elephant goad).

This form of Ganesha again has Shakti as his consort and she sits on his lap. She is described as
a beautiful young maiden and is also called as Vighneshwari . In the Kaula form of worship the
deities are worshiped naked as nudity is considered purity and again symbolizes the fertility and
beauty , so Ganesha in this form is not worshiped with clothes , the Shakti too sites naked . He
drinks the Yoni Amritam from the Yoni with his trunk and the Goddess touches his phallus .
Such erotic imagery is not known by everyone but is of huge importance to the Shaktas and
Ganapatya Hindus .

Many forms of Ganesha has Shakti as his consort , seated on his lap She holds a plate of modaks
in her lap and the god's trunk reaches into it, to fetch the sweet. The trunk is taken as a symbolic
of an "erotic bond" between Ganesha and the goddess. The Uchchhishta Ganapati takes the idea
a step further, by eliminating the bowl of sweets and allowing the trunk to reach the goddess's
yoni. This bond of the Goddess and God simply shows the importance of fertility , reproduction
and love in the lives of everyone and the worship of this God Goddess couple is mostly enjoyed
by couples .

Uchchhishta Ganapati is the patron of the Uchchhishta Ganapatya sect, one of the six major
schools of the Ganapatya sect. They follow the Tantric Vamachara ( left hand form of worship )
which came from the Kaula worship of Shaktism , the worship of Mother Goddess . This erotic
iconography also shows the oneness of Devi and Ganesha , as when Ganesha becomes one with
her through union he is blessed with all siddhis and powers which makes him the most powerful
of all deities . When Ganesha becomes powerful through her Shakti then it is also said the other

78
gods become jealous as when he took birth from Shakti this is also one of the reasons they fought
a war with the child Ganesha and Shiva beheaded him from behind with his trident .

Ucchista Ganapati and his consort Shakti may be impure or unsuitable for some orthodox
patriarchal hindus , this kind of relationship is taboo for them but not for the left hand path lovers
. Ganesha and Devi in this form is not bound by any caste and other differences , orthodox
patriarchal rules and restrictions . Devotee is free to come and explore with the God and Goddess
.As per the scriptures , Ucchistha Ganapati is bestower of all boons and is also the controller of
fie sensory organs . He is also the guardian of his devotees .

I C O N O G R A P H Y

The elephant-headed god is described to be red in colour in the Mantra-maharnava, while

mentioned as dark in the Uttara-kamikagama. Another description describes him to be blue in
complexion. The deity is described to have four or six arms. He is described to be seated,
sometimes specifically noted in on padmasana (a lotus pedestal). The Uttara-
kamikagama elaborates that he wears a ratna mukuta (jewelled crown) and has a third eye on his
forehead.
The Kriyakramadyoti mentions that the god carries in his six hands: a lotus (in some
descriptions, a blue lotus), a pomegranate, the veena, an akshamala (rosary) and a rice sprig. As
per the Mantra-maharnava, he carries a bana (arrow), a dhanus (bow), a pasha (noose) and
an ankusha (elephant goad). The Uttara-kamikagama says that the god has four arms and holds
a pasha, an ankusha and a sugarcane in three hands.
Rao classifies Uchchhishta Ganapati as one of the five Shakti-Ganesha icons, where Ganesha is
depicted with a shakti, that is, a female consort. The large figure of Ganesha is accompanied with
smaller figure of the consort. The nude devi (goddess) sits on his left lap. She has two arms and
wears various ornaments. In the Uttara-kamikagama, she is called Vighneshvari and is
prescribed to be sculpted as a beautiful, young maiden. The fourth hand of Uchchhishta Ganapati
touches the genitalia of the naked goddess. The Mantra-maharnava prescribes that the god
should be depicted as though he is trying to have intercourse.
The textual descriptions generally do not correspond to the sculptures of the deity. Uchchhishta
Ganapati is always shown with a naked consort, who is seated on his left lap. The god is
generally depicted with four arms and holds a pasha, an ankusha and a ladoo or a modak (a
sweet), while the fourth arm hugs the nude goddess around her hip. She holds a lotus or another
flower in the left hand. Instead of his hands, the tip of his elephant trunk touches
the yoni (vagina) of the goddess. Occasionally, the goddess touches the lingam (phallus) of the
god with her right hand. The god is depicted ithyphallic in the latter icon. Such erotic imagery is
restricted to his four-armed form.
Cohen notes that many Ganesha icons are depicted with a shakti, seated on his left hip. She holds
a plate of modaks in her lap and the god's trunk reaches into it, to fetch the sweet. The trunk is
taken as a symbolic of an "erotic bond" between Ganesha and the goddess. The Uchchhishta
Ganapati takes the idea a step further, by eliminating the bowl of sweets and allowing the trunk
to reach the goddess' yoni. This erotic iconography reflects the influence of the Tantric

79
Ganapatya (the sect that considered Ganesha as the Supreme Being) sects. The pomegranate is
also a symbol of fertility, often represented in the icons of the sects.

Uchchhishta Ganapati, Nanjangud, India/ Uchchhishta Ganapati, folio from the 19th-century Sritattvanidhi. A
rare depiction of the deity with a clothed goddess.

The iconography of the deity bears Kaula Tantric character. The erotic iconography is
interpreted to convey the oneness of Ganesha and Devi ("The Hindu Divine Mother").The sect
also worships a Ganesha, who is depicted drinking wine and also its use in worship, a taboo in
classical Hinduism (see Panchamakara). Adherents of this sect wear red marks on their
foreheads. This sect does not believe in caste and varna distinctions, disregards the orthodox
Hindu rules of sexual intercourse and marriage and leaves the adherence of traditional Hindu
rituals to the follower's own will.
As per the Kriyakramadyoti, Uchchhishta Ganapati is worshipped as a giver of great boons. Rao
notes that he is worshipped by "many" to gain the desired from the deity. He is also regarded as
the guardian of the country. Meditating over his form is said to impart control over the five
sensory organs. A temple dedicated to Uchchhishta Ganapati exists in Tirunelveli, where he is
worshipped as a giver of progeny.
The Kanchi Ganesh shrine within the Jagannath Temple, Puri houses the icon of Uchchhishta
Ganapati, also called Bhanda Ganapati and Kamada Ganapati, which was originally the patron
icon of Kanchipuram (Kanchi), but was brought to Puri as war booty when
the Gajapati king Purushottama Deva (1470–97) of Puri defeated Kanchi.
The relation between Nila saraswati and Ucchista Ganapati is both of Father-
Daughter,Husband-wife and Mother -son....Ucchista dev is the presiding deity of
the chaos before the creation and after the destruction...from this Chaos the
great Lord Ucchista comes out and begins his creation play!

For this he gives birth to Mahamaya..hence she becomes his daughter.

After this he mates with her for the creation. Hence they become husband wife.
80
After mating, Ucchista enters into Mahamaya's womb, and born from there as
the Universe!!!!

That's how he becomes her son.

This Mahamaya,is blue in colour which resembles her authority on the cosmic
universe.
She is Lord Ucchista's consciousness. Withour her, he can not do anything. They
are inseparable, like fire and its heat....water and its flow. They are Purna
Brahma and Mahamaya. Purus and Prakiti!!
<3

OM UCCHISTA GANANATHAE RAKTABARNAE PASANKUSHAHASTAE NILATARA

SAMETAE MUSHAKBAHANAE SARVASIDDHIDAE GUNESHPUTRAE
MAHAGANESHAE NAMO NAMAH!!! <3

The Amalgam of Tantricism and other forms --Ganapatya

This is a denomination of Hinduism that worships Ganesha (also called Ganapati) as the Saguna
Brahman.
The worship of Ganesha is considered complementary with the worship of other deities. Hindus
of all sects begin prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies with an invocation
of Ganesha, because of Ganesha's role as the god of beginnings. But although most Hindu sects
do revere Ganesha, the Ganapatya sect goes further than that, and declares Ganesha to be the
supreme being. Ganapatya is one of the five principal Hindu sects which focus on a particular
deity, alongside Shaivism, focussed on Shiva, Shaktism, focussed on Shakti, Vaishnavism,
focused on Vishnu, and Saura, focussed on Surya. While Ganapatya is not as large a sect as the
other four, it still has been influential. There is also the Smartism sect, which

81
follows Advaita philosophy and practices the "worship of the five forms" (pañcāyatana pūjā)
system, popularized by Śaṅkarācārya. In this system, the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu,
Shiva, Devī, and Sūrya are viewed as five equal forms of one Nirguna Brahman.
Ganapati has been worshipped as part of Shaivism since at least the fifth century. A specific
Ganapatya sect probably began to appear between the sixth and ninth centuries: six sects are
mentioned in the Sankara digvijaya (life of Adi Shankara) by Anandigiri. It reached a high point
about the tenth century, and built temples dedicated to Ganesha, the largest of which is the Ucchi
Pillayar Koil (the Columns Hall of a Thousand Pillars), on the Rock Fort of Tiruchirapalli
in Tamil Nadu. Ganesha is worshipped as the Supreme Being (Para Brahman) in this sect. Being
the chief deity in this form of Hinduism, he is known by the epithet Parameshwara (Supreme
God), which is normally reserved for Shiva.
Moraya Gosavi
Later, the sect was popularized by Morya Gosavi. According to one source, he found an idol of
Ganapati not made by human hands, and built the Moragao temple near Pune in the 14th century.
According to another, he experienced visions of Ganapati at the Morgaon shrine, and was
entombed alive (jeeva samadhi) in 1651, in a Ganesha temple at his birthplace in Chinchwad.
Following him, the Ganapatya sect became prominent between the seventeenth and nineteenth
centuries in Maharashtra in south western India, centering on Cinchwad. Its centre is still among
high-caste Hindus in the Marathi-speaking Maharashtra, and it is important in the rest of South
India. Devotees hold an annual pilgrimage between Chinchwad and Moragao.
Sect marks include a red circle on the forehead, or the brands of an elephant face and tusk on the
shoulders.

In contrast to the Brahma cult which has now declined completely, the Ganesha cult is still going
strong. One of the main reasons why the cult is still prominent is because its rise coincided with
the escalation of tantric worship in other parts of India, in the post Gupta period, which further
influenced each other in the worship. The Ganapatyas worship Ganesha as the ultimate God,
following the Ganapati Upanishad (mid 17th Century) where Ganesha is praised as the creator,
preserver, and destroyer of the worlds. They believe that Ganesha is the Lord of the Five
Elements, and that chanting ‘Om’ will please and placate him to provide them with blessings.
The symbol of ‘Om’, associated with Ganesha, is said to have been the inspiration for the

82
creation of Ganesha as Parvati pictured two elephants mating when she saw the symbol, from
which Ganesha was created.56 Since every mantra begins with ‘Om’ which is considered to be
the seed of the universe, Ganesha is the rebirth of the entire cosmic universe.
The Tantric Mountains of Prambhanan

Tantra is one of the most misunderstood of the esoteric disciplines. In order to get a clear idea as
to the nature of Tantric ritual and belief it is necessary to go where Tantra is still practiced and
from where important Tantric teachings originated a thousand years ago: the island of Java in
present-day Indonesia.

Tantricism is still practiced in the shrines, cemeteries and secret schools of Java

It is this Tantra -- the Tantra of Java -- that has influenced secret societies, mystics, alchemists,
Kabbalists and magicians for hundreds if not thousands of years. Human sexuality became a
metaphor and a template for both spiritual transformation and the manipulation of reality/ of how
various sexual acts and psycho-biological states became the basis for a comprehensive
cosmology that incorporates every aspect of human experience- not only in Java but the place of
ORIGIN -India

Why did gods live in mountains? According to popular belief Heavens are like snow capped
mountains. So lords like to reside in such places in earth as well. One more reason could be they
are closer to heavens from earth. So lord of the highest like to descent to the highest mountains
when he wants to meet his people.
What mountain do the Hindu gods live on? Mount Meru
Mount Meru, in Hindu mythology, a golden mountain that stands in the centre of the universe
and is the axis of the world. It is the abode of gods, and its foothills are the Himalayas, to the
south of which extends Bhāratavarṣa (“Land of the Sons of Bharata”), the ancient name for
India.Even in Christianity are the ultimate symbol of stability. So when Jesus speaks of
mountains being moved, or even more dramatically 'thrown into the sea', as the result of faithful
prayer (Matthew 17:20; 21:21), he is deliberately invoking a human impossibility. Indonesia has
many high mountains, the highest of which are over 4000 metres. Many of them are active
volcanoes.Mountains of Indonesia — many Indonesian mountains are known as Gunung, & most
are active or dormant volcanoes.

Sacred mountains of Java

The island of Java is over 1000 km long and about 100 km large. Its main summits are, from west
to east, Slamet (3432 m), Ragajembangan (2177 m), Prahu (2565 m) and Ungaran (2050 m).
However, not all Javanese mountains are considered equal. Some of them have been
considered sacred places of power and since the most ancient times. Until today, they are sought
after places for pilgrimage, purification and meditation.The 9 mountains are said to be related to
the Dewata Nawa Sanga.

83
1. Mount Semeru — the Great Mountain
This majestic volcano is the highest mountain in the whole of Java. It is also known
as Mahameru (‘The Great Mountain’), the abode of the gods, the center of the spiritual Universe.
It is surrounded by the Bromo-Tengger-Semeru national park. Special ceremonies are held at the
top of Mount Semeru on Independence Day.

Mount Semeru is mentioned in an Old Javanese manuscript from the Majapahit period which
relates that Java was once floating on the ocean and, to stop its movement, the gods nailed it to the
Earth by moving a part of the original Meru to Java. The result was Mount Semeru.
The majestic Pura Mandara Giri Sumeru Agung in the village of Senduro on the eastern slope of
Mount Semeru is the spiritual center for the Hindu-Javanese in East Java.

84
 Merapi seen from Borobudur temple

2. Mount Merapi — the Volcano of Destiny

Mount Merapi overlooks the city of Yogyakarta and the ‘Plain of a Thousand
Temples’ which includes Borobudur, Prambanan, and hundreds of other ancient temples and
shrines. Mount Merapi is central to Javanese culture, and is surrounded by many myths and
legends.

Despite being an active volcano, there are villages and inhabitants. Despite the dangers, they
choose to live on the slopes of Merapi because of its soil fertility and the sacredness of the
mountain.

To keep the volcano quiet and to appease the spirits of the mountain, the Javanese regularly bring
offerings on the anniversary of the Yogyakarta sultan’s coronation. Merapi has a significant
cosmological symbolism for the Yogyakarta sultanate, because of the sacred North-South axis
line between Merapi peak and Southern Ocean.
The sacred axis is composed of Mount Merapi in the North, the Tugu monument in the center of
Yogyakarta, it then runs along Malioboro street to the Northern Alun-alun across the Yogyakarta
Keraton, then the Southern Alun-alun, all the way to Bantul and finally reach Samas and
Parangkusumo beach on the estuary of Opak river and the Southern Ocean.
This sacred axis connects the hyang, or spirits of the mountain revered since ancient times. The
sultan of Yogyakarta is seen as the leader of the Javanese kingdom, and Nyi Roro Kidul the
Queen of the Southern Ocean (a form of Tara) is the deity revered by Javanese people as the
spiritual consort of the Javanese kings.
The mountain is connected to many legends:

85
3. Mount Penanggungan — the mountain of the Kings-Priests
Mount Penanggungan is one of Java’s most sacred mountains. According to myths, when
Mount Meru was shifted to Java, its peak suffered some damage in transit: the base broke away to
form Mount Semeru in the Bromo-Tengger massif, while the smooth summit tumbled some 60
kilometers to the north to form Mount Penanggungan.
In Hindu-Buddhist mythology, Meru has four terraced ledges, the first being the ‘heaven’ of the
Four Great Kings facing north, south, east and west. Interestingly, Penanggungan has four lower
peaks around its base in an almost perfect square formation: Bekel (NE), Mungkur (SE),
Kemuncup (SW) and Saraklapa (NW).
The mountain’s enigmatic purple cone is visible from Trowulan, the capital of Majapahit 30 km
to the West. For centuries, pilgrims traveled by foot from Trowulan to the temples on Mount
Penanggungan.

The remains of more than 120 temples dot the forested slopes of the mountain. New temples
are regularly discovered among the thick forests. In addition to the temples, the slopes of Mount
Penanggungan are covered with numerous ritual sites.
Spiritual travelers can find places to stay in the nearby hill resorts of Trawas or Tretes, small
towns with fine views looking out across the rice terraces and thick forests towards
Penanggungan.

86
Mount Tidar in Megalang city

4. Mount Tidar — the ‘Nail of Java’

A hill of only 503 m, Mount Tidar is located in the middle of Magelang, and is known as the ‘Nail
of Java’. It is said that who controls this spot controls the whole of Java. Mount Tidar is said to be
guarded by Kyai Semar, the guardian spirit of Java. This is why the Indonesian Military Academy
is based there. Even when Britain took briefly control of the region in 1811, Magelang became the
seat of government.
In 78 AD, a Brahmin called Aji Saka, from the kingdom of the great King Ranishka had come to
Java. He introduced the Javanese script and gave all the Javanese mountains the Sanskrit names
by which they are known today. In seven places in the country, Saka buried certain magnetized
objects called tumbal in order to protect Java from evil influences.

Shrine to Kyai Semar in Magelang, with Shiva murti in the background

Saka selected Mount Tidar for the burial of the most powerful of his talismans. This talisman is
still buried somewhere at the top of Mount Tidar, in a wide field, where stands a monument with
the symbol of the Javanese letter Sa written on three sides.
Later on, the Moslems tried to transmute this story into an imaginary ‘’Sheikh Subakir’’ from
Turkey who is supposed to have defeated Kyai Semar himself and who would have re-switched
the stone in favor of Islam. Therefore, an imaginary ‘’tomb of Sheikh Subakir’’ has been installed
by Moslem radicals at the location of the ancient shrine to Semar (as often in Java, the true
meaning of the myths has deliberately been obscured by islamization. Yet the true spiritual
meanings of places and legends remain for those who bother to find them) .

5. Mount Lawu — the Mystical Mountain

Mount Lawu is definitely one of the most spiritual destinations on this list. It is one of the holiest
pilgrimage sites in Java. The Northwest slope of Mount Lawu is home to three of the most
mysterious temples in Java, Candi Cetho, Candi Sukuh and Candi Kethek. The area was one of

87
the last stronghold of the Majapahit empire, and a vibrant Hindu-Javanese community maintained
itself on the holy mountain to this day.
Candi Cetho is very impressive, at 1400 m up the slope of Mount Lawu. Looking through
the candi bentar, it’s almost as if you are dropping off one kilometer below into the sky. Built in
the 14th century, it is an architectural transition between the earlier Hindu candi of Central and
East Java and the modern Hindu pura found in Bali.

6. Mount Gede Pangrango — the Mountain of the Goddess

Mount Gede-Pangrango, located in the Mount Gede Pangrango National Park, is classified as a
UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. It is famous for its number of bird species: 251 of the 450 species
in Java inhabit this park, among which the famous Javan hawk eagle.
This area is surrounded by ancient legends..

7. Mount Bromo — the Cauldron of Brahma

Mount Bromo is an active volcano, and even though it is not the highest peak of the massif, it is
the most well known. Mount Semeru in the background is Java’s highest point. The landscapes
here are absolutely spectacular. The Tengger Massif is a fearsome landscape. It emerged from an
ancient volcano that gave birth to five new volcanic cones which now lie across each other around
the mother crater. The massif is surrounded by the Tengger Black Sand Sea which covers an area
of 5,250 ha at an altitude of 2,100 m. Mysterious cloud formations regularly appear above it.

The otherworldy landscapes of the Tengger Massif remind of Tolkien’s fantasy world. Its
most prominent peak is Mount Bromo (Javanese wording for Brahma, the God of Creation). The
other volcanoes are Mount Batok (2,470 m), Mount Kursi (2,581 m), Mount Watangan (2,661 m),
and Mount Widodaren (2,650 m). All peaks are active except Mount Batok, which is covered in
vegetation.
The massif also contains the highest mountain in Java, Mount Semeru (3,676 m), four lakes and
50 rivers. This is the home of the Javanese edelweiss, of 200 species of orchids, of the Javanese
Green peafowl and of the Javan leopard.

88
Ganesha pratima (idol) at Mount Bromo

The region is home to the Hindu Tengger community, descendants

of Majapahit loyalists who fled to this sacred mountain to escape the islamization of Java. The
Tengger people are one of the significant Hindu communities remaining in Java. Their population
of roughly 600,000 is centered in 30 towns in the Tengger mountains that include Mount Bromo.

In Majapahit times, the Bromo complex was already a place of important ritual activity. An
important work of the Majapahit period, the Tantu Panggelaran also mentions Mount Bromo as
the spot where the Brahma, does his smithing. Yet the whole Tengger area had long been a place
of pilgrimage and meditation (tirta yatra), even before the Majapahit era.

8. Mount Kawi — the Mountain of Fortune

89
Mount Kawi in Wonosari is not a very high volcano, at just 2000 m high, but it is inextricably
linked with the Javanese folklore of the sacred Dewa Daru tree. This mountain is very crowded,
especially on Jum’at Legi in the Javanese calendar. This place is popular among Chinese-
Indonesians for business and fortune-related rituals.

9. Mount Salak — the Mountain of Ascetics

Mount Salak is famous for being haunted. Many strange events have been experienced in
that area. Some climbers saw strange creatures. Often, climbers got lost and disappeared.
Campers are reported to have died in their sleep usually attributed to poisonous gases emitted
from craters. Many spirits are said to be guarding Mount Salak and are looking for sacrifices.
Mount Salak has dozens of temples scattered on it slopes. The mountain was used for the
meditation retreats of the Javanese kings and high priests. It is the location of Pakuan
Padjajaran and of the tomb of King Sri Baduga Maharaja, as well as over 40 tombs of ancient
Hindu hermits who meditated to death on Mount Salak.

Each of its several peaks is said to have an invisible guard, or Juru kunci — Puncak IV is
guarded by mysterious grandmothers who appear every 9 to 12 noon. Peak III is guarded by
Eyang Sarean. Salak II Peak is controlled by Sri Baduga Queen of Hajj. And the peak of Salak I is
guarded by KH Moh Hasan or Mbah Salak.
Legends also tell that Mount Salak contained a very large wild boar-like creature that is about the
size of a truck. Another creature in the shape of a golden half horse, half snake is said to be
wandering in the forest. Those two are said to act as forest guards to protect the mount from
hunting and illegal logging.

From Borobudur or Prambhanan or any of the smaller temples, it is quiet evident that
MOUNTAINS have played a key role in design destiny of these structures and their architectural
nuances. BOTH the complexes are laid out in the form of a mandala, and features the towering,
broad spires that are typical of Hindu temple architecture, and represent Meru, the holy mountain
where the gods live.

Everyone knows that a grand entrance can make quite a statement and first impression. But in a
similar way, a staircase also has the potential to pack a punch and inject character into a project.
These functional — and often central — elements can become opportunities for architects to
flex their creative muscle and design something sculptural, dramatic or simple-yet-handsome.

90
91
92
 Yogyakarta
Yogyakarta is both the name of a Province and its Capital city. The province is the Special
Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only
Indonesian royal city still ruled by a monarchy, Yogyakarta is regarded as an important centre
for classical Javanese fine arts and culture such as ballet, batik textiles,
drama, literature, music, poetry, silversmithing, visual arts, and wayang puppetry.
Nearby to the city of Yogyakarta is Mount Merapi, with the northern outskirts of the city running
up to the southern slopes of the mountain in Sleman Regency. Mount Merapi (literally "mountain
of fire" in both Indonesian and Javanese), is an active stratovolcano located on the border

93
between Central Java and Yogyakarta. It is the most active volcano in Indonesia and has erupted
regularly since 1548, with the last eruption occurring in May 2018.It is the home to both the
Borobudur and the Prambhanan temples
According to the Canggal inscription dated 732 CE, the area traditionally known as "Mataram"
became the capital of the Medang Kingdom, identified as Mdang i Bhumi Mataram established
by King Sanjaya of Mataram. The inscription was found in a Hindu temple in Central Java,
40 km away from Yogyakarta and 20 km away from the giant Borobudur temple complex. This
Hindu temple itself was on the border between the area of the Hindu Sañjaya dynasty and the
area of the Buddhist Shailendra dynasty.
Mataram became the centre of a refined and sophisticated Javanese Hindu-Buddhist culture for
about three centuries in the heartland of the Progo River valley, on the southern slopes of Mount
Merapi volcano. This time period witnessed the construction of numerous candi,
including Borobudur and Prambanan.

Around the year 929 CE, the last ruler of the Sañjaya dynasty, King Mpu Sindok of Mataram,
moved the seat of power of the Mataram Kingdom from Central Java to East Java and thus
established the Isyana dynasty. The exact cause of the move is still uncertain; however, a severe
eruption from Mount Merapi or a power struggle with the Sumatra-based Srivijaya
kingdom probably caused the move.

Historians suggest that some time during the reign of King Wawa of Mataram (924–929 CE),
Merapi erupted and devastated the kingdom's capital in Mataram.
There are 107 named mountains in Special Region of Yogyakarta. The highest and the most
prominent mountain is Gunung Merapi.

94
 Highest Peaks Most Prominent Mountains

Gunung Merapi Gunung Merapi

2 955 m (prom: 1 381 m) 2 955 m (prom: 1 381 m)

Gunung Turgo Gunung Jambe

1 104 m 759 m (prom: 570 m)

Puncak Kendil Gunung Kukusan

977 m (prom: 161 m) 740 m (prom: 497 m)

Puncak Suroloyo Gunung Sigepak

961 m (prom: 31 m) 861 m (prom: 294 m)

Puncak Sariloyo Purba

941 m (prom: 17 m) 684 m (prom: 293 m)

Gunung Widosari Gunung Butak

921 m (prom: 60 m) 420 m (prom: 187 m)

Gunung Papak Gunung Sudimoro

912 m (prom: 62 m) 466 m (prom: 172 m)

Gunung Sigepak Gunung Ijo

861 m (prom: 294 m) 597 m (prom: 162 m)

Gunung Lanang Puncak Kendil

808 m (prom: 80 m) 977 m (prom: 161 m)

Gunung Boro Gunung Kukusan

766 m 490 m (prom: 158 m)

Sacred mountains are central to certain religions, and are usually the subjects of many legends.
For many, the most symbolic aspect of a mountain is the peak because it is believed that it is
closest to heaven or other religious worlds. Many religions have traditions centred on sacred
mountains, which either are or were considered holy (such as Mount Olympus in Greek
mythology) or are related to famous events. Mount Kailash is believed to be the abode of the
deities Shiva and Parvati, and is considered sacred in four religions: Hinduism and Buddhism.. A
particular sacred mountain may have one or more of these themes represented in it; some may
have nearly all of them.

1. Height: When we look at a mountain the first thing to impress us is usually not its central
location, but its height, which evokes an immediate response of wonder and awe. Poised

95
 above the surrounding landscape, set in a fluid realm of drifting clouds and flowing sky,
its summit appears to float in another world, higher and more perfect than the one in
which we dwell.
2. Center: The view of the mountain as the center appears in its most comprehensive form
as a central axis linking together the three levels of the cosmos - heaven, earth, and hell
or underworld. As the link between heaven earth, and hell, it acts as a conduit of power,
the place where sacred energies, both divine and demonic, spew into the world of human
existence.
3. Power: Many sacred mountains are revered as places of awesome power manifested in
various ways - natural, supernatural, and even political.
4. Deity or abode of deity: As places of power and heavens on high, mountains serve as
abodes of gods and goddesses, often situated at the center of the cosmos, world, or
region.
5. Temple or place of worship: Mountains often appear in the form of temples housing the
deities who reside on or within them. As centers and high places open to the sky,
mountains provide altars for making offerings to gods and spirits. Also, mountains may
take the form of places of worship, viewed or imagined as shrines, churches, and
cathedrals.
6. Paradise or garden: Modern societies share with traditional cultures the widespread view
of mountains as sacred gardens and earthly paradises.[7]
7. Ancestors and the dead: Whether revered as heavens or feared as hells, mountains have a
widespread and important role as hallowed places of the dead. In many cases, the
resemblance of mountains to tombs, which often mimic the shape of hills, make them
natural places of burial. In seeing mountains as abodes of the dead, people often regard
them as the places from which their ancestors came - or as those ancestors themselves. [8]
8. Identity: As divine ancestors, mountains provide many societies with their identity and
cohesiveness.
9. Source: People throughout the world look up to mountains as sources of innumerable
blessings, sometimes attributed to the ancestral spirits dwelling within them. For many
cultures the most important of these blessings is water. Other blessings that flow from
sacred mountains include fertility, health, and well-being, as well as treasures of various
kinds.
10.Revelation, transformation, inspiration, and renewal: As places of power, close to heaven,
mountains serve as dramatic sites of revelation, transformation, inspiration and renewal.
The revelation or vision on a mountain often transforms the person who receives it.
Hermits of traditions around the world seek out mountains as places to transform
themselves through practices of physical austerity and spiritual contemplation. Poets and
mystics have visualized the ascent of the sacred mountain as a symbol of the ultimate
pilgrimage, leading to the heights of heaven and the final goal of spiritual realization. For
lay people who do not aspire to the supreme heights of spiritual transcendence or
enlightenment, mountains serve as places where they can find inspiration and renewal.

ANCESTOR WORSHIP

96
 History shows that mountains were commonly part of a complex system of mountain and
ancestor worship. Having immortalized fallen brethren in the edifice, the people share a common
allegiance with all the other people of a community. The meanings that were etched into the
mountain and mound terrain connected the villagers. They were all subject to the same landscape
and village history, which were bound together by their cultural significance. The history
of ancestors could be told by simply pointing at specific mountains and remembering the stories
that were passed down throughout the generations. The worship of ancestors and the mountains
were largely inseparable. An interconnected web between history, landscape, and culture was
thus formed. One example is the Hindu belief that Mount Kailash is the final resting place for the
souls of the dead, as well as the large cemetery placed on Mount Kōya-san.
Sacred mountains can also provide an important piece of a culture's identity.

Mountainous temples -Meru towers of Bali to the left and the top of the Prambananr to the right

In the realm of Hindu Architecture Shikhara a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain
peak", refers to the rising tower in the Hindu temple architecture of North India, and also often
used in Jain temples. A shikhara over the garbhagriha chamber where the presiding deity is
enshrined is the most prominent and visible part of a Hindu temple of North India.
In South India, the equivalent term is vimana; unlike the shikhara, this refers to the whole
building, including the sanctum beneath. In the south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of the
vimana only, which is usually a dome capped with a finial; this article is concerned with the
northern form. The southern vimana is not to be confused with the elaborate gateway-towers of
south Indian temples, called gopuram, which are often taller and more prominent features in
large temples.
In fact the Indonesian Balinese variation is the Meru tower or pelinggih meru which is the
principal shrine of a Balinese temple. It is a wooden, pagoda-like structure with a masonry base,
a wooden chamber and multi-tiered thatched roofs. The height of Meru towers represent the
Hindu Mount Meru. Meru towers are usually dedicated to either the highest gods of the Hindu
pantheon, the local pantheon, or a deified person.The Meru tower is the equivalent of
the shikhara (north India) or vimana (South India) in Indian Hindu temple architecture.

97
1895 photo of Prambhanan shows the SHIKHARA toppled down and today after restoration

98
What is the architectural style of Prambanan temple? Well, It is characterised by its tall and
pointed architecture, typical of Hindu temple architecture, and by the 47m high central building
inside a large complex of individual temples. It was likely started by Rakai Pikatan and
inaugurated by his successor King Lokapala. Some historians that adhere to dual dynasty theory;
suggest that the construction of Prambanan probably was meant as the Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty's
answer to the Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty's Borobudur and Sewu temples nearby.

The shikhara, (of both the Prambhanan and the Borobudur looks and represents the Mountain
TOP and the Mount Meru itself. This superstructure, tower, or spire above the sanctuary and also
above the pillared mandapas (porches or halls); it is the most dominant and characteristic feature
of the Hindu temple as well as the Buddhist stupa( which incidentally 24 years before it was
constructed as a Buddhist stupa had started its life as a Hindu temple).

The North Indian shikhara is basically of two types: (1) the latina, curvilinear in outline, the
type most usually found above the sanctuary; and (2) the phamsana, rectilinear in outline and
capped by a bell-shaped member, the form more usually found above the mandapa.

The latina shikhara is composed of a series of horizontal roof slabs gradually receding toward
the top and provided with projections that extend from the base and wall of the temple. The
surface of the shikhara is covered with a vinelike tracery composed of diminutive chandrashalas
(ogee arches). Above the truncated top (skandha) projects a necking on which rests a large
grooved disk (amalasaraka), and above it sits a pot with a crowning finial. Each story is
indicated by miniature amalasarakas at the four corners, repeated all the way to the top.

99
The latina shikhara has two further variations: the shekhari and the bhumija.
The shekhari consists of the central latina spires with one or more rows of half spires added on
either side and miniature shikharas clustered along the base and corners. The shekhari was
popular from the 10th century onward and can be observed on most Central Indian temples;
the Lakshmana and Kandarya Mahadeva temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, have excellent
examples.

The bhumija variation has a flat vertical projection in the centre of each of the four sides, the
quadrants between being filled with rows of miniature shrines all the way up to the top of the
tower. The bhumija temple was particularly popular in Malwa, in the western part of Madhya
Pradesh, and in the Deccan; an example is the 11th-century Udayeshvara temple at Udayapur,
Madhya Pradesh.

According to South Indian architecture texts, the term shikhara is reserved for the dome-shaped
crowning cap, though art historians have generally used the term to designate all temple spires,
north and south. The South Indian spire, known as the kutina type, is quite different in shape
from the North Indian shikhara, having a pyramidal storied arrangement, with each story
(bhumi) stepped and relatively realistically delineated.

Only the main temple complex of the Prambanan and few small temples have been restored to its
original form, most of the complex is the piles of stone since the complex is located in the
earthquake prone area, its design cannot stand the quake well. The main temple complex
dedicated to three highest gods of Hindu and their mythical vehicles, has details of stone craving
are really stunning and beautiful. The most stunning is the biggest temple for Shiva; the temple
has 4 rooms, each room for Shiva or his family. Today there is a mini train to see Candi Sewu, a
Buddhist temple nearby. The temple complex layout is similar to Prambanan that many small
temples surrounded the main one like mandala. Similar to Prambanan, most of the temples are
just the piles of collapsing rock only the main temple and few minor ones are fully restored. I
really like the unique design that the spires are in the shape of stupa which is the big contrast to
Prambanan. Prambanan is really a great sight and exceed expectations.

My Son of Champa in Viet Nam and the Prambanan are pre-Angkor Hindu sites in Southeast
Asia and different from each other. There are many similarities between Angkor, My Son and
Hindu temple in India especially the temple design and function. Prambanan is really different;
the closest similarity is the pre-Angkor temple in Rolous, Cambodia, echoing my history class
that early Angkor civilization may came from Java, and the Khmer art reached its zenith when
they finally combined both schools of Java and Champa after Angkorian conquered My Son.

100
Rolous…………………………………………………….Prambanan

Borobudur and My son

The Stairs of the 2 Temples

A set of stairs can lead you on a magical journey: ascending a staircase is literally and
figuratively reaching higher, a passage to positivity, where as descending a stairway is a spiral
ride downward, to darkness, negativity, and perhaps, death. Staircases are the focal point of a
lot of great movies and their symbolism is not lost. The greater and grander the staircase, the
more power it holds. And, in many multi-story homes, choosing the right stairs and bannister is
of the utmost importance — they’re large and domineering and thus, must be treated as serious
design elements. Today, Architects and designers have made their stamps on homes, public
spaces, and commercial buildings everywhere simply by creating unique stairways. These
magnificent examples of steps and handrails are truly dream worthy (if not horror film, anxiety
and fear worthy), just so long as you are climbing up them and not falling down …

101
Borobudur

Prambanan

102
 Chapter 2
Tantric Temples of Khajuraho and Indonesia Part I KHAJURAHO
Tantrism
1. (Hinduism) a movement within Hinduism combining magical and mystical elements and
with sacred writings of its own
2. (Buddhism) a similar movement within Buddhism

TANTRISM: AN OVERVIEW

The term tantrism is a nineteenth-century western invention, coined to refer to what were
considered to be a body of heterodox religious teachings, first discovered by European scholars
in Indian works called Tantras. Although there is no term in any Asian language for tantrism, it
continues to be applied by scholars to a bewilderingly diverse array of esoteric precepts and
practices attested across much of South, Inner, and East Asia from the sixth century ce down to
the present day.

The most salient phenomena common to all tantrisms are the use of maṇḍalas, mantras, and
ritual practices in order to map, organize, and control a universe of powerful beings, impulses, or
forces in pandemonium. Here, it is important to note that the specifically tantric use
of maṇḍalas, mantras, and initiations first emerged in India as a religious response to or
reflection of a situation of anomie. With the fall of the imperial Guptas in about 550 ce, much of
the Indian subcontinent was plunged into a centuries-long period of feudalism, in which
multiple, shifting political "centers" were in constant flux, passing under the control of a series of
often low-caste rulers whose claim to dominion over a territory was, from the standpoint of

103
orthodox religious polity, illegitimate. In order to legitimate their power, these newly arisen
rulers called on a variety of religious specialists to ritually consecrate them with tantric mantras,
transforming them into divine kings, and their conquered territories into equally
consecrated maṇḍalas of royal power. Ronald M. Davidson has encapsulated this feudal
dynamic:

In the medieval military culture, the apotheosis of the king served his strategy of divine right to
the assumption of power, irrespective of his actual lineage. However, the process of divine
royalty conversely implied the royalty of divinity, so the apotheosis of rulers entailed the
feudalization of the gods. … [T]he great and local deities of the period … occupied positions in
metaphysical space analogous to the positions controlled by their devotees in terrestrial space,
with all the attendant rights and responsibilities. At the same time, lesser divinities became
understood as representatives of the imperial divinity, who protected them in a complex
exchange of divine services, just as the vassals owed allegiance and loyalty to the monarch
through the exchanges of goods, services, land, and booty. (Indian Esoteric Buddhism, 2002, pp.
71–72.)

When one bears in mind the Indian feudal context within which tantrism emerged out of
preexisting Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain religious systems, a number of specifically tantric terms
and practices become comprehensible. These include the use of mantras (secret spells) as
"weapons" (śastras ), "missiles" (astras ), and "armor" (kavaca ); ritual practices of "binding the
directions" (dig-bandhana ) as a means to securing a consecrated space from invasion by
demonic forces; the construction of tantric maṇḍalas on the model of fortified palace-citadels;
multiple associations of tantric goddesses with warfare; the bearing of royal weapons or scepters
(vajras ) by tantric initiates; the tantric "acts" (karmas ) of pacification, subjugation,
immobilization, enmity, eradication, and liquidation; and the narrative use of the language of
conquest (both military and sexual) in tantric discourse in general. Here, the original tantric
practitioner par excellence was not the traditional religious specialist—a Brāhmaṇ priest or a
Buddhist or Jain monk—but rather the king, as exemplary member of the laity. Much of the early
history of tantrism is intertwined with the emergence of a new type of lay religious specialist,
"shamanic" ascetic practitioners who identified themselves, through their supernatural powers,
with royal gods and divine kings. To these latter, they offered a variety of services and products,
including spells and potions for the control of women, the attainment of wealth, and the
annihilation of enemies; spirit possession; magical healing and manipulation of the dead,
demons, and other entities; future-telling; and so on. In Hindu and Buddhist circles, these tantric
supermen were called "Perfected Beings" (Siddhas, Mahāsiddhas ) and "Virile Heroes" (Vīras );
among Śvetāmbara Jains, the "Teachers" (Sūris ) of the Kharatara Gaccha sub-sect have played
an analogous role.

Geographical Spread of Tantrism

The origins of tantrism are Indian. All authentic tantric lineages—of deities, scriptures, oral
teachings, and teachers—claim to extend back to Indian scriptures. The founders of every major
tantric tradition, school, or sect either trace their guru-disciple lineages back to an Indian source,
or are considered to be incarnations of bodhisattvas whose cults first arose in India. The
exploded pantheons of tantrism—principal multi-headed and multi-armed deities proliferating
into maṇḍalas of families or clans—are generally Indian, or at least traceable to Indian

104
prototypes. The great bulk of tantric legends concerns Indian Siddhas and Mahāsiddhas. The
hieratic language of tantrism generally remains the Sanskrit of medieval India, so that for any
lineage-based tantric body of practice to be considered legitimate in Chinese, Japanese, Korean,
or Tibetan tantric traditions, its translated root text has had to be traceable back to a Sanskrit
original. In these translated sources, mantras —whose efficacy resides in their sound shape—
will not be translated, but rather frozen (at least in theory) in the original Sanskrit. Furthermore,
Sanskrit characters form the basis of the hieratic siddham script employed in Chinese and
Japanese tantric maṇḍalas and texts. The yogic practice that is so central to tantrism is also of
Indian origin (albeit influenced by Daoist techniques).

Tantrism has persisted and quite often thrived across much of Asia since its Indian origins in the
middle of the first millennium of the common era. Its practitioners have lived in India, China,
Japan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Korea, and Mongolia, as well as in the
"Greater India" of medieval Southeast Asia: Cambodia, Burma, and Indonesia. The medieval
history of South Asian Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism is saturated with tantrism. In Hindu
India, the Pāñcarātra, Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava, Sahajiyā, Pāśupata, Kāpālika, Śaiva Siddhānta, Siddha
Kaula, Yoginī Kaula, Krama, Trika, Śrīvidyā, Paścimāmnāya, Nāth Siddha, and Śākta
movements, orders, and sects have all been tantric or heavily colored by tantrism since the
medieval period. Medieval Jain tantric works such as the tenth-century Jvālinī Kalpa resembled
coeval Hindu and Buddhist Tantras in every way but for the names of the deities who were the
objects of their ritual practice. Although Buddhism disappeared from the subcontinent in the
thirteenth century, India (including present-day Pakistan) was the cradle of Buddhist tantrism in
its Mahāyāna, Mantrayāna, and Vajrayāna forms, which were exported into Mongolia, Nepal,
Bhutan, China, Korea, Japan, and Tibet. Certain of the Yoginī Tantras of early Buddhist tantrism
originated in the Swat Valley of present-day Pakistan, and the tenth-century Kālacakra Tantra,
an important Vajrayāna work, was likely written by an author living in the same region. Tibetan
Buddhism is nearly entirely a Vajrayāna tradition: this applies to the four major existing schools
(the Rnying ma [Nyingma] pas, Bka' brgyud [Kagyu] pas, Sa skya [Sakya] pas, and Dge lugs
[Geluk] pa), as well as to specific forms of practice, such as Rdzogs chen (the "Great Perfection"
practice unique to Nyingma). The ritual of the medieval Chinese state was tantric, and China was
the medieval changing-house for nearly every Buddhist tantric tradition transmitted to Japan,
Korea, and Mongolia. In China, tantrism has persisted, since the twelfth century ce, within
Daoist ritual practice. In Japan, all of the eight traditional schools of Buddhism have a tantric
pedigree: of these, the Shingon and Tendai schools have persisted as Japan's most successful
exponents of "Pure Buddhist Esotericism." In Southeast Asia, Cambodian inscriptions indicate
the presence of Hindu tantric specialists there in the early medieval period; the medieval kings of
Bali underwent Hindu tantric initiations, and present-day Balinese Hinduism continues to display
its Indian tantric origins.

From 1642 until the exile of its Dge lugs (Geluk) pa leadership in 1950, Tibet was a tantric
Buddhist theocracy. Today, the constitutional monarchies of Nepal and Bhutan are the world's
sole surviving "tantric kingdoms," with their state ceremonial comprised of tantric liturgies and
rituals and nearly all of their deities tantric. One of these, Bhairava, is a tantric god found in
every part of Asia, and worshipped in a tantric mode by Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists alike.
Similarly, the originally Indian tantric gods Tārā, Ambikā, Akṣobhya, Mahākāla, Gaṇeśa,
Avalokiteśvara, and Skanda, as well as numerous groups of multiple tantric deities, are found
throughout much of Asia.

105
Fundamentals of Tantric Practice

Tantric practice consists of a set of ritual and meditative strategies for accessing and
appropriating the energy or enlightened consciousness of the absolute godhead that, coursing
through the universe, infuses its creatures with life and the potential for salvation. Humans in
particular are empowered to realize this goal through strategies of embodiment—that is, of
causing that supreme energy, essence of nirvāṇa, or quality of buddhahood to become
concentrated in one or another sort of template or grid (a maṇḍala or mantra, the human body, or
a ritual structure)—prior to its internalization in or identification with the individual microcosm.
This they may do by appropriating elements of this world (which is real and not an illusion) such
as words, images, bodies, and substances, into rituals that collapse subject and object, thereby
projecting them into a realization of their inherent buddha nature or Śiva-self.

Drawing on its feudal Indian origins, tantrism also remains a body of practice with explicit this-
worldly aims: the control of all of the beings located in the universal power grid, including lesser
gods, living people, the dead, animals, and demons. While much of tantric practice has become
sublimated into tame forms of "pure esotericism," it must be recalled that the great volume of
early tantric texts were devoted to sorcery—that is, to magical techniques for controlling other
beings against their will. Such remains the primary goal of tantrism as it continues to be
practiced on a popular level throughout much of Asia.

The key to understanding tantric practice is the maṇḍala, the energy grid that represents the
constant flow of divine and demonic, human and animal impulses in the universe, as they
interact in both constructive and destructive patterns. This grid is three-dimensional, in the sense
that it locates the supreme deity (god, goddess, celestial buddha, bodhisattva, or
enlightened tīrthaṃkara )—the source of that energy and ground of the grid itself—at the center
and apex of a hierarchized cosmos. All other beings, including the practitioner, will be situated at
lower levels of energy/consciousness/being, radiating downward and outward from the elevated
center point. Because the deity is both transcendent and immanent, all of the beings located at the
various energy levels on the grid participate in the outward flow of the godhead, and are in some
way emanations or hypostases of the deity himself (or herself).

This is particularly the case with the tantric guru, the preceptor from whom a practitioner
receives instruction and initiation, and with whom tantric practitioners frequently identify the
godhead at the center of the maṇḍala. Here, the guru, as an already fully realized or empowered
tantric being, plays a pivotal role, linking the human with the divine. In certain tantric traditions,
the male guru's female consort—variously called the Yoginī, Ḍākinī, "Action Seal," or "Lotus
Maiden"—is equally exalted as she is identified with the supreme female godhead. It is in this
particular context that sexualized ritual may be brought to the fore in tantric initiation: the female
consort, as the embodiment of the divine, transmits to the initiand the transformative energy and
wisdom of the godhead through her sexual emissions, which are considered to be liquid gnosis.
In this way, the initiand becomes a member of the divine family or clan of both his guru and the
godhead at the center of the maṇḍala.

Crucial to the initiation process as well as to many other types of tantric practice is the notion
that within the gross body of the human microcosm there is a subtle, yogic body that is the
mesocosmic replica of the divine dyad, the supreme godhead in its male and female

106
manifestations. This body, comprised of energy channels and centers, drops and winds, is itself
a maṇḍala : viewed from above, the vertical central channel of the subtle body would appear as
the center point of the maṇḍala, with the various energy centers aligned along that channel being
so many concentric circles, wheels, or lotuses radiating outward. As such, initiation and all forms
of yogic practice involve, once again, an effort on the part of the practitioner to return to the
elevated center point of the emanated maṇḍala. Movement toward the center, effected through a
combination of external ritual and internal meditative practices, basically entails harmonizing
one's own energy or consciousness level with that of the (deities of the) circle in which one finds
oneself. First encountered as obstacles, these divine, demonic, or animal impulses are eventually
overcome, and transformed into positive sources of energy that carry one closer and closer to the
deity at the center. Alternatively, one may, having overcome them, also coerce those same
potentially destructive lower-level beings to do one's bidding, through various ritual
technologies.

The Institutionalization and Domestication of Tantrism

As its sociopolitical contexts have changed, so too has the content of tantrism, with persons from
a broader range of society appropriating and adapting its rituals and their attendant metaphysics
to their specific needs and aspirations. In general terms, this has taken the form of an
institutionalization of tantrism by Hindu Brāhmaṇs and Buddhist monks on the one hand and, on
the other, the domestication of its base from lay elites (kings, aristocrats, and Siddhas) to wider
strata of householder society. In spite of periodic reformations or revivals of "primitive" tantrism
in various parts of the Asian world, both of these trends have had the effect of draining tantrism
of its original specificities, of making institutional forms of tantrism look more like the broader,
conventional, or orthodox religious contexts in which they have been embedded.

Many of the original tantric masters understood speech to be a performative act, and
intentionally subverted conventional language in their teachings and use of mantras as a means
to effect a breakthrough in their disciples' perception of reality. Among their disciples were
members of the literati, who committed these speech acts into writing, writings that were in turn
anthologized, codified, commentated on, and systematized into texts and canons of texts.
Tantric mantras, which were originally secret spells for coercing a wide range of supernatural
entities into doing one's bidding, became "semanticized" into the phonematic manifestations of
powerful gods and compassionate buddhas, who could be accessed through the mantras ' proper
pronunciation. The term mūdra ("seal"), which originally referred to the sealing together of male
and female bodies in sexual union, came to refer to complex hand and finger positions to be
maintained while meditating, or to the parched grain that Hindu practitioners consume as a
tantric sacrament. The homa fire sacrifice rituals of early tantrism, which often involved the
offering of human and animal blood and gore to ravening demonic entities, became sublimated
into either yogic practice or the meditative burning away of impediments to liberation or
salvation in the fire of gnosis. More fundamentally, the tantric ritual arena came to be sealed off
from the powerful but dangerous entities and forces of the original tantric universe, with the
pandemonium of the real world walled out from the quiet center or the monastic cell or
household shrine.

Orthodox Hindu and Buddhist hermeneutical strategies neutralized the heterodox and heteroprax
content of early tantrism by interpreting it in a variety of ways. On the one hand, much of what

107
was objectionable in the externals of tantric practice was internalized into yogic, meditative, or
imaginative techniques. On the other, such practices were marginalized into the purview of a
limited elite—the Siddhas and Vīras of tantric legend and their emulators—with more
conventional, devotional, salvation-oriented practice recommended for the religious mainstream
of monks, priests, and householders. Here, there was a trade-off between danger and efficacy,
purity and power in the world, in which circumspection was strongly advised to all but a select
few. It was the dangerous content of the early tantric rituals that most distinguished them from
those found in the orthodox Buddhist Sūtra literature and the Hindu Vedas: but for those who
dared to undertake them, and transact in prohibited substances (sexual fluids, unclean or
proscribed food) with problematic beings (outcaste women, minions of the spirit world) through
heterodox practices (sexualized initiation rituals, sorcery), self-transformation could be
instantaneous rather than the result of several lifetimes of practice.

India is the land of the prince, Siddhartha, who was born under a tree by the wayside,
became the Buddha, and died under a sal tree. He owned nothing but a begging bowl, and
yet the wheel of dharma he set in motion continues to bestow nirvana twenty-five
centuries later.
King Rama of north India built a bridge between Sri Lanka and south India so that two
ethnic groups could intermingle more easily. In contrast, Chinese rulers built the Great
Wall to seal off their country from outsiders. While Roman emperors celebrated their
victories by constructing huge monuments, emperors in India used their wealth to have
sacred fire rituals performed.

Here in the West we have built our universities, museums, and libraries in cities, but in
India they chose jungles and remote hilltops for their centers of learning. Westerners
believe that places of worship should be in easily accessible locations, but in India the
more sacred the site, the more remote the location.

Consider the shrines in the Himalayas: Kedarnath, Badrinath, and the shrines in and on the
way to the remote Valley of Flowers. This is where Hindu and Buddhist monks built their
monasteries , preserved their manuscripts, and dedicated their lives to self-discovery.
Paradox has drawn people from all over the world (as well as Indians themselves) to
explore the enigma that is India. One of the greatest riddles is a mysterious complex of
temples at Khajuraho, in central India.

Khajuraho are a complex of magnificent temples belonging to all the major spiritual
traditions of ancient India. Covered with intricate carvings, the temples had been
mysteriously abandoned for seven centuries or longer. One wonders what had inspired
people to spend five hundred years building a complex of elaborate temples, only to
abandon the site and let the jungle reclaim them.

The great sage, Matanga (whose daughter was the Divine Mother), chose Khajuraho as the
place to pursue his spiritual practices. Matangeshwara, a magnificent temple named after
him, still stands there today. Further, history tells us that the Khajuraho complex was built
by the kings of the Chandela dynasty, whose genealogy traces back to Sage Chandrama,
the son of the illustrious sage Atri. In all probability Chandrama lived there, as did his
two brothers, the sages Durvasa and Dattatreya. Clearly the area in and around
Khajuraho is charged with spiritual energy.
Chapter 3
108
 The Tantric Temples Candi Sukuh
Tantric traditions and Shaktism

Toward the end of the 5th century, the cult of the mother goddess assumed a significant place in
Indian religious life. Shaktism, the worship of Shakti, the active power of the godhead conceived
in feminine terms, should be distinguished from Tantrism, the search for spiritual power and
ultimate release by means of the repetition of sacred syllables and phrases (mantras), symbolic
drawings (mandalas), and other secret rites elaborated in the texts known as Tantras (“Looms”).

In many respects the Tantras are similar to the Puranas. Theoretically, the Tantras deal with
knowledge, or philosophy, Yoga, or concentration techniques, ritual, which includes the
construction of icons and temples, and conduct in religious worship and social practice. In
general, the last two subjects are the most numerous, while Yoga tends to centre on the mystique
of certain sound-symbols (mantras) that sum up esoteric doctrines. The philosophy tends to be a
syncretistic mixture of Sankhya and Vedanta thought, with special and at
times exclusive emphasis on the god’s power, or shakti. The Tantric texts can be divided into
three classes:

(1) Shaiva Agamas (traditions of the followers of Shiva),

(2) Vaishnava Samhitas (“Collections of the Vaishnavas,” a name borrowed from the Vedic
Samhitas), and
(3) Shakta Tantras (“Looms of the Followers of the Goddess Shakti”). However, they all have
the common bond of venerating the Goddess.The surviving Hindu Tantras were written much
later than many of those of Tantric Buddhism, hich may have heavily influenced the Hindu texts.
Although there is early evidence of Tantrism and Shaktism in other parts of India, the chief
centres of both were in Bengal, Bihar, and Assam. hakta Tantras.

109
Shaktism in one form or another has been known since Bana (c. 650) wrote his Hundred
Couplets to Chandi (Chandi-shataka) and Bhavabhuti his play Malati Madhava (early 8th
century), about the adventures of the hero Madhava and his beloved Malati; both of these works
refer to Tantric practices. There is no traditional authoritative list of Tantric texts, but many
are extant.

Shaktism is an amalgam of Shaivism and mother goddess traditions. The Shaiva notion that
Shiva’s shakti, not Shiva himself, is active is taken to the extreme—without Shakti, Shiva is a
corpse, and Shakti is the creator as well as creation. Another important notion (partly derived
from Yoga philosophy) is that throughout the body there are subtle canals that carry esoteric
powers connected with the spinal cord, at the bottom of which the Goddess is coiled around the
lingam as kundalini (“coil”); she can be made to rise through the body to the top, whereupon
release from samsara takes place. Important among the Shakta Tantras are the Kularnava-
tantra (“Ocean of Tantrism”), which gives details on the “left-handed” cult forms of ritual
copulation (i.e., those that are not part of traditional Hindu practice);
the Kulachudamani (“Crown Jewel of Tantrism”), which discusses ritual; and
the Sharadatilaka (“Beauty Mark of the Goddess Sharada”) of Lakshmanadeshika (11th
century), which focuses almost exclusively on magic. The goddess cults eventually centred
around Durga, the consort of Shiva, in her fiercer aspect.

Nature of Tantric tradition

110
Tantrism, which appears in both Buddhism and Hinduism, influenced many religious trends and
movements from the 5th century CE, but some of it was meant for esoteric circles. Claiming to
show in times of religious decadence a new way to the highest goal, Tantrism bases itself upon
mystic speculations concerning divine creative energy (shakti). Tantrism is thought to be a
method of conquering transcendent powers and realizing oneness with the highest principle by
Yogic and ritual means—in part magical and orgiastic—which are also supposed to achieve
other supranormal goals.

Proto-Tantric elements in Shaktism and Shaivism

The Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and the Devi Mahatmya in the Markandeya Purana all
mention the fierce, demon-killing manifestations of the Great Goddess, Mahishamardini,
identified with Durga-Parvati. These suggest that Shaktism, reverence and worship for the
Goddess in Indian culture, was an established tradition by the early centuries of the 1st
millennium.] Padoux mentions an inscription from 423 to 424 CE which mentions the founding
of a temple to terrifying deities called "the mothers".However, this does not mean Tantric rituals
and practices were as yet a part of either Hindu or Buddhist traditions. "Apart from the somewhat
dubious reference to Tantra in the Gangadhar inscription of 423 CE", states David Lorenzen, it is
only 7th-century Banabhatta's Kadambari which provide convincing proof of Tantra and Tantric
texts.
Shaivite ascetics seem to have been involved in the initial development of Tantra, particularly
the transgressive elements dealing with the charnel ground. According to Samuel, one group of
Shaiva ascetics, the Pasupatas, practiced a form of spirituality that made use of shocking and
disreputable behavior later found in a tantric context, such as dancing, singing, and smearing
themselves with ashes.
Early Tantric practices are sometimes attributed to Shaiva ascetics associated with Bhairava,
the Kapalikas ("skull men", also called Somasiddhatins or Mahavartins). Besides the shocking
fact that they frequented cremation grounds and carried human skulls, little is known about them,
and there is a paucity of primary sources on the Kapalikas. Samuel also states that the sources
depict them as using alcohol and sex freely, that they were associated with terrfying female
spirit-deities called yoginis and dakinis, and that they were believed to possess magical powers,
such as flight.

111
 .

Kushan sculpture of a yakṣiṇī (2nd century), Mathura region/ Dancing Bhairava in the Indian Museum,
Kolkata

Kapalikas are depicted in fictional works and also widely disparaged in Buddhist, Hindu and Jain
texts of the 1st millennium CE. In Hāla's Gatha-saptasati (composed by the 5th century AD), for
example, the story calls a female character Kapalika, whose lover dies, he is cremated, she takes
his cremation ashes and smears her body with it. The 6th-century Varāhamihira mentions
Kapalikas in his literary works. Some of the Kāpālika practices mentioned in these texts are
those found in Shaiva Hinduism and Vajrayana Buddhism, and scholars disagree on who
influenced whom.
These early historical mentions are in passing and appear to be Tantra-like practices, they are not
detailed nor comprehensive presentation of Tantric beliefs and practices. Epigraphic references
to the Kaulas Tantric practices are rare. Reference is made in the early 9th century to vama (left-
hand) Tantras of the Kaulas. Literary evidence suggests Tantric Buddhism was probably
flourishing by the 7th century. Matrikas, or fierce mother goddesses that later are closely linked
to Tantra practices, appear both in Buddhist and Hindu arts and literature between the 7th and
10th centuries.

Tantric Hindu temples in India

Tantra is an ancient Hindu tradition which is mainly related to Goddesses. This ancient practice
still exists and is also followed in various temples. Especially, the 'Shakta' or Shakti Peethas are
mainly associated with this tradition. Tantric Practices can be seen in several literatures and even

112
in carvings at some temples like Khajuraho. In this article, we are taking you around some
famous Tantric temples in India that have been following this ancient practice.
Khajuraho Temples The Khajuraho Group of Temples are an ancient relics which are popular for
the erotic carvings. Researchers believe that these erotic carvings reflect the Tantric practices.
Yes, Tantric Tradition has different sections and eroticism forms an integral part of it. Hence,
Khajuraho Temples are considered to be a part of Tantric customs.

Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia

Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia refers to the
traditions of Esoteric Buddhism found in Maritime Southeast Asia which emerged in the 7th
century along the maritime trade routes and port cities of the Indonesian
islands of Java and Sumatra as well as in Malaysia. These esoteric forms were spread by pilgrims
and Tantric masters who received royal patronage from royal dynasties like the Sailendras and
the Srivijaya. This tradition was also linked by the maritime trade routes with Indian Vajrayana,
Tantric Buddhism in Sinhala, Cham and Khmer lands and in China and Japan, to the extent that
it is hard to separate them completely and it is better to speak of a complex of "Esoteric
Buddhism of Mediaeval Maritime Asia." Many key Indian port cities saw the growth of Esoteric
Buddhism, a tradition which coexisted alongside Shaivism.

113
Java under the Sailendras became a major center of Buddhism in the region, with monumental
architecture such as Borobudur and Candi Sukuh. The capital of the Buddhist empire of Srivijaya
in Palembang, Sumatra was another major center.
The decline of Buddhist states and the rise of Islamic states in the region during the 13th–16th
centuries saw the steep decline of this tradition.

13th century Javanese statue of Prajnaparamita, from the Cungkup Putri ruins near Singhasari temple /To the
right an erotic sculpture from Candi Sukuh

The diffusion of Esoteric Buddhism in the region began with the arrival of Indian Buddhist
monks in the 7th century. These include the central Indian Atikuta (fl. 650s), the Chinese
Punyodaya (fl 650s), Yijing (635-713), the South Indian Dharmaruci/Bodhiruci (d. 727),
Nagabodhi, Vajrabodhi and Bianhong (the 8th century teacher of Kukai). The Chinese Buddhist
monk Yijing reports that in the 7th century there was a Buddhist center in Java named Kalinga
(Heling) to which Chinese monks traveled in order to study.

Another source of this Indonesian Tantric tradition was from Sri Lanka's Abhayagiri vihāra, a
well known center of Vajrayana study and practice, which even established a branch monastery
in Central Java in the 8th century with Sailendra patronage.
A stronghold of Esoteric Buddhism, the empire of Srivijaya (650 CE–1377 CE) patronized
Buddhist monks and institutions and thus attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of
Asia. These included the Chinese monk Yijing, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra on
his way to study at Nalanda University in India in 671 and 695, and the Bengali Buddhist
scholar Atisha (982-1054 CE) who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana
Buddhism in Tibet. Yijing praised the high level of Buddhist scholarship in Srivijaya and
advised Chinese monks to study there prior to making the journey to the great institution of
learning, Nalanda Vihara, India. He wrote:
In the fortified city of Bhoga, Buddhist priests number more than 1,000, whose minds are bent
on learning and good practice. They investigate and study all the subjects that exist just as in
India; the rules and ceremonies are not at all different. If a Chinese priest wishes to go to the
West in order to hear and read the original scriptures, he had better stay here one or two years
and practice the proper rules.

Yijing was also responsible for the translation of a large numbers of Buddhist scriptures from
Sanskrit into Chinese. He translated more than 60 sutras into Chinese such as the Golden Light

114
Sutra. The Account of Buddhism sent from the South Seas & Buddhist Monks Pilgrimage of Tang
Dynasty are two of Yi Jing's best travel diaries, describing his adventurous journey to Srivijaya
and India, the society of India and the lifestyles of various local peoples.

In Java, the 8th century Shailendra dynasty promoted large scale Buddhist building projects such
as Borobudur. Later central Javanese bronze and silver Buddhist images show Tantric themes
such as mandalas and the Five Tathagatas.

In the 13th century Buddhism thrived in Eastern Java, the Singhasari kingdom of
King Kertanegara of Singhasari patronized Vajrayana. Buddhism continued to thrive under the
Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire (1293–1527). Their capital Trowulan had many annual
festivities for Buddhism, Shaivism, and Vaishnavism. Some of their kings were Vajrayana
practitioners, such as King Adityawarman (1347–79) whose inscriptions state he was "always
concentrated on Hevajra".A feature of Javanese Buddhism was the deification and worship of
kings as Buddhas or Bodhisattvas. Important Buddhist deities included Prajnaparamita, Tara,
Bhairava and Lokesvara.

The fall of Majapahit and the rise of Muslim states such as the Sultanate of Malacca saw the
decline of Buddhism in the region. Many escaped to the island of Bali after the end of Majapahit
rule fleeing persecution, where Buddhism was merged into Balinese Hinduism. This process of
merging Buddhism and Hinduism predated the fall of the Majapahit however, and many textual
sources from the later Hindu-Buddhist kingdom state that Hinduism and Buddhism are both two
paths to the same reality and also equate the five Buddhas with five forms of Shiva. Likewise,
some Majapahit temples depict both Buddhist and Shaiva elements.

The oldest extant esoteric Buddhist Mantrayana literature in Old Javanese, a language
significantly influenced by Sanskrit, is enshrined in the San Hyan Kamahayanikan (possibly 8th
century). The San Hyan Kamahayanikan claims that its teachings come from Dignaga.
The Tibetan Buddhist canon includes translations of texts written by Javanese masters, such as
the Durbodhaloka (a commentary on the Abhisamayalamkara) of Suvarnadvipa Dharmakīrti.[15]
Another work by an Indonesian Tantric Buddhist is Bianhong's Ritual Manual for Initiation into
the Great Mandala of the Usnisa-Cakravartin which survives in the Chinese Taisho Tripitaka (T.
959). The Japanese master Kukai wrote a biography of Bianhong.

Bahal temple I, in Padang Lawas, North Sumatra. One of the remnants of Pannai Kingdom.
Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most
common of which is the stone Candi which shows Indic influences as has been interpreted as a
symbol of Mount Meru.

The Sailendras built many Buddhist structures in Java, including the

massive stupa of Borobodur, as well as Candi Sukuh, Candi Mendut, Candi Kalasan and Candi
Sewu. The Srivijayans also built Buddhist temple complexes in Sumatra, such as Muara
Takus and Bahal temple and also in the Malay Peninsula, such as in their regional capital
at Chaiya. Majapahit also built Candis, such as Jabung, and Penataran. Other architecture types
include punden, small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains and pertapaan, hermitages built on
mountain slopes.

115
Pyramid of Candi Sukuh, Java, Indonesia (Enlarge)

Around the 7th to the 13th centuries, the reliefs, carvings and statues in the temple complex,
especially those of the Tantric sect, such as the Sukuh and Cetho temples, were very ‘vulgar’.
The body is a representation of the self, a symbol of creation and fertility. The very bottom of
Borobudur temple, which is called kamadathu, also displays erotic and ‘vulgar’ things as
symbols of lust.

Much later to the 3 temples and the 4 th less known temple that lie in a straight line in Yogakarta
Kingdom and far from it in distance of 128 K, though not in concept lies the Candi Sukuh - a
fifteenth-century Javanese-Hindu-Buddhist temple that demonstrates strong tantric influence.
There is another temple in the vicinity of the Sukuh,called Candi Ceto which is also a is a
fifteenth-century that is located on the western slope of Mount Lawu (elev. 1495 m above sea
level) on the border between Central and East Java provinces.
Ceto is one of several temples built on the northwest slopes of Mount Lawu in the fifteenth
century. By this time, Javanese religion and art had diverged from Indian precepts that had been
so influential on temples styles during the 8-10th century. This area was the last significant area
of temple building in Java before the island's courts were converted to Islam in the 16th century.
The temples' distinctiveness and the lack of records of Javanese ceremonies and beliefs of the era
make it difficult for historians to interpret the significance of these antiquities.It is close
to Sukuh temple.It is called by the guides as a Fertility temple. In fact both Ceto and Sukuh are
variously termed as Fertility and Esoteric Tantric temples at the discretion of the observer or the
writer. What they actually are is difficult to tell. From my point of view both are Tantric temples
Thervada tantric Buddhist sites. In case of Sukuh the presence of the human organs such as the
erct phallus on the body of a maleand the Yoni carving do point strongly at the esoteric colors
but whether they are Thervada or Hindu remains a point of speculation as the images of Ganesh
found could well be from both religions. See my paper on Tantric Ganesh……………

116
Candi Sukuh is located on the western slope of Mount Lawu (elev. 3,000 feet (910 m) above
sea level) on the border between Central and East Java provinces. The monument was built
around 1437, as written as a chronogram date on the western gate, meaning that the area was
under the rule of the Majapahit Kingdom during its end (1293–1500).

117
 Ganesh naked to the core in one of the engravings( could also be a elephantine human )

Pyramid of Candi Sukuh, Java, Indonesia// Yoni or Vagina to left and a Yaksha (?) to right

Located near the village of Berjo at an elevation of 2990 feet (910 meters) on the forested slopes
of Mount Lawu, a dormant volcano in central Java, the Candi Sukuh temple is stylistically unlike
any other in Indonesia. Possibly constructed in the 15th century during the declining years of the
Hindu Majapahit Empire (1293-1527), Candi (pronounced Chandi) Sukuh seems to have little to
do with other Javanese Hindu and Buddhist temples. Constructed with volcanic andesitic rocks
and covering an area of approximately 11,000 square meters, the temple complex features three
terraces, a remarkable pyramid, and numerous enigmatic sculptures. The origins of its builders
and their strange sculptural style (with crude, squat and distorted figures carved in
the wayang style found in East Java) remain a mystery and it seems to mark a reappearance of
the pre-Hindu animism that existed 1500 years earlier.

Two things in particular distinguish Candi Sukuh, which are its unique truncated, trapazoidal
pyramid, resembling those of the Maya in Yucatan, Mexico, and the numerous enigmatic
sculptures found throughout the site.

118
The pyramid rises to ten meters at the rear of the site and different legends have been attributed
to its meaning and function. One legend says it represents the mythological sacred mountain
of Meru, the dwelling place of the gods and ancestors. Another that it represents Mount
Mandera where Vasuki, the king of the serpents, allowed several gods and demons to use him as
their churning rope to extract the ambrosia of immortality from the ocean of milk. There is
currently nothing atop the pyramid yet there may once have been various sculptures, altars or
other structures. The pyramid may be climbed via a narrow stairway and local folk legends assert
that the steps are steep in order to test the virginity of young girls in the community. Immediately
in front of the stairs are two large tortoise statues with flattened upper surfaces, these perhaps
functioning as altars for purification rituals and ancestor worship. In Hindu mythology, the
tortoise symbolizes the support of the world and is an avatar of the god Vishnu.

In 1815, Sir Thomas Raffles, the ruler of Java during 1811–1816, visited the temple and found it
in poor condition. In his account, he relates that many statues had been thrown down on the
ground and most of the figures had been decapitated. This vandalism of traditional culture is
likely to be an effect of the Islamic invasion of Java during the 16th century. Raffles also found
adjacent to the tortoises a giant 6-foot linga (phallus) statue broken into two pieces. The linga has
the distinctive feature that all of the phalluses on the temple have; balls under tip. These are
representative of a custom practiced by the aristocratic and priestly castes of the Majapahit
Empire, where some men would have marble or gold balls implanted under the tip of their
penis. The Candi Sukuh linga, which is now displayed in the National Museum in Jakarta, has
four.

The ruins of Candi Sukuh also depict the matter of spiritual liberation symbolized by numerous
sculptures, reliefs and statues associated with sexually related Tantric themes of the Indian
subcontinent. Several of these stone carvings explicitly show male and female genitalia; hence
one name of the ruins is the "erotic temple".

At the entrance to the site is an obvious depiction of sexual intercourse; a stone lingam (phallus)
entering a yoni (vagina). Whatever its purpose in ancient times, childless couples today come to
seek blessings and pray for children. Further on are sculptures depicting Bhima, the great
warrior-hero of the Mahabharata, and Narada, the messenger of the gods, inside a stylized womb,
and another showing Bhima passing through the womb at his birth. It is important to note that
Bhima was the central figure of a cult of the deliverance of souls during the fifteenth century and
a spiritual guide who knew the path that led to perfection. Other carvings of an erotic nature
include a large headless statue of a man grasping his erect penis, a carving of a squatting man
exposing his genitals, and a carving resembling a womb with mythological creatures in it.

119
Sculpture of metal forge with Bhima, Ganesh (?)and Arjuna

Near the pyramid is an important sculpture featuring Bhima, Arjuna and Ganesh working in a
metal forge. This scene is significant because in Hindu-Java mythology the smith, the metal
worker, is believed to possess not only the skill to alter metals, but also the key to spiritual
transcendence. Smiths drew their powers from the god of fire (which existed prior to the
introduction of Hinduism) and in some cases a smithy was considered a shrine.
In this particular scene Bhima is the blacksmith and his brother, Arjuna, is working the
bellows. They are forging a sword with purifying fire, which symbolizes various things here. It
represents the linga (phallus) and its sheath the yoni (vagina), as a weapon it makes Arjuna
invincible in battle, and it is a kris, the iconic Javanese dagger that legitimized and empowered
rulers. Between Bhima and Arjuna is a dancing Ganesh, the Hindu god and Tantric deity who
embodies the process of crossing from one state to another. This is an unusual representation of
Ganesh, for not only is he dancing but his genitals are also exposed, there is a rosary of bones
around his neck, and he is holding a small animal, probably a dog. This carving shows a distinct
similarity with Tantric practices found in Tibetan Buddhism, where bone rosaries and dog deities
figure prominently in rituals of spiritual transformation.

According to the scholar Stanley O'Connor, the relief shows in visual terms the correspondence
between metallurgy and human fate. Iron working was a metaphor for spiritual transformation.
By illustrating the process through which the metallic substances are transformed (the reduction
of ores, their purification, and then reconstitution into steel), the sculptor has shown the
connection between metallurgy and the liberation of the soul. Additionally, in the sculpture it is
the wild energetic dance of Ganesh, the guardian of thresholds, who breaks open a path for the
soul to a higher plane.

120
The first studies of the Candi Sukuh were done in 1842, 1889 and 1910. Between 2014 and 2017
the government archaeological department conducted an extensive reconstruction of the site. The
temple, originally built on a foundation of river sand and loose stones, had been mined for these
materials by local people and had begun to sink.

Large stone turtles at base of pyramid, Candi Sukuh, Java-Martin https://sacredsites.com/asia/indonesia/candi_sukuh.html

121
 Chapter 4
Theravada(? )Buddhist architecture in the locus of Java-
Indonesia

NOTE:There is a paucity of information on Candi or Chaiyas of Indonesia for a variety of reasons

1. No written records or parchments
2. Very few inscriptions
3. Temples in ruins
4. Lack of funding and scholarship
5. Wheter Thervada or Mahayana not certain as flip flop of religions was common. From
Hinduism to Buddhism and sometimes back to Buddhism
6. This grey area is therefore a scholar’s paradise since numerous theories can be generated

Even though almost all Buddhist sites are mentioned only 1 dozen are discussed in detail
because of the lack of information available as well as the limitation of this paper size

The word 'candi' (temple) refers to buildings of various shapes and functions, such as a
worshipping place, a religious teaching center, a funerary place for keeping ashes of kings, a
dwelling place of the divine, a royal bathing place, or a gateway. Although temples once served
many functions, they were built mostly to accommodate Buddhism or Hinduism religious
activities

The existence of temples is inseparable from the history of Javanese kingdoms and the
development of Buddhism and Hinduism in Java from 7th century to 14th century. Since
Buddhism and Hinduism came from India, the design of most temples adopted Indian style in
many aspects, such as the constructing techniques, architectural style, and decorations. However,
because of the ample influence of local culture and natural environment, the design of
Indonesian temples retains its unique characteristics in the usage of building material,
constructing techniques and decoration style. The temple walls are commonly adorned with
relief sculpture depicting a story or religious teachings.

The Manasara book states that the design of a temple is the basis for the art of designing gates.
There are two functions of a gate. Firstly, it marks the boundary of an area. Secondly, it becomes
an opening through walls that enclose a building compound. As the outer part of a bigger
building structure, a gate plays a significant role since it echoes the grandeur of the main
building it encloses. The difference between a gate and a temple lies on the design of the interior.
The cella of a temple is a chamber, while the inner part of a gate is a passage that functions as an
access way.

Some old Indian religious books such as Manasara describe canonic rules, which were firmly
held by Indian builders, for constructing a gate. Builders at one time believed that the rules
outlined in those religious books were sacred and held a magical property. They maintained that
a beautiful building correctly constructed according to such rules would benefit the builder and

122
the ruler who ordered the construction. Such building would bring welfare and happiness to the
people. This belief underlay the complex religious and technical preparation made by builders.

One of the most essential technical preparations was rendering a proper blueprint to ensure that
the building to be erected fit to what the builder had expected. The blueprint had to conform to
certain canonic rules and requirements that governed the shape, size, or layout of the temple.
Discrepancies from the rules and requirements stated in the religious books would bring the
builder and the people around the temple tremendous adversity. While the canonic rules and
requirements stated in the books were almost impossible to modify, influence from local culture
and natural environment was unavoidable. Moreover, every builder had their own imagination
and creativity.
Temples are still a common sight in many places in Indonesia, most of which are located in
Central Java, Yogyakarta, East Java and Bali. While most of the temples have fallen into ruin,
some still survive and even retain their function as a worshipping place. A temple, as a product
of a culture, reflects the golden age of kingdoms in the past.

Most of Hindu temples in Indonesia were built by kings during their lifetime. The statues of gods
and goddesses, such as Vishnu, Brahma, Tara and Durga, which were placed inside a temple,
were manifestation of their ancestors. A sculptured stone was placed at the temple to mark the
king’s devotion. Sometimes a short account of the life of king who ordered the construction of
the temple was carved onto the stone. Unlike Hindu temples, most Buddhist temples were built
to highlight the king’s religious devotion and to ask for blessings. Buddhist temples in Indonesia
preserve the teachings of Mahayana Buddhism, to which the present Indonesian Buddhists
belong, while Buddhists in Myanmar and Thailand are Hinayanists.

In this website, temples in Indonesian are classified into: temples located in Central Java and
Yogyakarta, temples located in East Java, temples in Bali, and temples located in Sumatra.
Although presently Central Java and Yogyakarta are two different provinces under two separate
provincial administrations, the regions are historically connected since they were once under the
control of Hindu Mataram Kingdom. The then mighty kingdom played a pivotal role in the
construction of temples in both regions. It is difficult to classify temples in both regions into
temples typical of Central Java and Yogyakarta. However, there are characteristics by which the
northern temples are different from the southern temples. The northern temples, mostly
constructed under the command of Sanjaya Dynasty, are Hindu temples with modest design. The
platforms of these temples are simple without ornaments. The temples are usually laid out in
clusters, with each cluster showing no specific arrangement of temples. Dieng Temple and
Gedongsanga Temple fall into this category. Meanwhile, the southern temples, built under
Syailendra Dynasty’s sovereignty, are Buddhist temples, characterized by the beautiful
construction and ornaments. These temples sit in clusters, and each cluster retains an identical
arrangement of temples, in which the main temple is always in the middle of the compound,
amidst ancillary temples. Prambanan, Mendut, Kalasan, Sewu (Thousand), and Borobudur fall
into this category of temples.

Most temples located in East Java were built later than temples in Central Java and Yogyakarta,
since the former were constructed by kingdoms such as Kahuripan, Singasari, Kediri, and
Majapahit, which were the successors of Mataram Hindu Kingdom when its era was over. The

123
period in which an East Javanese temple was built determined the building material, design, style
and narratives depicted in the relief sculpture. Temples built on Singasari Kingdom’s
instructions, for example, were made of blocks of andesite and decorated with fragments of
Tantrayana (Hindu-Buddhist) teachings, whereas most temples built during the sovereignty of
Majapahit Empire were made of bricks and decorated mostly with Buddhist teachings.
Most Balinese temples are Hindu shrines, and they still serve as a worshipping place to the
present day. There are two temples located in Sumatra Island, Portibi Temple in North Sumatra
Province and Muara Takus Temple in Riau Province.

Some temples in Indonesia were discovered and restored at the dawn of 20th century. On June
14, 1913 the Dutch colonial administration founded an agency for preserving ancient heritages,
which was called Oudheidkundige Dienst (abbreviated as OD). Since then, the efforts to
preserve temples intensified.
Buddhism in Southeast Asia includes a variety of traditions of Buddhism including two main
traditions: Mahāyāna Buddhism and Theravāda Buddhism. Historically, Mahāyāna
Buddhism had a prominent position in this region, but in modern times most countries follow
the Theravāda tradition. Southeast Asian countries with a Theravāda Buddhist majority
are Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar, all mainland countries. Indonesia was Mahāyāna
Buddhist since the time of the Sailendra and Srivijaya empires, but Mahāyāna Buddhism in
Indonesia is now largely practiced by the Chinese diaspora, as in Singapore and Malaysia.
Mahāyāna Buddhism is the predominant religion of Chinese communities
in Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia. Vietnam continues to have a Mahāyāna majority
due to Chinese influence.

The beginnings of the Buddhist school of architecture can be traced back to B.C. 255 when
the Mauryan emperor Asoka established Buddhism as the state religion of his large empire.
Buddhism spread rapidly throughout India and other parts of Asia . The 3main types of Buddhist
architecture

Three types of structures are associated with the religious architecture of early
Buddhism: monasteries (viharas), places to venerate relics (stupas), and shrines or prayer halls
(chaityas, also called chaitya grihas), which later came to be called temples in some places. Who
developed Theravada Buddhism? Theravada developed from a sect called Vibhajjavada that was

124
established in Sri Lanka in the 3rd century BCE. Mahayana didn't emerge as a distinctive school
until early in the first millennium CE Over much of the early history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka,
there were three subdivisions of Theravāda, consisting of the monks of the Mahāvihāra,
Abhayagiri vihāra and Jetavana, all based in Anuradhapura. The Mahāvihāra was the first
tradition to be established, while Abhayagiri and Jetavana developed out of it. How is Theravada
Buddhism different?

Theravada Buddhism is older and the more conservative of the two main divisions of
Buddhism and is often referred to as the 'traditions of the elders'. Many Theravada Buddhists
follow the teachings of the Buddha exactly, and many of them are monks or nuns. Theravada
Buddhists strive to be arhats.

When were the Theravada Buddhist temples built?

This tradition began to establish itself in Sri Lanka from the 3rd century BCE onwards. It was in
Sri Lanka that the Pāli Canon was written down and the school's commentary literature
developed. From Sri Lanka, the Theravāda Mahāvihāra tradition subsequently spread to the rest
of Southeast Asia.
The merchants involved in the Indian trade were predominantly Buddhists and Jains who were
able, through their accumulation of wealth, to patronise monasteries and commission artworks
and architectural projects. The 1st century B.C.E. witnessed the carving of the railings and
toranas at Bharhut, around the Mauryan stupa at Sanchi, as well as the foundation, by the
Satavahanas, of the great stupa at Amaravati. Gandhara, it appears, was a cosmopolitan region
where merchants from diverse places settled in order to conduct their trade and, unsurprisingly,
established their own cultural ideas there. This was the environment for which the Buddhapada
stone, now being considered, was made.
THERAVĀDA ART AND ARCHITECTURE
What are the 4 major structures of Buddhist architecture?

 Buddhist Architecture: A. Stupas.

 Buddhist Architecture: B. Viharas (Monasteries)

 Buddhist Architecture: C. Chaityas.
 Buddhist Architecture: D. STAMBHAS OR LATS.

125
 The focus of TheravĀda Buddhist art and architecture is Buddha Gautama, as revered teacher,
exemplar of virtue and ethical conduct, role model for the saṄgha, and source of supernatural
power. Thus the Theravāda monastery serves as a center for the dissemination of the Buddha's
teachings, a gathering place for the practice and continuity of the religion, a dwelling place for
monks, and a repository of sacred objects, including Buddha images and relics. Similarly, the
majority of Theravāda art consists of sculptures and paintings depicting narratives about the
historical Buddha's life and previous lives as lessons for the faithful.

In premodern times, Theravāda Buddhist monasteries were the focal point in the social and
educational life of the community. Every village had at least one monastery and each town and
city had several. While sociological, economic, and in some cases political changes—particularly
in Cambodia and to a lesser degree in Laos—have disrupted many traditional patterns, the local
monastery continues to occupy a significant place in the lives of individuals and communities.

A monastery compound typically includes an image hall for the monastery's principal Buddha
image, an ordination hall, an assembly hall where laypeople gather to listen to sermons and
recitations of sacred texts by the monks, a solid, dome-shaped reliquary, and residence buildings
for the monks. Regional variations on this model exist, however; for example, in certain places
the image hall and assembly hall are combined into one building. In other places the assembly
hall and ordination hall are combined and the place reserved for ordinations is off-limits to
women. Moreover, some monasteries have residences for nuns and lay meditators and some have
a separate building for storing sacred scriptures. The latter, often referred to as a Tripiṭaka hall or
library is usually raised on stilts to protect the books from water, insects, and rodents.

While the proportions and architectural features of monastery buildings vary from one region to
another, certain features can be found throughout the Theravāda Buddhist world. Most obvious
are the roofs, which are multitiered (especially for ordination halls and image halls) with an odd
number of tiers, three being the most common. In addition, eaves brackets, gables, pillars, and
doors are often decorated with carvings and paintings of mythical beings from Buddhist
cosmology, such as ascetics, heavenly musicians, nāga serpents, lions, geese and other mythical
birds, as well as plant motifs, particularly lotuses and vines. These motifs were among the
repertoire of elements that both Buddhism and Hinduism inherited from the indigenous
mythological landscape of India. Similarly, as Buddhism spread from India to Sri
Lanka and Southeast Asia, it adapted to local preexisting spiritual beliefs by incorporating them
into its narratives, rituals, and iconography. As examples, many Burmese monasteries contain
statues of the thirty-seven nats (the indigenous deities representing natural phenomena and the
spirits of ancestors who have met a violent death) and throughout the Theravāda world people
place offerings at the foot of large banyan trees—both within monastery compounds and outside
—to revere the spirits that dwell within.

Similarly, Hindu deities, such as Brahmā and Indra, are frequently depicted as guardians of the
Buddha to indicate the ascendancy of Buddhism over Hinduism, as are demonic figures that
represent local spirits tamed by the Buddha's teachings. All of these elements contribute toward
creating an elaborate, otherworldly atmosphere that calls to mind both local royal dwellings and
higher realms of the Buddhist cosmos.

126
A generally more austere, but no less important, building in the monastery compound is the
stŪpa or cetiya, a solid structure roughly resembling an inverted cone. The stūpa also varies
greatly in shape, from broad bulbous bowl-shaped monuments in Sri Lanka to obelisk-shaped
towers found at some sites in northeast Thailand (such as Phra Thāt Phanom), to elegant,
attenuated lotus-bud chedis of the Sukhothai kingdom in Thailand. While some stūpas contain
relics of monks or monastery patrons, others are believed to hold bone fragments of the Buddha
and are highly revered for their sacredness.

Laypeople's activities

Laypeople visit the monasteries for numerous reasons: to observe the lunar holy days (every full
moon, waning moon, new moon, and waxing moon), to make merit for deceased relatives or for
family member who are sick or in need, to consult with the monks about problems or about
astrological considerations, to make merit for themselves in the hopes of fulfilling wishes, to
seek advice or blessings, to be ordained, and to meditate.

Numerous monasteries are popular pilgrimage sites because they are believed to contain sacred
objects, such as an authentic bone fragment of the Buddha, a footprint left by the Buddha as
delineated in a local chronicle, or historically significant images of the Buddha or of deceased
monks famous for their supernatural powers. Devout Buddhists often make a special effort to
pay reverence at these sites—sometimes in the hopes of obtaining a boon—with traditional
offerings of flowers, incense, and candles. They usually return home with an amulet resembling
the principal Buddha image commemorating the significance of the site.

At many monasteries pilgrims can purchase a small bird in a bamboo cage, circumambulate the
monastery holding the birdcage, praying at various Buddha images along the way. Finally, they
release the bird, appealing to the three jewels (Buddha, dharma, and saṅgha) to witness this act
as sufficient merit.

Jataka stories

Until modern times, the monastery's functions included the teachings of moral and religious
teachings as well as basic literacy skills. With a largely illiterate population, monks relied on oral
storytelling and the visual lessons of murals to teach Buddhist principles of ethics and morality
through stories about the Buddha Gautama's life and previous lives. While key events from the
Buddha's biography are frequently depicted in mural painting as well as in the miniature
paintings of paper manuscripts, stories from his previous lives (jĀtakas, or birth stories, found in
varied collections and totaling 500 to 547 stories) are equally, if not more, prevalent.

In Myanmar (Burma) terra-cotta plaques representing each of the jātakas can be found on the
outside walls of some of the great monasteries of the ancient city of Pagan. In the mural painting
of Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos, the last ten birth stories are found more frequently than the
entire set. Each story represents one of the ten great virtues (renunciation, perseverance, loving
kindness, resolution, wisdom, moral practice, forbearance, equanimity, truthfulness, and
generosity) that the future Buddha perfected in order to attain enlightenment, and each has a
predictable iconographic set of elements to identify it. For example, in the story demonstrating
perseverance, the future Buddha, a prince who is separated from his kingdom at birth, survives a

127
shipwreck to claim his throne. He is usually depicted swimming, surrounded by stylized waves
and sea monsters, and rescued by a sea goddess.

The last of the ten, the Great Birth Story or Vessantara Jātaka, which exists in countless
versions, or "tellings," is the most frequently depicted and recounted narrative of all, including
the biography of the Buddha Gautama. Depending on the region, it is recited at the close of the
Buddhist rains-retreat (around the time of the full moon in November) or during the months that
follow. In parts of Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Burma, the recitation of this story is one of the
most significant ceremonies of the year, lasting an entire day and a night. Painted banners
depicting events in the story are hung around the inside of the monastery. Laypeople sponsor the
reading of sections of the story and bring offerings of food and flowers. The motivation behind
these activities is the widespread belief that a person who listens to the Great Birth Story recited
in this context will be reborn during the time of the future Buddha Maitreya. Those who hear
Maitreya preach, according to this belief, will accomplish the very difficult goal of attaining
nirvĀṆa. While this doctrine may be technically outside the realm of what some would consider
orthodox Theravāda teachings, it is an important aspect of practice and iconography in
Theravāda regions.

Apart from these themes, other narratives depicted in murals, reliefs, and carvings are local
histories describing the coming of Buddhism to the area, local folktales that are retold as birth
stories of the Buddha, and the great Rāmāyana epic. While the latter is technically a Hindu story,
it has long been popular in the Buddhist world and particularly in royally sponsored monasteries
because of its association with kingship. Rāma, the story's hero, is a model of royal and familial
righteousness. Monastery murals frequently depict his battles with the demonic forces to rescue
his wife Sītā and restore order in his kingdom. They were commissioned by monarchs as a way
of bringing to the earthly realm the power and symbolism of the heaven or macrocosm.

Murals and manuscripts depict the same themes and share similar stylistic features: abstract
rather than realistic portrayal of figures, architecture, and landscape; and grouping of similar
figures (such as warriors, attendants, dancers) in clusters that form one among several patterns
within a space, with one figure echoing the others. Moreover, within these paintings

one can also see a strong reflection of local dress, textile designs, indigenous physical
characteristics, architecture, and customs.

Sculpture

Sculptures representing the historical Buddha made of stone, bronze, terra-cotta, or wood can be
found throughout the Theravāda world. They range in size from colossal images especially
popular in Sri Lanka and Burma to miniature amulets encased in gold and worn on a necklace.
The image serves as a reminder of the Buddha, his teachings, and his spiritual descendants—the
monks, known collectively as the saṅgha. Images of the Buddha are always treated with utmost
reverence and placed on a dais or altar above the heads of the people. It would be inappropriate
to keep a Buddha image in a place other than a monastery, museum, or private home altar.

Images are believed to be repositories of potency and are often draped with orange robes
resembling those worn by monks and worshiped with offerings of flowers, incense, and candles.

128
Moreover, certain images are revered for miracles associated with them or legends surrounding
their discovery. At many monasteries worshipers can purchase small squares of gold leaf to
attach to images as acts of merit, and certain images, such as the Emerald Buddha in Bangkok,
regularly receive offerings of special food thought to be their favorite from devotees requesting
favors, such as a relative's good health.

Throughout Southeast Asia during the festivities revolving around the solar New Year in mid-
April, images are carried in procession on elaborately decorated carts or trucks and bathed with
fragrant water. Thus, even in a Theravāda context, Buddha images are treated in ways similar to
those of statues of Hindu deities in India.

The most frequently seen postures and hand positions (mudrĀ) in the Theravāda tradition are
those depicting key events in the Buddha's life: meditating—seated cross-legged with hands
folded in the lap; the enlightenment—a similar seated posture, but with the right hand at the right
knee, fingers pointing downward toward the earth; teaching—standing with hands extended; and
in nirvāṇa or death—lying on the right side, head supported by the right hand.

In Southeast Asia, the most popular posture by far is that of enlightenment, the posture known
either as "touching the earth" or "victory over MĀra" (the personification of darkness and
delusion). In many monasteries, murals depicting this event cover the wall behind the main
Buddha image. A central meditating figure of the Buddha is surrounded by Māra's army—a
variety of demonic characters, some human, some animal, some hybrid—flinging arrows and
other weapons. Below the Buddha is a standing female figure of the Earth Goddess, whom the
Buddha has called to witness his enlightenment. She wrings out her long hair and from it flows
the water that has collected from the acts of generosity that Gautama performed in his past lives,
each time consecrating his donation by pouring water from an urn onto the ground. Theravāda
Buddhists sometimes replicate this practice when they present offerings to the monks.

Cetiya, "reminders" or "memorials" (Sanskrit caitya), are objects and places used
by Buddhists to remember Gautama Buddha. According to Damrong Rajanubhab, four kinds are
distinguished in the Pāli Canon: "Relic [Dhatu], Memorial [Paribhoga], Teaching [Dhamma],
and votive [Udesaka. } Some others statethat three are traditional and the fourth, the Buddha
Dhamma, was added later to remind monks that the true memory of Gautama Buddha can be
found in his teachings. While these can be broadly called Buddhist symbolism, the emphasis
tends to be on a historical connection to the Buddha and not a metaphysical one.
dhātu cetiya or Metal cetiya

The sārīraka (Sanskrit śarīra) or dhātu cetiya, the

remains of Gautama Buddha's body, are the category commonly considered "relics" today by

129
Western observers, and were responsible for major forms of Buddhist art and symbolism,
although they only constitute one of the three categories of reminders. Most frequently preserved
parts of Buddha's body are tooth and bone, because these parts would remain after the rest of the
body decayed. The relic of the tooth of the Buddha in Sri Lanka is the most notable site where a
relic is visibly preserved, but hundreds of such sites were created, in the architectural form now
called a stupa. In Thai, these stupas are called chedī, retaining the second half of the
phrase dhātu cetiya; in Lao, they are called that after the first half.. Beyond the stupa itself,
sārīraka are used across the Buddhist world, in such quantity that not all could be legitimate; in
this sense the sārīraka functions mainly as a symbol, with the importance of authenticity varying
between cultures.
The body parts of especially powerful monks are also called sārīraka, but these usually take on
the form of bright jewels formed during the cremation of the body.

The paribhoga cetiya

The paribhoga cetiya, things used by the Buddha, would seem at first to be a nonexistent
category today. However, temples such as Tongdosa in South Korea claim to keep his robe and
begging bowl. The category also includes all places the Buddha visited, so Bodh Gaya itself
functions as a paribhogaka. The most common paribhogaka is the Bodhi Tree, which was
transplanted across Southeast Asia; cuttings of the original bodhi tree still survive today in Sri
Lanka. The footprints, man made of course but acting as religious symbols which are found across
the Buddhist world symbolizing the ground that Buddha walked on and the powerful size of
his dhammakāya. Sometimes these footprints are also classed as udesaka, a representation of the
Buddha's foot, or sārīraka, implying that the footprint was the foot itself.

A stone depiction of ancient worship of Buddha Pada

Uddesika cetiya

130
The final category, udesaka or uddesika cetiya, literally translates as "indicative reminders" or
"votive objects", for example images of the Buddha. [1] Udesaka do not have any physical
connection to the Buddha but still serve as relics because they were created in his memory.
Originally udesaka were secondary to paribhogaka and sārīraka, but with the influence of Greco-
Buddhism, statues of the Buddha were produced in great numbers, followed later by paintings
and other images. The dharmachakra "wheel of the dharma", falls under this category as a
reminder of Buddhist insight.
The conventional view has long been this meant that early Buddhist art was aniconic. However,
this view has recently been the subject of debate among specialists. There does not seem to have
been any prohibition of creating images of the Buddha. Rather, creating images of the
paribhogaka was regarded as a more fulfilling and meaningful symbol by the early Buddhists,
evoking the discovery of Buddhist understanding (pañña). Whether these scenes
contained substitutes for the image of Buddha himself is currently under debate.
Theravāda 'School of the Elders is the most commonly accepted name of Buddhism's oldest
existing school. The school's adherents, termed Theravādins, have preserved their version
of Gautama Buddha's teaching or Buddha Dhamma in the Pāli Canon for over a millennium.
The Pāli Canon is the most complete Buddhist canon surviving in a classical Indian
language, Pāli, which serves as the school's sacred language and lingua franca.[3] In contrast
to Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna, Theravāda tends to be conservative in matters of doctrine
(pariyatti) and monastic discipline (vinaya). One element of this conservatism is the fact that
Theravāda rejects the authenticity of the Mahayana sutras (which appeared c. 1st century BCE
onwards).
Modern Theravāda derives from the ancient roots of the Mahāvihāra order, a Sri Lankan branch
of the Vibhajjavāda tradition, which is, in turn, a sect of the Indian Sthavira Nikaya. This
tradition began to establish itself in Sri Lanka from the 3rd century BCE onwards. It was in Sri
Lanka that the Pāli Canon was written down and the school's commentary literature developed.
From Sri Lanka, the Theravāda Mahāvihāra tradition subsequently spread to the rest of Southeast
Asia. It is the official religion of Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Cambodia, and the dominant religion
in Laos and Thailand and is practiced by minorities in India, Bangladesh, China, Nepal, North
Korea and Vietnam. The diaspora of all of these groups, as well as converts around the world,
also embrace and practice Theravāda Buddhism.
Theravada Buddhist architecture
Prior to its enshrinement at the Temple of the Emerald Buddha in 1784, the Emerald Buddha was
described in chronicles as having traveled to important Buddhist centers throughout South and
Southeast Asia. Thailand: The Symbolic Center of the Theravada Buddhist World MELODY
ROD-ARI University of California at Los Angeles.Classic example of Thervada Stupa is the
Shwedangon at Burma

131
The Shwedagon Pagoda -'Golden Dagon Pagoda' and also known as the Great Dagon is a Thervada
Pagoda is located in Yangon, Myanmar. The Shwedagon is the most sacred Buddhist pagoda in
Myanmar, as it is believed to contain relics of the four previous Buddhas of the present kalpa. These
relics include the staff of Kakusandha, the water filter of Koṇāgamana, a piece of the robe
of Kassapa, and eight strands of hair from the head of Gautama.

Built on the 51-metre (167 ft) high Singuttara Hill, the 112 m (367 ft) tall pagoda stands 170 m
(560 ft) above sea level, and dominates the Yangon skyline. Yangon's zoning regulations, which cap
the maximum height of buildings to 127 metres (417 feet) above sea level (75% of the pagoda's sea
level height), ensure the Shwedagon's prominence in the city's skyline. According to tradition, the
Shwedagon Pagoda was constructed more than 2,500 years ago, which would make it the oldest
Buddhist stupa in the world. The story goes that two merchant brothers Tapussa and
Bhallika met the Gautama Buddha during his lifetime and received eight strands of the Buddha's
hairs. The brothers presented the eight strands of hair to King Okkalapa of Dagon who enshrined
the strands along with some relics of the three preceding Buddhas of the Gautama Buddha in a
stupa on the Singuttara Hill in present-day Myanmar.

Theravada Buddhist architecture constitutes a form of religious architecture for Theravada

Buddhists. Theravada is the oldest school of Buddhism which is growing rapidly in Sri Lanka
and has spread to Southeast Asia (including Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and
Indonesia) (Zaun, 2003). According to Zhang, the Theravada Buddhist architecture shows local
cultural features (Zhang, 2018). This is a logical consequence of the contemporary Theravada
Buddhist tradition (Crosby, 2013; Holt, 2017).

Vihara Mendut is one of the Theravada Buddhist complex currently located in the locus of
Java-Indonesia. It is adjacent to the Candi Mendut in the Candi Borobudur area. This place has a
historical background with the strong charisma of Javanese Buddhism in the classical era of
“Hindu-Buddhist” (4th -16th century AD). The Candi Borobudur as an icon of Buddhism in
Indonesia that displays the aesthetics of Javanese Buddhist art (Yatno, 2020) is a clear proof of
the existence of this specific charisma to this day. Vihara Mendut is a place surrounded by
mountains and is situated close to the city. This condition presents a local Javanese life-world

132
that is vernacular mixed with modernity in everyday life. The nation-wide celebration of Asalha
Puja and Vesakha Puja presents Vihara Mendut as part of a series of processions centered in the
courtyard of Candi Borobudur (Waluyo, 2016). This celebration activity showcases a lifeworld
with the characteristics of the Theravada Buddhist tradition combined with the Javanese
traditions and modernity. Ov

Sketch made by Cunningham of the Satdhara stupas and the inscribed caskets of Sariputta and Moggallana//Sketch
made by Cunningham of the relic caskets of Sariputta and Maha Moggallana found at Sanchi, Stupa No 3

133
Map showing the location of the main sites of the so-called "Indonesian classical period" or Hindu-Buddhist
period. Black dots represent Hindu sites and red dots Buddhist sites.

The high concentration of candi can be found especially dense in Sleman Regency in Yogyakarta,
also Magelang and Klaten in Central Java; which corresponds to the historical region of Kedu
Plain (Progo River valley, Temanggung-Magelang-Muntilan area) and Kewu Plain (Opak
River valley, around Prambanan), the cradle of Javanese civilization. Other important sites with
notable temple compounds includes Malang, Blitar and Trowulan areas in East Java. West Java also
contains a small number of temples such as Batujaya and Cangkuang. Outside of Java, the candi type
of temple can be found in Bali, Sumatra, and Southern Kalimantan, although they are quite scarce. In
Sumatra, two exceptional sites are notable for its temple density; the Muaro Jambi Temple
Compounds in Jambi and Padang Lawas or Bahal complex in North Sumatra.
The candis might be built on plain or uneven terrain. Prambanan and Sewu temples for example, are
built on even flat low-lying terrain, while the temples of Gedong Songo and Ijo are built on hill
terraces on higher grounds or mountain slopes. Borobudur on the other hand is built upon a bedrock
hill. The position, orientation and spatial organization of the temples within the landscape, and also

134
their architectural designs, were determined by socio-cultural, religious and economic factors of the
people, polity or the civilization that built and support them.
Java --West Java

The Mysterious Buddhist Compound of Batujaya-a compound of Buddhist Stupa made from red
brick and mortar located at Batu Jaya, Karawang, West Java. Probably dated back
to Tarumanagara kingdom in the 6th century AD. The bricks are made with a mix of rice husk and
clay(see Pic to Left). Based on the discovery of a stupa in Segaran Village, Telagajaya, experts
believe that Batujaya Temple Complex is a Buddhist compound.
Batujaya is also an archeological site located in the village of Batujaya, Karawang in West
Java, Indonesia. Archaeologists suggest that the Batujaya temples might be the oldest surviving
temple structures in Java and estimated that it was built during the time of
the Tarumanegara kingdom circa 5th to 6th century CE. It has an area of five square kilometers and
contains at least 30 structures which in Sundanese are called hunyur, or unur (high mounds of earth
consisting of artifacts). Unur is similar to the manapo found at the Muara Jambi archaeological site.
The site was first found and examined by archaeologists from the University of Indonesia in 1984.
Excavations have since uncovered 17 unur, of which three are in the form of pools. The structures
found are made of bricks composed of a mixture of clay and rice husks, not volcanic rock which is
difficult to find in Batujaya. Two structures recovered are in the form of temples, one of which,
known as Jiwa Temple, has been restored. According to Dr. Tony Djubiantono, the head of Bandung
Archeology Agency, Jiwa was built in the 2nd-century.
As local Indonesian governments do not maintain the site, Ford motor Company provides funds for
research and excavation of the Batujaya complex as part of its Conservation and Environmental
Grants.
Advance technology has been applied for the construction with some of the floor and other parts of
the temple which require hardening made of unreinforced concrete with marble-size stones and some
of the temple are also coated with a thick enough of stucco.
The discovery of this archaeological site was important as it was within the location
of Tarumanagara, the oldest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Indonesia; West Java lacks ancient temple
remains. Before the discovery, only four temple sites have been found in West Java, namely they
are Cangkuang temple (in Garut), Ronggeng Temple, Pamarican Temple, and Pananjung Temple (in
Ciamis).

135
Preliminary research at Jiwa found that the temple was built between the fifth and sixth centuries.
This is based on the inscriptions found on numerous votive tablets discovered in the area, small clay
tablets with inscriptions and pictures of Buddha used in prayer. Prof. Dr. Budihartono, a senior
anthropologist from the University of Indonesia, proposed carrying out pollen analysis for examining
both the paleoenvironment and also cultural records, including evidence of diet and food processing.
In and around the site is also discovered the fragments of Buni culture clay pottery, which suggests
the Buni culture, spread across the northern coast of West Java, was the predecessor of the Batujaya
site.
In April 2019, the complex was declared as an Indonesian national cultural treasure. Pierre-Yves
Manguin and Agustijanto Indradjaja contend in their paper The Batujaya Site: New Evidence of
Early Indian Influence in West Java of the presence of Indic Civilizatonal impact on the ancient
Sunda Kingdom that encompassed the territorial area we speak of.
(https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1355/9789814311175-008/html )

Central Java
The Kedu Plain lies to the north west of Yogyakarta and west of Gunung Merapi and south west
of Magelang, in Central Java.

 Borobudur. 9th-century Thervada Buddhist monument, reportedly the world's largest. Seven
terraces to the top represent the steps from the earthly realm to Nirvana. Reliefs of the birth,
enlightenment and death of the Buddha. A UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Pawon. 8th-century Buddhist temple.
 Mendut. 8th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple.
 Ngawen. Five aligned sanctuaries, one decorated with finely sculpted lions. 8th-century Buddhist
temple located east from Mendut temple. The name linked to Venuvana, "the temple of bamboo
forest".

 Sewu. Buddhist temple complex, older than Roro Jonggrang. A main sanctuary surrounded by
many smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues, replicas of which stand in the central
courtyard at the Jogja Kraton.
 Candi Lumbung. Buddhist temple ruin located south from Sewu temple, consisting of one main
temple surrounded by 16 smaller ones.
 Bubrah. Buddhist temple located between Candi Lumbung and Candi Sewu.
 Candi Gana. Buddhist temple ruin rich in statues, bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent
representations of children or dwarfs with raised hands. Located east from Sewu complex in the
middle of housing complex. Under restoration since 1997.
 Plaosan. Buddhist temple compound located few kilometers east from Sewu temple, probably
9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for his Buddhist queen. Two main
temples with reliefs of a man and a woman. Slender stupa.
 Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing different
poses and expressions.
 Sajiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and staircase are
decorated with animal fables.

136
 Candi Sari. Once a sanctuary for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the top with two
rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.
 Candi Kalasan. 8th-century Buddhist temple built in commemoration of the marriage of a king
and his princess bride, ornamented with finely carved reliefs.
 Candi Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple
visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated.

Ratu Boko

Ratu Boko Built between 8th and 9th centuries. Mixed Buddhist and Hindu style.
Avalokitesvara. Sahrine of Ratu Boko is an archaeological site in Java. Ratu Boko is located on a
plateau, about three kilometres south of Prambanan temple complex in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
The original name of this site is still unclear, however the local inhabitants named this site after
King Boko, the legendary king mentioned in Roro Jonggrang folklore. In Javanese, Ratu
Boko means "Stork King".

The site covers 16 hectares in two hamlets (Dawung and Sambireja) of the village of Bokoharjo
and Prambanan, Sleman Regency. In striking contrast to other Classic-period sites in Central
Java and Yogyakarta, which are remains of temples, Ratu Boko displays attributes of an
occupation or settlement site, although its precise function is unknown. [2] Probably the site was a
palace complex which belonged to the kings of Sailendra or Mataram Kingdom that also built
temples scattered across the Prambanan Plain. The argument was based on the fact that this
complex was not a temple nor building with religious nature, but a fortified palace instead which
evidence of a remnant of fortified walls and the dry moat of defensive structures. The remains of
settlements also founds in Ratu Boko vicinity. This site is located 196 m above the sea level, on the
highest point in the site, there is a small pavilion from which one will be able to see a panoramic
view of Prambanan temple with Mount Merapi as the background.

According to Hermanus Johannes de Graaf (2 December 1899 – 24 August 1984) a Dutch

historian specialising in the history of Java, Indonesia, the world's most populous island. there
were many European travelers to Java in the 17th century who mentioned that there existed an
archeological site which related to certain King Boko. In 1790, a Dutch researcher, Van
Boeckholtz was the first to discover the archaeological ruins on top of Ratu Boko Hill. The hill
itself is the northwestern branch of a larger Sewu mountain system, located on southern part of
Central and East Java spanned between Yogyakarta to Tulungagung. The publication of the
discovery attracted scientists such as Mackenzie, Junghun and Brumun to conduct research and
exploration on the site in the year 1814. In the early 20th century, the Ratu Boko site was
thoroughly studied by researcher FDK Bosch, who published his findings in a report
entitled "Keraton Van Ratoe Boko". From this report concluded that the ruins was the remnant of
a keraton (palace). During these researches, Mackenzie also found a statue of gold-headed man
and woman embracing each other. A stone pillar with ornaments of zoomorphic figures among
which are elephants, horses, and others, also found among the ruins.

Abhayagiri Vihara inscription dated 792 CE is one of the few written evidence discovered in
Ratu Boko site. The inscription mentioned Tejahpurnapane Panamkarana or Rakai
Panangkaran (746-784 M), and also mentioned a vihara located on top of the hill
137
called Abhyagiri Wihara which means "a vihara on top of the hill that free from danger". From
this inscription it was concluded, that King Panangkaran in a later period of his reign wished for
a spiritual refuge and created a reclusion of Buddhist hermitage named Abhayagiri Wihara in
792.[1] Rakai Panangkaran was a pious follower of Mahayana Buddhist, a Dhyani Buddha statue
was discovered on the site, which confirmed its initial Buddhist nature. Nevertheless, some
Hindu elements are also found at the site, such as the discovery of statues of Hindu deities:
Durga, Ganesha and Yoni.
It seems that the compound was later converted to a hilltop fortress by a local landlord named
Rakai Walaing Pu Kumbayoni. According to the Shivagrha inscription issued by Rakai
Kayuwangi on 12 November 856, the place was used as a defensive fort, consisting of hundreds
of stacked stones. The hilltop fortress was used as a fort during a power struggle in later days
of Mataram Kingdom.
The Ratu Boko complex consists of gopura (gates), paseban,
pools, pendopo, pringgitan, kaputren (women's quarter), and meditation caves.
Ratu Boko stands 196 meters above sea level and covers an area of 250.000 square meters. It is
divided into four parts, the central, the west, the southeast and the east. The central section of the
compound consists of the main gates, a crematorium temple, a pool, a stone pedestal and
the paseban (or audience hall). The southeast part covers the pendopo (attached open
pavilion), balai-balai (public hall or building), three miniature temples, a pool and a walled
compound popularly named by locals as kaputren (women's quarter).[1]
At Ratu Boko, traces of probable secular structures have been found, which were erected on
a plateau divided into terraces, separated from each other by stone walls and stone-faced
ramparts (talud). The site was reached by a steep path up the northwest slope of the plateau, in
the direction of Prambanan. The structural remains in the terrace at Ratu Boko site consist of
places with folk names connected with palaces such as paseban (reception
pavilion), pendopo (audience hall) and kaputren (women's quarter). A pool complex lies on a
terrace adjoining the east side of the pendopo. A group of artificial caves, probably for
meditation, lies to the north, isolated from the rest of the site. These archaeological sites are:

Main gate
The first of three terraces is reached through a massive gateway built on two levels. On the
western edge of this terrace is a high talud of soft white limestone. The second terrace, separated
from the first by andesite wall, is reached through a gateway in paduraksa form consisting of
three doors, a larger central one flanked by two of lesser dimensions. The third terrace, the
largest, contains the richest concentrations of archaeological remains. Another talud and andesite
wall separate the third terrace from the second terrace, with another connecting gateway of
paduraksa form, this time consisting of five doors, again the central one having larger
dimensions than the two which flank it.
It is read on the main gate Panabwara that was written by Rakai Panabwara, descendant of Rakai
Panangkaran. He carved his name there in order to legitimate his authority of this palace.

138
The front gate and walls of the largest terrace, viewed from the front. To the left is the
crematorium.
Candi Batu Putih
Literally, Batu Putih means white stone. It is a structure made from white limestone on the north
side of the first row of the gate on second terrace.
Candi Pembakaran

Candi Pembakaran, possibly a crematorium.

Beyond the second row of gates on third terrace, on the north side of the plateau there's a
structure similar to the base part of the temple with two terraces about 26x26 m in size. On the
center of upper terrace is an empty descending square hole. The building probably functions
as crematorium to burn the corpses.

Paseban
On the plateau on the third terrace, beside the Candi Pembakaran, there are also several square
stone structures. On the structures there are some umpak or stones which serve as the base for
wooden columns with holes to support the pillars. These structures are highly suggested as the
base of the building, since the pillars, wall, and roof are made from organic material, only the
stone floor and base still remain.

139
Pendopo
On the second terrace on the southeast side of the plateau, lies the pendopo (audience hall). The
pendopo is a square stone enclosure surrounded with andesite stone wall with the
small paduraksa entrance gates in the north, west, and south sides. In the center of this walled
enclosure there's a stone base formed by two separated terraces, the terrace on the southern side
is smaller than the northern one. This terrace served as the base and floor of the wooden structure
since there are some umpak or stones which serve as the base for wooden columns with holes, to
support the pillars. Since the pillars, walls, and the roof were made from easily decaying
material, such as wood, sirap (wooden shingles roof) or ijuk, none of it survived. Only the stone
bases still remain, while the organic wooden material of the building is gone.

Front view of the pendopo

Miniature temples
On the south side on the pendopo, there are three miniature temples with a square stone basin in
front of it. This small temple probably served a religious purpose, as some kind of Hindu or
Buddhist shrine in the Ratu Boko complex.

Kaputren and bathing place

On the eastern side of pendopo on the lower terrace, there are several andesite stone walled
enclosures with paduraksa gates and a gallery leading to the several pools within. This structure
is associated by local folks as kaputren (women's quarter), since the pool is believed to be the
pleasure garden for king and his concubines.
One particular pool (or well) within the bath place is considered sacred by Hindu people called
'Amerta Mantana'. It is believed that the water of Amerta brings luck for anyone who uses
it. Hindu people use it in Tawur Agung ceremony, one day before the Nyepi day, to support the
achievement of self purify and to return the earth into her initial harmony.
To the east of the pool there are two stone base structures, yet again probably the remains of a
wooden building, of which only the stone base still remains. From this structure, overlooking a
valley on the east side of Ratu Boko compounds, visitors can see Candi Barong, a Hindu temple
complex across the valley on the slope of the hill in the east.

Ascetic Cave
At the northern part from pendopo, isolated from the rest of the site, lies two caves that were
formed of sediment stones. The upper cave is called Gua Lanang (Male Cave) and the lower
cave is called Gua Wadon (Female Cave). In front of Gua Lanang, there is a pond and three
effigies. Based on the research, the effigy is known as Aksobya, one of Buddha Pantheons. The
cave probably functioned as a meditation place.

140
 Hindu Buddhist Mix
Ratu Boko site has yielded many smaller artefact including statues, both Hindu
(Durga, Ganesha, Garuda, a Linga and a Yoni) and Buddhist (three unfinished Dhyani Buddhas).
Other finds include ceramics and inscriptions; a golden plate with the writing "Om Rudra ya
namah swaha" on it as form of worship to Rudra as the other name of Shiva. This proved that
the Hindus and Buddhist live together with tolerance or in a syncretism.
Functions Unknow: Despite the large quantity and variety of remains found there, the exact
functions of Ratu Boko site is still unknown. Some believe it was the former palace of
ancient Mataram Kingdom; other scholars interpret this site as monastery. While third group
holds that it was a place for rest and recreation. Inscriptions shows that the site was occupied at
least during the 8th and 9th centuries.

Five inscriptions in pre-Nagari script and Sanskrit describe the construction of a shrine
for Avalokitesvara. One inscriptions refers to the constructions of a Buddhist monastery
modelled after Abhayagiri Vihara (means a monastery on a peaceful hill) in Sri Lanka, where a
group of ascetic forest dwelling monks resided. Three dated inscriptions in Old Javanese and
poetic Sanskrit recount the erection of two lingga, and bear the date of 778 Saka or 856 AD.
Another undated inscription mentions the erection of lingga named Hara at the order of King
Kalasobhawa.

King Boko is a legendary character known from popular folklore of Loro Jonggrang. This
folklore connects the Ratu Boko Palace, the Durga statue in Prambanan temple (which is
identified by local folklore as Loro Jonggrang), and the origin of the Sewu temple
complex nearby. Prince Bandung Bondowoso loved Princess Loro Jonggrang, the daughter of
King Boko, but she rejected his proposal of marriage because Bandung Bondowoso had killed
King Boko and ruled her kingdom. Bandung Bondowoso insisted on the union, and finally Loro
Jonggrang was forced to agree for a union in marriage, but she posed one condition: Bandung
must build her a thousand temples in one night. He entered into meditation and conjured up a
multitude of spirits (genies or demons) from the earth. They succeeded in building 999 temples.
Loro Jonggrang then woke her palace maids and ordered them to begin pounding rice. This
awoke the roosters, which began to crow. The genies, hearing the sound of morning, believed the
sun was about to rise and so disappeared back into the ground. Thus the prince was fooled, in
revenge he cursed the princess and turned her into a stone statue. According to the traditions, she
is the image of Durga in the north cell of the Shiva temple at Prambanan, which is still known as
Loro Jonggrang ("Slender Maiden").

 Banyunibo. A small 9th-century Buddhist complex. A main temple surrounded by six smaller
ones forming a stupa. Restoration completed in 1978.
 Dawangsari. Perhaps the site of a destroyed Buddhist stupa, now reduced to an array
of andesite stones.
 Candi Ijo. A complex of three-tiered temples, but only one has been renovated. A main
sanctuary and three secondary shrines with statues. Still under reconstruction.

Candi Abang. Actually a well that looks like a pyramid with very tall walls. In some aspects
looks like Borobudur. Unique atmosphere. Also known as Brother Temple. Archaeological sites

141
which are historical relics of historical value, art and culture are resources and capital for tourism
development to increase the prosperity and welfare of the people as contained in Pancasila and
the Preamble to the 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia. However, the condition of
these archaeological sites is starting to become fragile and limited , not many people know the
history and conditions so that we need a way to preserve history and culture in all its
diversity. Therefore, an information system is needed to assist in maintaining the existing
cultural resources. (Explanation of Law Number 11 of 2010 concerning Cultural Conservation).

The location of Abang Temple is in Sentonorejo Hamlet, Jogotirto Village, Berbah District,
Sleman Yogyakarta. To reach the temple, you can look for Jalan Jogja-Solo, precisely in
Prambanan. Once you arrive at Prambanan Terminal, look for Jalan Raya Jogja-Piyungan Km 8.
There, there is a sign to the right (west) that reads Abang Temple and Sentana Cave.

Abang Temple is located at the top of a hill on the edge of a village road, 1.5 kilometers west of
Jalan Raya Jogja-Piyungan. Access to a good location and can be reached by four-wheeled
vehicles. It's just that, once you get to the top of the hill, it's a bit damaged and can only be
reached on foot or by motorbike. Tourists can use public transportation. That is, look for buses
that pass Jalan Raya Jogja-Piyungan

The integrity of the temple is no longer perfect. However, that does not mean that beauty and
uniqueness are complete. Abang Temple still stands firmly on the top of a hill with brick
building materials. The size of the Abang Temple pedestal is 36 x 34 meters, and its height
cannot be estimated. This temple is shaped like a pyramid, with a well in the middle. In this
temple, there are stairs, entrance and made of white stone aka limestone. In addition, there are
some andesite stones whose function is not yet known.

This temple was built around the 9th and 10th centuries during the Ancient Mataram
Kingdom. However, this temple is estimated to have a younger age than other Hindu
temples. The temple which is shaped like a pyramid is called Candi Abang because it is made of
red bricks (brother in Javanese). The shape of this temple is in the form of a hill, now it is
overgrown with grass so that from a distance it looks like a mound of earth or a small hill.
When it was first discovered, in this temple there are statues and yoni pedestals, the symbol of

142
Lord Shiva, in the form of an octagon (not rectangular, as usual) with a side measuring 15 cm.
Some people think that Candi Abang is a place for storing treasures in ancient times, therefore it
is often damaged and excavated by irresponsible people who are looking for historical treasures
and valuables. This happened, for example, in November 2002.

Candi Abang is actually just a mound of earth on a hill. This hill in the rainy season will be
green, while in the dry season of course it is arid. The new Abang Temple will look abang (red)
color if the conditions are really dry and dry. As in general, most temples are built on hills,
because in the past a higher place was considered a sacred place (the abode of gods).
The uniqueness of Candi Abang is that this temple was built with red bricks. Why is it
unique? Are there no other temples built with red bricks?

Well, this is very interesting for me. In general, the temples in Central Java are temple buildings
built with andesite stone. What is andesite stone? Andesite is a volcanic igneous rock. Can you
imagine the big stones that are spewed out by Mount Merapi. Well, stones like that are called
andesite stones. But to create a durable temple, you need the perfect andesite rock. What's
like? Andesite stone as a temple material must be andesite stone buried in the ground and must
be mined. These andesite stones can be inlaid to form interlocking boxes that make up the
structure of the temple.
Andesite is not the only stone used as a building block for the temple. There are also red
bricks. This is where the characteristics and differences lie. Temples in Central Java are
generally made of andesite stone. While the temples in East Java are made of red bricks.
When viewed from the durable quality, of course andesite stone is more durable. For example,
Sambisari Temple in Sleman, although it has been covered by Mount Merapi's lava for years,
can still be found again in a complete (though not perfect) state.

In contrast to the Majapahit heritage temples in East Java, which are generally made of red
bricks, it is rather difficult to decipher their history, because on average, Majapahit temples are
no longer in the form of temples, only ruins. The current condition of the red brick temples in
East Java has been reconstructed from the pictures of the temples in Raffles' History of Java
book. So it's been the result of restoration for tourism. In fact, the temples in East Java are on
average younger than the temples in Central Java. Meanwhile, the temples in Central Java were
built during the reign of Ancient Mataram, an era much older than Majapahit.

That's why, Candi Abang is interesting because it's a bit unusual if there are temples made of red
bricks in the central part of Java, especially in Yogyakarta. Unfortunately I can't tell you more
about the reliefs at Candi Abang because the temple is buried in the ground.

Abang Temple, Pyramid of Protecting Citizens

At the location of the temple, a yoni was found, as a marker that the temple was a relic of
Hinduism. The Yoni in the temple is in the form of a hexagon or octagon with each side
measuring 15 cm. Oh yes, in the Abang Temple area, precisely on the south side of the temple,
there is a rock that resembles a frog. The local people call it Batu Frog, although without a
complete explanation regarding the existence of the stone. At the top of the temple, there is a

143
well called the Bandung well. While at this location, when you look down from the top of the
hill, you can see the expanse of rice fields and field land that is used for various activities.

Myth

Local people still believe that Abang Temple is guarded by an elder and respected figure. He is
named Kyai Butcher, who has a large body and long hair.Kyai Butcher is a protector from all
damage. In the Japanese era, residents often took refuge in the temple, because there was a
belief. Kyai Butcher will protect them. The belief in Kyai Butcher is very large. So, there is a
story about a lump of gold the size of a calf which is believed to be in the body of Candi Abang,
it remains a story and no one dares to prove it.

Apart from all the stories, every place (one of them temples) has its own story among the
community members. For example, Candi Abang is always associated with the story of hidden
treasures, or some stories about where to find pesugihan. There are mystical stories that local
residents have told me about Candi Abang, for example, why are there no big plants growing on
the mound of Candi Abang? Why only grass? Because if you study Raffles' History of Java,
some of the temples were even found in a condition "grabbed" by the roots of large plants. Then
why is there not even a plant in Abang Temple that "grabs" it?
There is also a story from local residents, that at certain times when there is a cloud above the
temple, the cloud will be red, and not everyone will see it, only the people they want can see it.

Whatever the story behind it, one that we must not forget, that this place was once the center of
our ancestral civilization, something we should not just ignore. Something that would be a
shame if you missed it.
Reportage & photographer: Priyo Sularso

 Candi Gampingan. Ruins 1.5m underground of a temple and stairs. Reliefs of animals at the
foot of the temple are believed to be a fable.
 Sentono. At the base of Abang temple. Perhaps younger than other regional temples.
Complex of caves with two mouths. Statue and bas-relief in left chamber.
Klaten Regency-East of Yogyakarta, Central Java.

 Candi Karangnongko. Difficult to date because remains are few.

.
East Java-Malang area
Malang, East Java.

 Candi Singosari. Dedicated to the kings of the Singosari Dynasty (1222 to 1292 AD), the
precursors of the Majapahit Kingdom, it was built in 1304.
 Arca Dwarapala. Dedicated to the kings of the Singosari Dynasty (1222 to 1292 AD).
 Candi Kidal.
 Candi Singosari.
 Sumberawan.

144
 Candi Rambut Monte.
 Candi Selakelir.
Blitar area

 Candi Penataran. East Java's only sizable temple complex, with a series of shrines and
pavilions. Constructed 12th through 15th centuries. Believed to be the state temple of
the Majapahit Empire.
 Candi Bacem
 Candi Boro
 Candi Kalicilik
 Candi Kotes
 Candi Wringin Branjang
 Candi Sawentar
 Candi Sumbernanas
 Candi Sumberjati or Candi Simping
 Candi Gambar Wetan
 Candi Plumbangan
 Candi Tepas
Kediri area

 Candi Adan-adan, a Buddhist temple located on the northeast slope of Kelud volcano near
Kediri town, precisely in Adan-adan village, Gurah subdistrict, Kediri Regency, East Java.
The temple is recently discovered in 2017. It is known with its exquisite fragment of
Boddhisattva head and dvarapala guardian.
 Candi Surowono is a small temple, of the Majapahit Kingdom, located in the Canggu Village
of the Kediri (near Pare) district in Java, Indonesia. It was believed to have been built in
1390 AD as a memorial to Wijayarajasa, the Prince of Wengker.
 Candi Tegowangi
 Arca Totok Kerot
 Arca Mbah Budho
 Candi Dorok
 Candi Tondowongso
 Gua Selomangleng
 Gua Selobale
 Calon Arang Site is a site who inspired Leak dance in Bali Indonesia
 Babadan or SumberCangkring Site
 Prasasti Pohsarang
Sidoarjo, Tretes, and Probolinggo areas

 Pari, in Sidoarjo. Dated from 1293 Saka (1371 CE), this Majapahit red brick temple bear
similarity with Champa architecture.
 Candi Sumur, in Sidoarjo. Located just a hundred meters from Candi Pari, probably built in
the same era.

145
 Gunung Gangsir, in Gunung Gangsir hamlet, Beji village, Pasuruan Regency, located about
18 kilometres east from Pasuruan city.
 Penanggungan sites, Mount Penanggungan, which has terraced sanctuaries, meditation grottoes
and sacred pools, about 80 sites in all including Candi Belahan believed to be the burial site of
King Airlangga, who died in 1049.
 Candi Jabung, east of Probolinggo, near Kraksaan. According to the inscription on the top of the
temple portal, Jabung dates from 1276 saka (1354 CE).
Trowulan

 Candi Tikus, Trowulan. Trowulan was once the capital of the Majapahit kingdom, the controller
of most of the important ports of the day. Survived thanks to a sophisticated irrigation system.
Tikus held run-off water from Mount Penanggungan for sanctification rites. Site also contains
parts of the palace gate, entryway and water system.
 Candi Brahu, Trowulan. Location the temple front of Bubat Area in Majapahit Palace
environment (7°32'33.85"S, 112°22'28.01"E). Brahu Temple is a budhis temple, built at 15 a.c
and restored during 1990 and was finished during 1995. There was no accurate note the function
of the temple.
 Candi Gentong, Trowulan. Location the temple 350m east of Brahu temple(7°32'38.05"S,
112°22'40.65"E). Many Ceramic from Ming and Yuan Dynasty founded in this temple area.
There was no accurate note the function of the temple.
 Candi Muteran, Trowulan. Location the temple north of Brahu temple ( 7°32'27.72"S,
112°22'29.41"E). There was no accurate note the function of the temple.
 Kolam Segaran, Trowulan. Segaran pond is Majapahit Heritage (7°33'29.55"S,112°22'57.54"E)
The Pond was found during 1926 by Ir.Maclain Pont. First restoration was 1966, finished at
1984. The function of this pond was as the place of recreation and to greet the foreign guest. This
was the biggest ancient pond founded in Indonesia.
 Gapura Bajang Ratu, Trowulan.
 Gerbang Wringin Lawang, Trowulan.
Bali

Candi Kalibukbuk. Located in Kalibukbuk village, Buleleng regency. It is one of the few
Buddhist temple in Hindu dominated Bali. The temple is thought to be dated from the 8th
century.
Bumiayu temple Sumatra

Bumiayu temple compound, or locally known as Candi Bumiayu, is a

Sumatran Shivaist Hindu temple complex located near the banks of Lematang river, precisely in
Bumiayu village, Tanah Abang district, Penukal Abab Lematang Ilir Regency, South
Sumatra, Indonesia. The temple located about 120 kilometres west of Palembang city. The red
brick structures are estimated dated from 8th to 13th-century, and linked to
the Srivijaya kingdom. Compared to Java, only a few Hindu-Buddhist temple ruins has been
rediscovered in Sumatra. The temple is known as one of the few surviving Hindu temple remnant
in South Sumatra. Other temple ruins in Sumatra are Muaro Jambi in Jambi, Muara Takus in
Riau, and Bahal temple in North Sumatra.

146
 His
torian suggests that the temple compound were built and used in the period between the 8th to
13th century. It is linked to Srivijaya kingdom that centered in Palembang, located to the
northeast from the Bumiayu site, connected by Lematang river, a tributary of Musi River.
The Bumiayu temple compound was probably built by a Kedatuan settlement or principality that
belongs within Srivijayan mandala sphere of influence. The fact that Hindu temple was
discovered within the area of Srivijayan Buddhist empire suggests that the kingdom's population
adheres to both Hinduism and Buddhism that coexist harmoniously. According to the styles of
Shiva and Agastya statues found in temple 1, those Hindu statues are dated from around the 9th
to 10th-century.
By the 12th to 13th-century it seems that the faith was shifted from Hinduism to Tantric
Buddhism. This suggestions was based on the discovery of tantric inscription near Lematang
river, the statue of Camundi and lions pulling carriages, which is similar to those Tantric statues
of Orrissa in India and Singhasari Buddhist statues of East Java. As an indicator of a settlement,
the fragments of pottery and Chinese ceramics dated from the Song and Yuan dynasties (11-13th
century CE) were also found. The settlements site are found on the banks of the Lematang river
The temple compound was abandoned, probably in the 16th century or earlier, possible due to
the arrival of Islam and the conversion of the local population. Subsequently, the temple
compound were forgotten, buried under earth and tropical jungle.
The rediscovery of the Bumiayu archaeological site was first reported by E.P. Tombrink in 1864
in his report Hindoe Monumenten in de Bovenlanden van Palembang. During his visit to
Lematang Ulu, he reported that there are 26 Hindu statues relics, including the statue of Nandi.
In Lematang Ilir, there are ruins of a temple near Tanah Abang hamlet, and a relief of a parrot
which is now kept in the National Museum.
According to local story that been recorded by a Dutch controller named A.J. Knaap in 1902,
what is now called the Bumiayu temple is the former palace of a kingdom called Gedebong
Undang. Furthermore, Knaap reported in 1904 the archaeological remnants of the site; a 1.75
meter high brick building was found in the Lematang area. part from brick temple ruins, stone
and metal statues were also found. Another finding was a gold sheet that read om yam. The
temple were reconstructed in the 1990s, although not complete since many parts of temple were
ruined and many bricks are missing.

147
ARCHITECTURE

Bumiayu temple site covering an area of about 15 hectares, which is bordered by 7 perimeter
ditch. The temple complex consists of 13 red brick structures that most of them are now in ruins
in form of earth mounds. Only 5 structures has been reconstructed; temple 1, 2, 3, 7 and 8. Only
temple 1 is located in the center of the village, the rest is scattered around the village or within
the rubber plantation.
Temple 1
The temple 1 has a square plan with a size of 10.21 x 10.47 meters and the ascending stairs
located on the east side. On the left and right of the stairs are decorated with carriages drawn by
lion that is now headless. At the front of the ascending stairs are the remains of a pavilion.
Several statues were found from the ruins of temple 1, namely the statue of Shiva
Mahadeva, Agastya, the statue of Gajasimha, two figures, and the statue of Nandi.
Temple 3
Temple 3 is a group of buildings consisting of a main temple and three perwara (ancillary)
temples, each of which is located in the north, east, and south. Based on the location of the stairs,
the main temple building faces northeast. The main temple building has an octagonal design that
stands on the rectangular base. From the temple 3 ruins, there were found fragments of the
demon's head, a statue of a woman torso wearing a skull shaped necklace, a statue of a woman
holding a snake, and several animal statues of lions, crocodiles, dogs and snakes. In temple 3
there are some exquisite and detailed terracotta relief depicts kala and makara with rich
decorations.
The reconstructed temple ruins are now covered with roofs to protect the red brick structures
from torrential rains. Some of statues and relics discovered in Bumiayu temple compound are
now stored in an in situ gallery,[2] also in Balaputradeva Museum and Srivijaya
Museum in Palembang.

Site Artefacts kept in a

museum

148
 Candi Bahal

Candi Bahal, also known as Biaro Bahal ( vihara, a monastery) or Candi Portibi (Batak portibi,
derived from prithivi, "earth") is Vajrayana Buddhist candi complex in Bahal village, Padang
Bolak, Portibi, Padang Lawas Regency, North Sumatra, Indonesia. It is located about three hours
journey with car from Padangsidempuan or 400 km from Medan. The complex includes three
candis: Candi Bahal I, Candi Bahal II, and Candi Bahal III. The temple site is linked to Pannai
Kingdom circa 11th to 13th century CE.

Buddha Amitabha bronze statue found at Si Pamatung in Barumun Tengah district

Candi Bahal are one of a group of temples discovered in Padang Lawas. Padang Lawas
(Minangkabau "broad plain") is a grassy flat plain located between the Barisan Mountains and
the highlands of northern Sumatra.[3] The plain is kept free of tall vegetation by the prevailing dry
winds sweeping through the gap between the two highlands.There were no major settlements in
Padang Lawas, but the area provided a strategic route for people moving between the east and
west coast of Sumatra.
The flow of people in the area might provide the reason for the establishment of 11th and 13th
century shrines found in the area. At least 25 brick shrines have been discovered in the plain of
Padang Lawas, including Candi Pulo, Candi Barumun, Candi Singkilon, Candi
Sipamutung, Candi Aloban, Candi Rondaman Dolok, Candi Bara, Candi Magaledang, Candi
Sitopayan and Candi Nagasaribu. No kingdoms were associated with these temples, at least
according to inscriptions discovered in the site, however the religion is identical to that practiced
by Adityawarman. Candi Bahal are the only temples that has been fully restored, the other were
still in ruins.

149
Construction of the temples of Padang Lawas were estimated to be between the 11th to 13th
century CE. They were possibly linked with Pannai Kingdom, one of the trading ports on the
coast of Strait of Malacca under Srivijayan mandala.
Restoration of Candi Bahal I occurred in 1977-1978 and 1982–1983. Candi Bahal II has been
restored between 1991 and 1992.
THE COMPLEX
The three temples of Bahal are separated by a distance of about 500 meter. The complex of the
temple is known locally as biaro (from vihara or monastery), possibly indicating a clue to its
original use. The names of three of the Bahal temples indicate connections with Nepal and Sri
Lanka. Bahal is a term still used in Nepal to refer the two-storied temples of the Vajrayana, a
major sect which influenced Buddhism in Indonesia. [1] Rampant lions carved flanking the temple
of Biaro Bahal I was similar to carvings at Polonaruva, the 11th-century capital of Sri Lanka.
The complex is the largest in North Sumatra. All three temples of Bahal were constructed of red
bricks, while the sculptures were constructed of sand stones. Each temple are surrounded with a
perimeter red brick wall about 1 meter thick and 1 meter tall. A gate on the eastern wall provide
entrance gateway into the temple; the gate is extended outward with 60 cm tall walls in both
sides. The main temple of each complexes is located in the center.
The architecture of this temple is similar to Jabung temple located in Probolinggo, East Java.
Despite its rich archaeological value, unlike the popular temples of Java, the Padang Lawas
temples are mostly neglected and in the state of ruins, partly due to its isolated location. There
are some attempts to promote the temples as a tourism attraction, however because of its remote
location and poor infrastructure, promotion and tourism activity is limited.

Muaro Jambi

Muaro Jambi (Indonesian: Candi Muaro Jambi) is a Buddhist temple complex, in Muaro Jambi
Regency, Jambi province, Sumatra, Indonesia. It is situated 26 kilometers east from the city
of Jambi. The temple complex was built by the Melayu Kingdom, with its surviving temples and
other archaeological remains estimated to date from the 7th to 13th century CE. The
archaeological site includes eight excavated temple sanctuaries and covers about 12 square
kilometers, stretches 7.5 kilometers along the Batang Hari River, 80 menapos or mounds of
temple ruins, are not yet restored. It is one of the largest and best-preserved ancient temple
complexes in South East Asia.
It was suggested that Muaro Jambi Temple compound might be the initial location
of Srivijaya kingdom. This is mainly because, Muaro Jambi has far richer temple concentration
—in contrast to the scarcity of archaeological sites in South Sumatra.
The start of the rise of the kingdom of Melayu can be dated to 1025 when Indian kingdom of
Chola attacked and destroyed the capital of the Sumatran maritime empire of Srivijaya. This
allowed a number of smaller Sumatran polities to expand their political and economic influence.
During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it seems that from its river estuarine basis along the
Batang Hari, Melayu became the dominant economic power in Sumatra. The substantial
archaeological remains at Muaro Jambi suggest that this may have been the site of the Melayu

150
capital. The city's age of glory came to an end in 1278 when Java's Singhasari kingdom attacked
the city, even succeeding in capturing members of the royal family. The site was rediscovered by
Dutch explorers in the nineteenth century. It is now protected as a national monument.

Candi Tinggi, one of the temple within Muaro Jambi temple compound.
The temple complex of Candi Muaro Jambi is spread out over a large area along the banks of the
Batang Hari River. Eight temple complexes have been excavated but many more mounds and
sites remain to be explored within the conservation area, much of which is still covered by thick
jungle. The three most significant intact temples are known as Candi Tinggi, Candi Kedaton, and
Candi Gumpung. The temples are built from red brick and unlike the temples of Java, feature
very little ornamentation, carving, or statuary. A few pieces of sculpture are housed in a small,
on-site museum. The wooden dwellings that are believed to have housed the city's population
have all disappeared without a trace. Only 9 temples have been restored, 3 have mentioned above
and the others are Candi Tinggi I, Candi Kembarbatu, Candi Gedong I, and Candi Gedong II.
Muara Takus (Indonesian: Candi Muara Takus) is a Buddhist temple complex, thought to
belong to the Srivijaya empire situated in Kampar
Regency in Riau province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Its surviving temples and other archaeological
remains are thought to date to the eleventh and twelfth century AD. It is one of the largest and
best-preserved ancient temple complexes in Sumatra.

151
Candi Muara Takus was constructed by the maritime-based Sriwijaya Empire in the eleventh
century. The architecture and design of the temples clearly indicates that they are of Mahayana
Buddhist origin. It has been suggested by Schnitger that the major temples at Muara Takus may
have undergone major renovations in the twelfth century. It is thought that the area was used as
both a religious and trade centre by Srivijaya.
The site was abandoned for many centuries before it was rediscovered by Cornet De Groot in
1860. The site was explored and surveyed by W.P Groenveld in 1880 and excavations have been
conducted periodically since. The research on the Muara Takus archaeological site was carried
out in 1983 and it resulted in mapping of the ancient embankment remnants, the Mahligai
Temple compound, and other ancient structures. [2] The site is now protected as a national
monument.
A R C H I T E C T U R E
The temple complex of Candi Muara Takus is surrounded by a 1 metre tall stone perimeter wall
that measures 74 x 74 metres. The outer wall is penetrated by a gateway on the northern side.
Within the walls are the remains of four substantial Buddhist temples (candi). The most unusual
of these is Candi Mahligai. This lotus-shaped Buddhist stupa is unique in Indonesia though there
are numerous similar ancient structures in Thailand and Myanmar. This structure is founded on
an octagonal base and reaches a height of 14.30 metres. The uppermost level of the stupa is
decorated with lion figures that are barely discernible from below.
On the east side of Candi Mahligai is the base of Candi Palangka. It is constructed from red stone
and now only reaches a height of 1.45 metres. It was reportedly much taller at the time of the
earliest colonial expeditions to the site but the upper terraces have long since collapsed. A third
structure within the complex is Candi Bungsu. The most striking thing about this temple is that it
was built from two very different kinds of stone. One part is built from red stone and the other
section from sandstone. This temple now reaches a height of 6.20 metres. The largest structure at
Candi Muara Takus is Candi Tua. Its base measures 32.80 metres x 21.80 metres and it reaches a
height of 8.50 metres. This temple is terraced and it bears some resemblance in its design to the
much larger stupa, Candi Borobudur, in Java. Like all the temples at Candi Muara Takus, Candi
Tua features only minimal decoration. The most notable decorative feature are the seated lion
figures on the upper terraces.

152
 Kalimantan

In the area adjacent to the temple or Candi Laras which is a Hindu Shiva Temple, namely in
the Amas river basin, a statue of the Buddha Dīpankara and pieces of stone inscribed
with Pallawa script related to Buddhism were also found., reads "siddha" (in full it should read
"jaya siddha yatra" meaning "blessed pilgrimage"). The sentence is reminiscent of the tenth line
of the Kedukan Bukit inscription, a legacy of the 7th century AD Srivijaya Kingdom "Sriwijaya
Jaya Siddha Yatra Subhiksa". The similarity of the sentences in the two inscriptions may indicate
a relationship between the Srivijaya kingdom and Tapin. The archaeological site of Candi Laras
is estimated to have been built in 1300 AD by Jimutawahana, a descendant of Dapunta Hyang
from the Sriwijaya kingdom. This Jimutahana is thought to be the ancestor of the Tapin people.

The discovery of the Dīpankara . Buddha statue—shown how the Dipankar Design looks like to the right

Based on the discovery of archaeological objects found around this site dating from the 8th or
9th century. In the area adjacent to the temple, namely on the Baringin B Village road near the
Tambingkaran river, including the Amas River watershed, statues were found. His right hand
was damaged and both legs were broken. The Buddha statue is made of bronze with a width of 8
cm and a height of 21 cm. It is depicted standing wearing a cloak draped over the left
shoulder. His left hand is forward while holding the hem of the robe. His face is described as
slightly round with slanted eyes and a mouth with the tip of his lips slightly upwards as in the
faces of Thai statues. Seeing the facial features of the Buddha statue, the Dwarawati style
developed around the 8th century AD.

Fragments of a stone inscription with Pallawa script were found at the bottom of the Amas
River. Old Malay inscription related to the "holy journey", it reads //

… siddha…// (it should read in full // jaya siddha yatra // meaning "the holy journey that gets
success").

This siddhayatra inscription, when viewed from the form of the script is contemporaneous with
the siddhayatra inscription which is often found from the Palembang area. Judging from the art
style of the Dipakara Buddha statue and the shape of the letters on the inscription fragment it is
suspected that the place has been inhabited since the 7th-8th century AD. In 2000, a radiocarbon

153
study of C-14 was carried out from samples of ironwood poles that were still stuck in their
original locations, and dated to around the 14th century AD. Laras Temple was built in 1400 AD.

Dipankara derives from 'deepa' meaning lamp. He is the most

celebrated and the first of the twenty-four Buddhas. Dipavati is
the name of his capital city. In a past kalpa, King Arcishtra lived
there. Dipankara was a Bodhisattva in Tushita heaven during the
same kalpa. When the time came for him to descend he entered
the womb of one of the spouses of the king as the king was
thought most suitable to be his father. When the queen was in the
throes of childbirth she asked the king to send her to a lotus
pond. As soon as she reached the spot, an island sprung up in
the midst of the pond for the Bodhisattva to take birth. A large
number of bright lamps manifested miraculously. Dipankara
Buddha is believed to have lived on this earth for over 100,000
years. He kept on finding someone worthy of hearing the divine
truth. Then he decided to convert the world and caused a miracle
which appeared in the form of a great city that materialized from
his lamp and became stationary in space. Fierce flames emitted
from the four walls while the people of Jambudvipa gazed upon
the miracle. Their hearts were filled with fear and they looked for
Buddha to save them. Dipankara came forth from the burning
city, descended, and seated himself on a lion to teach the law.

Dipankara is represented with his right hand in the Abhaya Mudra

(Fear Not Pose) and his left hand in Varada Mudra (Blessing
Pose). He is depicted standing with the monastic garment draped
over the left shoulder with pleated edges. The lower robe is
pleated in the manner of a flowering skirt, like all other Buddhas,
Dipankara has short curly hair, ushnisha, urna and long earlobes.

Candi Laras is a small temple site located in Candi Laras village , Candi Laras Selatan, Tapin ,
South Kalimantan Province which was found at a location called by residents as Tanah
Tinggi which is located at the coordinate position of 2°37′12″S 114°56′ 0″E . At the site of this
temple found pieces of the statue of Batara Guru holding cupu, Nandini bull and phallus . All of
them are stored in the Lambung Mangkurat Museum , Banjarbaru . The location of this temple is
not in a strategic location, so it is estimated that this temple was built for certain purposes and is
estimated to be a state temple.

Today, in reference to the principle of Pancasila, a Buddhist monk representing

the Buddhist Sangha, along with priest, Brahmin, clergy or representative of
other recognized religions, would participate in nearly all state-sponsored
ceremonies. The ceremony would always include a prayer (led by a Muslim imam
with representatives of other faiths standing in a row behind him). Although the
majority of Indonesian Buddhists are of the Chinese Mahayana school, more
often than not the representative of Buddhism as selected by the Government
would happen to be a Theravada monk.

154
 Chapter 5

ANCIENT ABODES OF SHIVA AND SHAKTI IN INDONESIA FEATURING

PRAMBHANAN

Interesting facts about Prambanan

1. Prambanan is the largest and most beautiful Hindu temple complex in Indonesia.
Prambanan is a collection of massive Hindu temples (candi) built by the Mataram
Kingdom, rulers of central Java and defeaters of the Sailendra Dynasty.
2. It is the masterpiece of Hindu culture of the ninth century.
3. A temple was first built at the site around 850 CE by Rakai Pikatan and expanded
extensively by King Lokapala and Balitung Maha Sambu the Sanjaya king of the
Mataram Kingdom.
4. It is dedicated to the Trimurti (Trinity of the formless supreme God), the expression of
God as the Creator (Brahma), the Preserver (Vishnu) and the Destroyer (Shiva).
5. The complex is laid out in the form of a mandala, and features the towering, broad
spires that are typical of Hindu temple architecture, and represent Meru, the holy
mountain where the gods live.

155
6. Originally there were 240 temples in the complex but many of them have deteriorated or
been looted leaving just scattered stones.The Prambanan temple complex consists
of three zones; first the outer zone, second the middle zone that contains hundreds of
small temples, and third the holiest inner zone that contains eight main temples and
likewise, eight small shrines.
7. The three main inner shrines are dedicated to Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Keeper and
Shiva the Destroyer. The three towers cut a striking figure in any conditions, but are
perhaps most breathtaking when lit up at night.

8. The middle zone consists of four rows of 224 identical, concentrically arranged shrines.
Most of these are in ruins but a few have been fully restored. These shrines are
called Candi Perwara (guardian temples).
9. The Shiva temple though dedicated to Shiva the Destroyer contains the large statute of
DURGA as Maishasuramardini or kikller of the demon Mhaishasur and is the tallest and
largest structure in Prambanan complex, it measures 47 meters (154 feet) tall and 34
meters (111 feet) wide. Relief sculptures around the perimeter tell the story of the
Ramayana.

156
10. The Shiva temple contains five chambers, four small chambers in every cardinal direction
and one bigger main chamber in central part of the temple. The largest chamber contains
a three meter (10 feet) high statue of Shiva Mahadeva.
11. North of Shiva Temple is Vishnu Temple, dedicated to Vishnu the Preserver.It measures
20 meters (65 feet) wide and 33 meters (108 feet) tall. Relief sculptures around its
perimeter tell the story of Lord Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu.
12. South of Shiva Temple is Brahma Temple, dedicated to Brahma the Creator. It also
measures 20 meters (65 feet) wide and 33 meters (108 feet) tall. Relief sculptures around
the perimeter tell the story of the Ramayana.

13. The narrative bas-relief panels was carved along the inner balustrades wall on the gallery
around the three main temples.

157
14. The other three shrine in front of three main temples is dedicated to vehicle (vahana) of
the respective gods – the bull Nandi for Shiva, the sacred swan Hamsa for Brahma, and
Vishnu’s Kite Garuda.

15.
16. Between these row of main temple, on north and south side stands two Candi Apit
temples. Apit in Javanese means “flank”, it refer to the two temples position that flanked
the inner courtyard in north and south sides.
17. The outer zone is a large open space that was once bounded by a large wall (long gone).
The function of this space is disputed but was probably either a park/relaxation garden or
the site of an ashram for temple priests brahmins.
18. The other name of this temple is the Lorojonggrang temple.
19. A major earthquake in the 16th century caused serious damage to the already crumbling
and largely forgotten temples.
20. The British rediscovered Prambanan, along with Borobudur, in the early 19th century.

158
 21. Half-hearted excavations by archaeologists in the 1880s facilitated looting. In 1918, the
Dutch began
reconstruction of the compound and proper restoration only in 1930. Efforts
at restoration continue to this day. The reconstruction of the main Shiva temple was
completed around 1953 and inaugurated by Sukarno (the first President of Indonesia).
22. Prambanan was selected as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991.

Prambanan is NOT a Tantric Temple

Tantrik Pursuits-Hindu Temples are not just some arrangements of inanimate stones. Along
with Hindu Mythology (Puran) a temple carries millions of years of history that took place at the
base of the evolutionary Earth. Civilization develops over time and lost again. But that vanishing
stories of human civilizations still breath in the grooves of the lifeless stones of an ancient
temple. Yes, even a temple has life.

Nandi at Prambanan

159
160
The statue of Shiva's son Ganesha is housed in the inner sanctum of the Shiva Temple located on the Prambanan
Temple complex in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.

There are over 10,000 exceptionally maintained n Indonesia which too boasts of many temples
from magnificent Hindu temple complexes with three hundred shrines showing intricate Balinese
architecture to revered Buddhist monasteries in gorgeous forested island settings, Indonesia's
temples attract pilgrims and tourists alike. Candi Prambanan is the largest Hindu temples
complex uncovered so far in Indonesia; it is also known as Loro Jonggrang, and it includes 240
temples; the three central temples have intricate carvings on its walls to pictorially describe all
major events from the Hindu epic Ramayana. Prambanan served as the royal temple of the
Kingdom of Mataram, with most of the state's religious ceremonies and sacrifices being
conducted there. The Prambanan Temple Is The Largest Hindu Temple Site In Indonesia With
240 Temples. A statue of the Hindu goddess Durga from the Shiva temple at Prambanan, Java,
Indonesia, c. 750 - c. 950 CE. According to legend, the statue is a result of the transformation
into stone of a local princess. by her cruel husband. The popular legend of Rara Jonggrang is
what connects the site of the Ratu Boko Palace, the origin of the Durga statue in the northern
cell/chamber of the main shrine, and the origin of the Sewu temple complex nearby. The legend
tells the story about Prince Bandung Bondowoso, who fell in love with Princess Rara Jonggrang,
the daughter of King Boko. But the princess rejected his proposal of marriage because Bandung
Bondowoso had killed King Boko and ruled her kingdom. Bandung Bondowoso insisted on the
union, and finally Rara Jonggrang was forced to agree to a union in marriage, but she posed one
impossible condition: Bandung must build her a thousand temples in only one night.
The Prince entered into meditation and conjured up a multitude of supernatural beings from the
earth. Helped by these spirits, he succeeded in building 999 temples. When the prince was about
to complete the condition, the princess woke her palace maids and ordered the women of the
village to begin pounding rice and set a fire in the east of the temple, attempting to make the
prince and the spirits believe that the sun was about to rise. As the cocks began to crow, fooled
by the light and the sounds of daybreak, the supernatural helpers fled back into the ground. The
prince was furious about the trick and in revenge he cursed Rara Jonggrang, turning her to stone.

161
She became the last and the most beautiful of the thousand statues. According to the traditions,
the unfinished thousandth temple created by the demons become the Sewu temple compounds
nearby (Sewu means "thousands" in Javanese), and the Princess is the image of Durga in the
north cell of the Shiva temple at Prambanan, which is still known as Rara Jonggrang or "Slender
Maiden".

The temple is a UNESCO World Heritage site and is dedicated to the Trimurti – Shiva (the
Transformer), Vishnu (the Preserver), and Brahma (the Creator). The highlight of the temple lies
in the central compound, where eight major and eight minor temples are assembled on a raised
platform, creating an architectural crescendo, the highest of which is Candi Shiva Mahadeva.
‘Candi’ means temple or shrine.

162
1851- Prambanan
The statue depicting Goddess Durga as Mahishasuramardini stands in the inner sanctum of the
Shiva Temple located on the Prambanan Temple complex in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The inner
sanctum has four chambers, each of which faces a cardinal direction and houses a statue. The

163
History Of The Prambanan Temple

The building of Prambanan commenced in the middle of the 9th century, around 50 years after
Borobudur, which is the largest Buddha temple in the world. While little is known about the
early history of the temple, it is thought to have built by Rakai Pikatan to commemorate the
return of the Hindu dynasty in Java.

However, in the mid-16th century, a great earthquake toppled many of the temples, and
Prambanan remained in ruins for years. While efforts were made to clear the site in 1855, it was
only in 1937 that reconstruction was first attempted. In 1953, the reconstruction of the main
Shiva temple was completed and inaugurated by an Indonesian politician Sukarno.Prambanan
again suffered extensive damage in the 2006 earthquake. Although the main temples survived,
hundreds of stone blocks collapsed. Today, the main structures have been restored, but a lot of
work remains to be done.

Architecture Of The Prambanan Temple

The temple follows the typical Hindu architectural traditions based on the Vastu Shastra and has
incorporated the Mandal temple plan arrangements.

The whole complex contains 240 individual stone temples, many of which are scattered in ruins.
The temple complex is divided into three zones. The outer zone is an open space, which serves
as a yard for priests or worshippers, whereas the middle zone has 224 small shrines arranged into
four concentric rows around the central compound. These shrines are called Candi Perwara,
meaning ‘guardian temples’. rtesy: All Indonesia Tourism

The Candi Shiva Mahadeva is centrally located and is one of the finest temples in the complex.
Lavishly carved, the main spire of the temple soars as high as 47m high. The inner wall of the
gallery encircling the temple contains vibrant scenes from the Ramayana.

The impressive Candi Vishnu touches 33m and sits north of Candi Shiva Mahadeva. It houses a
four-armed image of Vishnu inside the inner sanctum. Candi Brahma is Candi Vishnu’s twin
temple. Located south of Candi Shiva Mahadeva, it is again adorned with the final scenes of the
Ramayana. In the inner chamber, a four-headed statue of Brahma is beautifully crowned.

The Prambhanan temple

The Prambhanan temple complex is linked to the Shivagrha inscription of 856 CE, issued by
King Lokapala, which described a Shiva temple compound that resembles Prambanan.
According to this inscription the Shiva temple was inaugurated on 12 November 856. According
to this inscription, the temple was built to honor Lord Shiva, and its original name was Shiva-
grha (the House of Shiva) or Shiva-laya (the Realm of Shiva). According to the Shivagrha
inscription, a public water project to change the course of a river near Shivagrha temple was
undertaken during the construction of the temple. The river, identified as the Opak River, now
runs north to south on the western side of the Prambanan temple compound. Historians suggest
that originally the river was curved further to east and was deemed too near to the main temple.

164
Experts suggest that the shift of the river was meant to secure the temple complex from the
overflowing of lahar volcanic materials from Merapi volcano. The project was done by cutting
the river along a north to south axis along the outer wall of the Shivagrha Temple compound.
The former river course was filled in and made level to create a wider space for the temple
expansion, the space for rows of pervara (complementary) temples.

The statue of Shiva Mahadeva inside the garbagriha

of the main temple.
Some archaeologists propose that the statue of Shiva in the garbhagriha (central chamber) of the
main temple was modelled after King Balitung, serving as a depiction of his deified self after
death. The temple compound was expanded by successive Mataram kings, such as Daksa
and Tulodong, with the addition of hundreds of perwara temples around the chief temple.
With main prasada tower soaring up to 47 metres high, a vast walled temple complex consists of
240 structures, Shivagrha Trimurti temple was the tallest and the grandest of its time. Indeed, the
temple complex is the largest Hindu temple in ancient Java, with no other Javanese temples ever
surpassed its scale. Prambanan served as the royal temple of the Kingdom of Mataram, with
most of the state's religious ceremonies and sacrifices being conducted there. At the height of the
kingdom, scholars estimate that hundreds of brahmins with their disciples lived within the outer
wall of the temple compound. The urban center and the court of Mataram were located nearby,
somewhere in the Prambanan Plain.
Single verses many

The Prambanan had originally there were a total of 240 temples standing in Prambanan. The
Prambanan Temple Compound consist of:
 3 Trimurti temples: three main temples dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma

165
 3 Vahana temples: three temples in front of Trimurti temples dedicated to the vahana of
each gods; Garuda, Nandi and Hamsa
 2 Apit temples: two temples located between the rows of Trimurti and Vahana temples on
north and south side
 4 Kelir temples: four small shrines located on 4 cardinal directions right beyond the 4 main
gates of inner zone
 4 Patok temples: four small shrines located on 4 corners of inner zone
 224 Pervara temples: hundreds of temples arranged in 4 concentric square rows; numbers
of temples from inner row to outer row are: 44, 52, 60, and 68

The Prambanan compound also known as Rara Jonggrang complex, named after the popular
legend of Rara Jonggrang. There were once 240 temples standing in this Shivaite temple
complex, either big or small. Today, all of 8 main temples and 8 small shrines in the inner zone
are reconstructed, but only 3 out of the original 224 pervara temples are renovated. The majority
of them have deteriorated; what is left are only scattered stones. The Prambanan temple complex
consists of three zones; first the outer zone, second the middle zone that contains hundreds of
small temples, and third the holiest inner zone that contains eight main temples and eight small
shrines.

An architectural model of the Prambanan temple complex; originally there were 240 temples in
this temple compound

The Hindu temple complex at Prambanan is based on a square plan that contains a total of three
zone yards, each of which is surrounded by four walls pierced by four large gates. The outer
zone is a large space marked by a rectangular wall. The outermost walled perimeter, which
originally measured about 390 metres per side, was oriented in the northeast–southwest
direction. However, except for its southern gate, not much else of this enclosure has survived
166
down to the present. The original function is unknown; possibilities are that it was a sacred park,
or priests' boarding school (ashram). The supporting buildings for the temple complex were
made from organic material; as a consequence no remains occur.

From left Agastha Muni,Shiva and Brahma in Prambhanan

Nandi side view

DURGA or the slim maiden LOLO Jaggron

167
Abduction of Sita by Ravana- episode from RAMAYANA carved on the walls of Prambhanan (RIGHT)

168
169
 By the AUTHOR
Books and Research Articles on Prambanan

1. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
342662695_Prambanan_an_Hindu_temple_in_Indonesia-
general_architectural_and_morphological_analysis
2. https://www.academia.edu/44208599/Prambanan
3. https://www.academia.edu/49220670/Prambanan_Temple_BOOK
4. https://www.academia.edu/75700559/The_Three_mandalas_of_Bali
5. https://www.academia.edu/53317094/
Comparison_of_Prambhanan_and_Angkor
6. https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fsiteproxy.ruqli.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttps%2F0.academia-
photos.com%2Fattachment_thumbnails
%2F70215982%2Fmini_magick20210925-9011-1i9k5cd.png
%3F1632572737&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fsiteproxy.ruqli.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.academia.edu
%2F53317094%2FComparison_of_Prambhanan_and_Angkor&tbnid=pDg1
kP5TSi0k1M&vet=12ahUKEwi8mtXOkZ_8AhU9KbcAHXqXCekQMygC
egUIARCeAQ..i&docid=Z5VCiUooXZozrM&w=600&h=776&q=pramban
an%20uday
%20dokras&ved=2ahUKEwi8mtXOkZ_8AhU9KbcAHXqXCekQMygCeg
UIARCeAQ
7. https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fsiteproxy.ruqli.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttps%2F0.academia-
photos.com%2Fattachment_thumbnails
%2F64573502%2Fmini_magick20201001-25637-k2pxyn.png
%3F1601560262&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fsiteproxy.ruqli.workers.dev%3A443%2Fhttps%2Fwww.academia.edu
%2F44208599%2FPrambanan&tbnid=AK2EWnhjlatoPM&vet=12ahUKEw
i8mtXOkZ_8AhU9KbcAHXqXCekQMygBegUIARCcAQ..i&docid=oKQcJ
TSuidMA_M&w=600&h=776&q=prambanan%20uday
%20dokras&ved=2ahUKEwi8mtXOkZ_8AhU9KbcAHXqXCekQMygBeg
UIARCcAQ

170
171
 Warrior Goddess

Dr Uday Dokras
The Interpretational issues of Goddess DURGa or Maheshasuramardini of
Prambhanan temple amongst others

172
 The Tantric Goddess Matangi / Mahishasura Mardini
or Tillana or Goddess Mookambika
an AVATAR of DURGA in Prambhanan temple

Who is Matangi?
Matangi is a regal form of the Goddess, who bears a close link with Saraswathi, the Goddess of
Learning. She is one of the manifestations of Kali, the fierce form of divine Shakti, who is also
known by many other names such as Parvati,Durga and Bhagavathi.

Who is Kali and what is her importance?

Kali is the divine consort of Lord Shiva. She remains one of the highly aggressive manifestations
of the feminine energy, and is regarded as a ruthless destroyer of evil and an unfailing upholder
of virtue. The name Kali literally means ‘the dark one’ or ‘the black coloured’. Kala also stands
for time and Kali, its feminine form. She is thus regarded as the dark coloured Goddess of death,
and in other words, the annihilator of ego.
Kali is also known as Adi Parashakthi, the primordial, all-powerful feminine energy and is
worshipped in ten forms that are known as Dus Mahavidyas, the ten Goddesses of great wisdom.
Goddess Matangi is considered the ninth of these ten divine aspects.

What is the significance of Goddess Matangi?

Matangi is a very aggressive Goddess, considered the Tantric form of Saraswati. Depicted in
bright, emerald green, she rules over the fields like knowledge, speech, music and arts. Though
considered as the power over such finer aspects of life, Matangi remains linked strangely to the
opposite, representing things like inauspiciousness and impurity.
This aspect is highlighted in the most common of her forms, called Ucchishta Matangi, who
carries a sword, goad, club and a noose in her hands. Ucchishta actually means partially eaten
and leftover food, which stands for pollution. This Goddess is actually offered stale food with the
left hand, which is considered impure. She is also known as Chandalini, the Goddess of
Chandals, the lower castes. However, in her well known form of Raja Matangi, she remains a
royalty, seated on a throne, holding a parrot and playing veena.

What are the benefits of worshipping Matangi?

Worshipping Matangi will help the devotees to get an attractive and magnetic personality, sound
articulation, and mastery over knowledge and skills. They can also influence others and gain
control over enemies. Her blessings can offer protection against many impediments like,
negative energies, marital discord, poor studies and career, memory loss, stammering and Sun’s
malefic effects.

God Vishnu and Durga are same. They are manifestation of Supreme Brahman Tripura Sundari
Lalithambika

173
Both Vaishnava and Sakta scriptures elucidate the oneness of Uma and Vishnu

अहमेव च सा गौरी गौर्यैवाहं

महाफ़णिन्।

उमाया यान्ति मद्भक्ता

उमाभक्ताश्च् मे पदं।।

उमया मे चाभेदेन
धृतस्त्रीनरवेषयो:।

उभयोर्भेद मुक्त्वा तु
प्राप्नुयान्नरकार्र्णवम्
।।

Lord Vishnu said: Oh, the great serpent

(Shesha), I am Gauri, and Gauri is me. The
devotees of Uma are my own devotees, those
who venerate Uma reaches to me only. We are
one but have taken the appearances of male
and female genders only. One who
differentiates between me and Uma will drown
in the ocean of Tartarus.

~Padma Purana Sankara samhita chapter 3

Now that authenticity of Shankara samhita is not accurate I'm adding a source from Padma
purana patala khanda where lord Krishna says he's Lalitha Tripura Sundari 🙏❤️

ahaṃ ca lalitādevī rādhikāyā ca gīyate | ahaṃ ca vāsudevākhyo nityaṃ kāmakalātmakaḥ ||

satyaṃ yoṣitsvarūpo'haṃ yoṣiccāhaṃ sanātanī ahaṃ ca lalitādevī puṃrūpā kṛṣṇavigrahā ||

I am Goddess Lalita and that Rādhikā who is celebrated in songs. I am called Vasudeva, who
always is of the nature of the art of love. I am truly of a feminine form, and I am the ancient
woman, and I am goddess Lalită, and in a manly form I have Krsna's body
In Lalitha sahasranama, Govinda Rupini is one of her name

Also todala tantra equates avatara of lord Vishnu with Dasa mahavidhyas

Shri Śiva said: Tārā Devi is the blue form, Bagala is the tortoise incarnation, Dhumavati is the
boar, Chinnamasta is Nrisimha, Bhuvaneshvari is Vamana, Matangi is the Rama form, Tripura is

174
Jamadagni, Bhairavi is Balabhadra, Mahālakshmi is Buddha, and Durga is the Kalki form.
BhagavatÌ Kālī is the Krishna murti.

~Todala Tantra chapter 10.

Goddess Durga: the Female Form as the Supreme Being

O Mother!
Thee, who is present everywhere,
thee who is the embodiment of power and Energy!
I Bow to Thee! I Bow to Thee! I Bow to Thee!

Origins of Durga as a Deity

Traces of origin of Durga as a deity have been found in wild regions such as the Vindhya
Mountains and with old tribes such as the Sabaras and Pulindas. Probably these roots associate
her with the non-Aryan habits of drinking alcohol and non-vegeterianism. Durga is first
mentioned in the Mahabharata as a virgin delighting in wine, flesh, and animal sacrifice. Durga's
association with agriculture, especially in her major festival, the Durga Puja, may arise from her
early origins. She is thought to be the power inherent in the growth of crops and in all vegetation.
The origin of goddess Durga can be, very strangely, traced back to the Mesopotamian culture.
The depictions and form of goddess Ishtar, worshipped in Mesopotamia, hold a striking
resemblance to those of goddess Durga in Hindu religious texts. Mesopotamia of ancient times is
an area, which is mostly covered by present day Iraq. The goddess Ishtar was worshipped by the
Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and even Romans and Egyptians, since about 2000 B.C. and
probably even before that, since an epic called the descent of Ishtar was already traced to an old
tale of that time. Ishtar is described as an independent goddess who roamed the forests and
deserts at will and was a constant seeker of battle. She was depicted as riding a lion and had
multiple arms holding many weapons. She was thought to have had many lovers from all sorts of
backgrounds and probably this was seen as a probable cause of her immense popularity with the
common man of those days since he preferred her raw energy to pretensions and pomposity often
associated with most other gods. This feeling of her transcending class division was emphasized
by the wide-ranging profile of lovers from all social classes.

Possibly through trade routes and ancient cross-cultural contacts, goddess Ishtar found her way
into ancient Hinduism. However, the nature of promiscuity of Ishtar did not probably find favor
with the ancient Hindus and hence those characteristics of hers, which alluded to promiscuity,
were discarded and thus goddess Durga took form in ancient Hindu religion. Other forms of
Durga have been found in other regions, cultures and religions too - with evidence of similar
deities in Japanese-Buddhist art forms.

175
Mahishasuramardini Durga -
Durga - the goddess of power and strength, is perhaps the most important goddess of the Hindus.
She is a multi-dimensional Goddess, with many names, many personas, and many facets. As
Mahishasuramardini or Shakti, she is the destroyer of evil - with her ten mighty arms carrying
lethal weapons she triumphantly slays the demon Mahishasura. As Sati, beloved daughter of
King Daksha and Queen Menaka she gives up a kingdom and earns her father's wrath. As Kali,
she turns black as the night and omnipotent, terrible in rage and fury, with just a string of skulls
as her garland and her only garb. As Parvati, she is serene, the pretty consort of Lord Shiva by
his side in the snowy peaks of the Kailash mountain. She is Bhawani, symbol of life. She is Sati,
the object of death. She is Basanti, the heralder of springtime. She is also Amba,
Jagadhatri, Tara, Ambika, Annapurna.

Durga, through all her forms, encompasses the essence of salvation and sacrifice. She is the
mother of bounty and wealth, as also of beauty and knowledge, for her daughters
are Lakshmi and Saraswati (Hindu goddesses of wealth and knowledge, respectively).

Ardhanarishvara - Shiva and Shakti - She is the embodiement of purity, knowledge, truth and
self-realization. The highest form of truth present in any being or Jiva is known as "Aatman" or

176
supreme consciousness. This supreme consciousness or the absolute soul is infinite, birthless,
deathless, beyond time and space, and beyond the law of causation. Goddess Durga is the
inherent dynamic energy through which this supreme consciousness manifests itself.
Goddess Durga represents the power of the Supreme Being that preserves moral order and
righteousness in the universe. She is the energy aspect of the Lord. Without Durga, Lord Shiva
has no expression and without Shiva, Durga has no existence. Lord Shiva is only the silent
witness. He is motionless, absolutely changeless. He is not affected by the cosmic play. Shiva
has no direct connection with the tangible elements in the universe and is obliged to emanate a
manifestation, an emission of energy, shakti, through the goddess. It is Durga who is the doer of
all actions. Shiva and Durga are regarded as the twofold personalization of Brahman, the
primeval substance.
The Sanskrit word Durga means a fort, or a place that is protected and thus difficult to reach.
Durga, also called Divine Mother, protects mankind from evil and misery by destroying evil
forces such as selfishness, jealousy, prejudice, hatred, anger, and ego.
The projection of the stronger and fiercer side of womanhood is but obvious in the tales
surrounding goddess Durga. According to certain mythological tales, Durga is thought to be the
skin of Parvati, which slips off and fights the demon brothers - Shumbha and Nishumbha.
Sometimes Durga is supposed to have created helpers to fight for her, Kali being the most
famous. In other versions she is supposed to have created the Saptamatrikas, the Seven Mothers,
who were originally Yaksha gods.
The absence of any male influence as well as of any male assistance, in Durga's fierce battles
with male demons, is worth noting. The most interesting facet of the tales of her origin is not that
she is presented as Shakti - the divine power - but rather, that she assumes the powers of the male
gods to save the universe.
Hindu mythology tells an interesting tale of the fierce battle of Durga with Mahishasura, a
demon who earned the favour of Lord Shiva after long and hard penance. Lord Shiva, pleased
with the devotion of the demon, blessed him with a boon that no man or deity would be able to
kill him. Empowered with the boon, Mahishasura started his reign of terror over the Universe
and people were killed mercilessly. He even attacked the abode of the gods. The war between
gods and demons lasted a hundred years, in which Mahishasura was the leader of the Asuras or
demons and Indra was the chief of the gods. In this contest the army of the gods was defeated by
the more powerful demons. When Mahishasura conquered the gods, he became their leader.

Lord Shiva - Poster

177
The gods, utterly defeated, took refuge under Lord Brahma, who took them to Lord Shiva and
Lord Vishnu. Having heard of the misdeeds of the demons, pure energy blazed forth from
Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - the trinity forming the pure energy of Godhood. As the gods
witnessed this fiery crest of energy pervading all the directions and blazing forth like a mountain
peak aflame with the sun, this matchless energy that sprang from the bodies of all the gods, its
light illuminating the three worlds, became concentrated in one spot and took form of the
Goddess. Her face was from the light of Shiva. Her ten arms were from Lord Vishnu. Her feet
were from Lord Brahma. The tresses were formed from the light of Yama (god of death) and the
two breasts were formed from the light of Somanath (Moon God), the waist from the light of
Indra (the king of gods), the legs and thighs from the light of Varun (god of oceans), and hips
from the light of Bhoodev (Earth), the toes from the light of Surya (Sun God), fingers of the hand
from the light of the Vasus (the children of Goddess river Ganga) and nose from the light
of Kuber (the keeper of wealth for the Gods). The teeth were formed from the light of Prajapati
(the lord of creatures), the Triad of her eyes was born from the light of Agni (Fire God), the
eyebrows from the two Sandhyas (sunrise and sunset), the ears from the light of Vayu (god of
Wind). Thus from the energy of these gods, as well as from many other gods, was formed the
goddess Durga.

Goddess Durga - Terracotta Wall Hanging

The gods then gifted the goddess with their weapons and other divine objects to help her in her
battle with the demon, Mahishasura. Lord Shiva gave her a trident while Lord Vishnu gave her a
disc. Varuna, gave her a conch and noose, and Agni gave her a spear. From Vayu, she received
arrows. Indra, gave her a thunderbolt, and the gift of his white-skinned elephant Airavata was a
bell. From Yama, she received a sword and shield and from Vishwakarma (god of Architecture),
an axe and armor. The god of mountains, Himavat gifted her with jewels and a lion to ride on.
Durga was also given many other precious and magical gifts, new clothing, and a garland of
immortal lotuses for her head and breasts.
The beautiful Durga, bedecked in jewels and golden armor and equipped with the fearsome
weaponry of the gods, was ready to engage in battle with the fierce and cruel Mahishasura. Her
lion's thunderous roars shook the three worlds. Oceans boiled and surf poured overland.
Continents were torn at their granite foundations as whole new chains of mountains rose, while
older ranges crumbled, cracked, and gave way to dust in a thousand landslides. Mahishasura and
his demon allies found their attention drawn from heaven to Earth, as Durga's power moved its

178
way towards heaven. Though confident of their power and control in heaven, the demons could
not help being awestruck.
As Mahishasura's armies were struck down effortlessly by Durga, it became obvious to him that
he was not as secure in heaven as he had thought. No demon could fight her and win. Her breath
would replenish her armies - bringing back to life all of her soldiers who fell. From Airavata's
gift, the bell, came a confusing clamor. The demons were in chaos and were easily defeated and
captured. The ground was left littered with the broken limbs and body parts of the defeated
demon army.
Mahishasura was shocked and enraged by the disastrous events on the battlefield. He took on the
form of a demonic buffalo, and charged at the divine soldiers of Durga, goring and killing many
and lashing out with his whip-like tail. Durga's lion pounced on the demon-buffalo and engaged
him in a battle. While he was thus engaged, Durga threw her noose around his neck.

Durga Slaying Mahishasura - Brass Statue

Mahishasura then assumed the form of a lion and when Durga beheaded the lion, Mahishasura
escaped in the form of a man who was immediately face to face with a volley of arrows from
Durga. The demon escaped yet again and then having assumed the form of a huge elephant,
battered Durga's lion with a tusk. With her sword Durga hacked the tusk into pieces.
The demon reverted once more to the form of the wild buffalo. He hid himself in the mountains
from where he hurled boulders at Durga with his horns. Durga drank the divine nectar, the gift of
Kuber. She then pounced on Mahishasura, pushing him to the ground with her left leg. She
grasped his head in one hand, pierced him with her sharp trident held in another, and with yet
another of her ten hands she wielded her bright sword, beheading him. At last he fell dead, and
the scattered surviving remnants of his once invincible army fled in terror.

The Gods bowed to the goddess and showered their praises on the goddess following her victory:
"Mother, you have created this universe. You are the strength of all. Devatas (Gods), Rishis
(sages), Yakshas (demi-gods), Kinnaras (heavenly musicians with human bodies and heads of
horses) all bow to you. Even Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwar (Lord Shiva) do not know you
fully. For the Dharmik (righteous) you are Lakshmi (Goddess of wealth), for the adharmiks (evil)
you are Alakshmi (she who brings misfortune). You are buddhi (knowledge), you are lajja
(modesty), you are shraddha (respect). You were there always and will be there forever. You are

179
the adhar (source) for all, You are Prakriti (nature). You save the earth by killing the numerous
asuras (demons)."
The tale of Durga continues beyond Mahishasura, through the tale of goddess Kaushiki, another
form of goddess Durga. After Mahishasura, two more demon brothers, Shumbha and Nishumbha
forcibly drove the gods out of heaven. The gods then started praying to Mahamaya - the mother
Goddess - to help them. At that moment, Goddess Parvati - wife of Lord Shiva - was going to
take a bath in the river. After Parvati heard their tale of woe, a beautiful woman emerged from
Parvati's body. She was named Kaushiki. Upon the emergence of Kaushiki, Parvati's body turned
black and she then became known as Kalika.
Kaushiki was spotted by Chanda and Munda, the two trusted assistants of Shumbha and
Nishumbha. They reported to their masters, that they had spotted a beautiful woman. Shumbha
then sent a messenger to Kaushiki. The messenger, Sugriva, went to Kaushiki and informed her
of the desire of their masters, Shumbha and Nishumbha, who were also the rulers of the heavens,
that Kaushiki marry either of the two demon brothers. Kaushiki, feigning innocence replied that
she was very foolish and that she had pledged that she would marry only that person who would
defeat her in warfare. She asked Sugriva to convey to his masters that whoever could defeat her
in battle could win her. On hearing this, Shumbha sent Dhumralochana to capture the goddess.
Initially the asura (demon) tried to persuade the Devi to accompany him, but when she refused,
he rushed to capture her. The goddess uttered a mantra and the asura was reduced to ashes. On
hearing this, Shumbha sent Chanda and Munda to capture the Devi. On seeing Chanda and
Munda coming, Kaushiki wriggled her eyebrows. From the eyebrows emerged a ferocious
looking goddess with a sword and a noose in her hands. She wore a tiger skin around her body.
Her big eyes were red and from her tongue saliva dribbled. She was goddess Kali. Kali jumped
among the asuras (demons) and started killing them. She killed Chanda and Munda and dragged
their bodies to Kaushiki. This gave Kali the name of Chamunda.
The asuras, after the death of Chanda and Munda, attacked the goddesses Kaushiki and Kali
from all sides. At that moment, from the bodies of the various gods, women forces began
emerging. These goddesses started fighting along with Kaushiki. Kali then approached Shiva and
requested Lord Shiva to ask Shumbha and Nishumbha to surrender. This act of Kali requesting
Lord Shiva to be her messenger earned her the name Shivaduti - (she whose messenger is Shiva).
Hearing Shiva's message, the asuras became even more ferocious. Among the asuras there was
one named Raktabija. If a drop of his blood, dropped on the ground, another asura would spring
forth from that drop of blood. Unknowingly, the goddesses attacked Raktabeeja and from his
flowing blood numerous Raktabeejas emerged. Following this, Kali swallowed up Raktabeeja
and the asuras which emerged from his blood.
Upon Raktabeeja's death, Nishumbha was killed by Kaushiki after he attacked her. After
Shumbha too was defeated, he asked if so many goddesses fighting against a solitary demon was
fair. In response, all the goddesses merged into Kaushiki and thereafter she killed the evil
Nishumbha.

180
Vishnu in Anantashayan - Poster
Durga is also equated with Mahamaya - the supreme creator of illusions and attachment - the one
whose spell even the gods cannot elude. There is an interesting tale related to Mahamaya. Before
the creation of the universe, water pervaded all space. In that water, Lord Vishnu rested in Yoga
Nidra (deep slumber), which was a result of a divine spell cast by Mahamaya on Lord Vishnu.
From the navel of Lord Vishnu appeared Lord Brahma, the creator, seated on a lotus. From the
wax in Lord Vishnu's ear were formed two demons, Madhu and Kaitabha. Madhu and Kaitabha
were supposed to be companions of Brahma but being demons they indulged in naughty acts,
which disturbed Lord Vishnu's slumber and he ordered them to limit their fun and frolic in the
depths of the ocean so that his cosmic slumber wouldn't be disturbed. Though the demons went
away they pledged vengeance on Lord Vishnu. They propitiated the Mahamaya and appeased her
into giving them a boon of choice of their own death, which she granted them. The demons then
decided to come back to where Brahma and Vishnu resided and started scaring Brahma. Seeing
this Lord Vishnu decided to kill the two demons but he could do little since they were protected
by Mahamaya's boon. Brahma and Vishnu then propitiated Mahamaya. Mahamaya used her
powers of illusion and cast spells on the two demons, which made them grant a boon to Lord
Vishnu. They granted Lord Vishnu the boon of being able to kill them, on the condition that he
did so only where there be no earth or water, no air or ether, neither mind nor intelligence and
not even false ego. Taking this opportunity, Lord Vishnu squashed the two demons on his thigh,
which was neither of earth, water, air, ether, fire, mind, intelligence or false ego, since Lord
Vishnu's was a transcendental body. Thus the Mahamaya using her skills at illusions brought the
evil demons to their own end.
Durga is also equated with two other popular Indian goddesses - Sati and Parvati - both consorts
of Lord Shiva, though at different points in time. Though all three are worshipped separately,
they are seen to be the form of the same goddess Durga.

181
Shiva with Sati's Corpse on His Shoulders - Poster
Sati was the first-born daughter of king Daksha, one of the progenitors of mankind. Sati, right
from her childhood, started worshipping Lord Shiva as her would-be husband. Shiva, being
pleased with the worship of Sati, came to marry her. Daksha did not like this tiger-skin clad
groom with ash and dirt over all of his body. Sati however got married to Shiva against her
father's wishes. King Daksha, later on, arranged for a yagna (Hindu form of penance where
offerings are made to a holy pyre which represents the fire god) where everyone except Shiva
was invited. Sati, despite Shiva's objections went to attend the yagna and was subsequently
subjected to insulting remarks made by her father. Not being able to bear this insult, Sati
immolated herself in sacrificial fire. Hearing this news Shiva flew in a rage and reached there
with his blazing trident and along with his followers of demi-gods, destroyed the sacrificial altar
and beheaded king Daksha. Then, lifting up Sati's body, he started his violent dance, Tandava -
the dance of destruction. As the entire creation looked on with fear as the earth shook and winds
roared and the oceans heaved, Lord Vishnu used his Sudarshan Chakra (divine disc) to cut off
Sati's body into pieces while Shiva held on to it and kept dancing. As the last of her pieces fell
from Shiva's shoulder, he was finally pacified. Shiva then restored life to Daksha using a goat's
head as a replacement for Daksha's own. The spots where the pieces of Sati's body fell are now
known as Shaktipeeths and are spread over 51 places in the Indian subcontinent.

Marriage of Shiva and Parvati - Poster

182
In her next life, Sati appeared as Parvati, the daughter of Himalaya. After the loss of Sati, Lord
Shiva had lost interest in worldly matters and marriage did not interest him anymore. Parvati,
however, being Sati reincarnate, wanted to marry Lord Shiva, and identical to Sati, Parvati too
practiced severe austerities for a thousand years to appease Lord Shiva, who eventually agreed to
marry Parvati. The wedding of Shiva and Parvati is described in a very colorful manner in
ancient Hindu Puranic literature, describing the merry-making procession of the followers of
Lord Shiva - mendicants, wanderers and the lot - following him to Parvati's home for his
wedding.

There is an interesting tale about how Parvati came to be called Durga. On one occasion the sage
Agastya asked Lord Kartikeya why Parvati, his mother, was called Durga. Kartikeya replied that
once there was a demon, named Durga, the son of Ruru. He with his austerities pleased Lord
Brahma and with his blessings, became very powerful. He conquered the three worlds and even
dethroned Indra, the king of Gods. He abolished all religious ceremonies. Brahmins were
terrified and stopped reading Vedas. All the gods assembled and prayed to Lord Shiva to protect
them from the tyranny of this demon. Shiva took pity on them and asked goddess Parvati to go
and destroy the evil demon. She calmed the Gods and agreed to slay the evil Durga. There was
long and fierce battle. As soon as the demon came near with his evil followers, Parvati assumed
thousand arms and also brought out a number of weapons out of her body. Just as in the legend
of Durga and Mahishasura, here too, Goddess Parvati, with her trident, killed the evil Durga,
who had assumed the form of a buffalo. The Gods, pleased with the goddess, honored her by
naming her Goddess Durga.

Goddess Durga -
Widespread worship of goddess Durga is found in texts of the 4th and 7th centuries A.D., with
the resurgence of goddess worship during those times. She is the only female deity after whom
an entire Upanisad is named. At the close of the Vedic era there were apparently several
goddesses acknowledged as wives of Shiva while other goddesses were worshiped by different
castes throughout India. These diverse deities eventually coalesced into the one great goddess,
Mahadevi, whose ultimate origin may have been the Mother Goddess of the Indus valley
civilization. In the ancient Indus Valley civilization it is obvious that the worship of female
deities had a very prominent place in society. The many seals and figurines found provide
evidence for the apparently highly important place of female deities in the religion of the time.
There is evidence of a Mother or Earth goddess cult being in existence in the period.

183
Goddess Durga – to the right DEVI DURGA

The post-Vedic period saw the rise of several goddesses hardly mentioned in the epic period
(Mahabharata and Ramayana and Vedas) rising to a dominant position in worship. Durga and
Kali were such goddesses and each gathered a following of devotees who held them as the
supreme divinity. Durga and Kali were essentially independent but they were still often linked to
powerful gods but in a drastically different role than the subservient, model partners played by
the goddesses of the epics.
Durga came to be seen as the supreme deity by her devotees and in many aspects was supposed
to have a similar role to the highest held male deities. She took on the role of leader of the gods
in their struggle against the demons and also, as does Vishnu, comes down to earth to defeat evil.
Durga was thought to be particularly pleased with blood offerings. Though associated to Lord
Shiva, Durga is still essentially seen as independent.

Devi Durga –

In the early Medieval period appeared the Great Goddess or Mahadevi. She was to her devotees
indisputably the highest manifestation of the divine. The emergence of Mahadevi is evidence of
the acceptance by a large section of the population of the highest manifestation of the divine
being feminine. Portrayals of Mahadevi can be found in the Devi Mahatmya, Saundaryalahari
and the Devi-bhagavata Purana. The Devi Mahatmya is perhaps the most significant, illustrating
the emergence and establishment of Devi as the ultimate reality of the universe within the
Sanskritized Hindu tradition. As has been mentioned earlier, goddess Durga is essentially
equated with the Mahadevi.
Around the fourth century A.D., images of Durga killing a buffalo become common throughout
India. After the sixth century and into the medieval period, Durga was well-known and popularly
worshipped. In the classical texts, the Puranas, dating from the third to the fifteenth centuries, her
mythological exploits are recounted. An entire Purana, the Devibhagavatam, is dedicated to
Durga. The most important text is the section of the Markandeya Purana called the Devi
184
Mahatmya, of possibly the seventh century, which is also known as the Durgasaptasati or Chandi
Mahatmya. This text is so venerated that every verse is considered a mantra (sacred utterance) of
the Goddess.

Various Forms of Goddess Durga

Goddess Durga is propitiated as various forms, as have been mentioned in various holy Hindu
texts. Some of these sets of forms overlap partially. All of these forms however mark an
independent Goddess who is intricately involved in the protection of nature and cosmic order and
in destruction of evil forces who try to overturn this balance.
The Markandeya Purana places the ten forms of Durga in the following order:
Durga: The Goddess who first received and showed her beautiful face to entice the demons.
Dashabhooja: In this fierce ten-armed form of hers, she destroyed a part of the army of demons.
Singha-Vahini: In this form atop a lion, she fought with Raktabeeja, the general of Shumbha
and Nishumbha whose drops of blood created thousands of demons.
Mahisha-Mardini: In this form she slew Shumbha, the demon, who had taken the form of a
buffalo.

Ten Mahavidyas -
Jagadhatri: In this form she overcame the army of demons.
Kali: In this form she destroyed Raktabeeja by drinking his drops of blood and not allowing
them to fall on the ground thus disallowing the further creation of demons from his blood.
Muktakeshi: In this form with flowing hair she overcame another army of demons.
Tara: In this form she killed Sambhu.
Chinnamastika: In this form she killed Nishumbha.
Jagadguree: In this form she was worshipped by all the gods on their salvation from the
demons.
Goddess Durga is also intricately associated with three distinct aspects of the cosmos as seen in
the Hindu thought process. Durga is said to be associated with Shakti, Maya and Prakriti.

185
Shakti
Shakti, the Basis, is the underlying power of the divine, the aspects of the divine that permits and
provokes creative activity, a creative force, personified as goddess.
Goddess as Shakti: the male gods contribute their strength and vigor to the goddess, who
epitomizes power, action and strength in the battle with demons. Durga is action and power
personified and as such is a fitting representation of the idea of Shakti.
Maya
Maya, the Delusion, is the power that deludes an individual into thinking oneself to be the center
of the world, the power that prevents an individual from experiencing the ultimate truth. It
impels individuals into self-centered, egotistical actions and thus hides the underlying unity of
reality and masks one's essential identity with Brahman. Maya can be as either a positive or a
negative energy.
Goddess as Maya : In the battle with Madhu and Kaitabha, she deludes the demons so that
Vishnu can slay them. In the battle with Mahishasura, she enters into the battle more of leela
(divine play), fighting with the demons because it pleases her, not out of sense of compulsion.
Prakriti
Prakriti is the physical world as well as the inherent rhythms within this world that impel nature
to gratify and provide itself in its manifold species. She is both primordial matter, from which all
material things come, and the living instincts and patterns, that imbue the material world with its
proclivities to sustain and recreate itself in individual beings.
Goddess as Prakriti: In Devi Mahatmaya - a Hindu text on goddess Durga - it is stated that Durga
is the world, and as the earth itself, she conveys cosmic stability. She is Sakambhari (she who
provides the world with food from her own body). She is the foundation of all creatures and that,
which nourishes all creatures. In her role as the cosmic queen, warrior goddess and demon
slayer, Durga in effect protects herself in her aspect as the earth itself.
Hindu religious texts also talk about the existence of the Ten Great Feminine Cosmic Powers
(Dasha Mahavidyas) which basically can be thought to be the ten fundamental aspects of the
Supreme Cosmic Mother's personality. Nevertheless, each Goddess has a specific cosmic
function in the universal harmony. The traditional sequence of the ten Goddesses is:

Navadurga
-
1. Kali : The Power of Time and The Night of Eternity
2. Tara : The Power of Void and The Night of Anger
3. Tripura Sundari : The Power of Absolute Splendor
4. Bhuvaneshwari : The Power of Space and The Night of Perfect Realization

186
 5. Tripura Bhairavi : The Power of Death and The Night of Destiny
6. Chhinnamasta : The Power of Sacrifice and The Night of Courage
7. Dhumavati : The Power of Deprivation and The Night of Frustration
8. Bagalamukhi : The Power of Instantaneous Stopping
9. Matangi : The Power of Domination and The Night of Illusion and 1 extra
10. Kamalatmika : The Power of Perfect Happiness and The Night of Paradise

Another such classification of the mother Goddess based on the various functions in protecting
the cosmos and keeping the divine cosmic cycle running is the basis of the Nava Durga or the
Nine Durgas. These nine goddesses, who actually are forms of Goddess Durga are propitiated on
each day of a popular Hindu festival called the Navaratri.
Shailputri: As daughter (putri) of the Himalaya mountains (Shail), Parvati or Hemvati
represents the first of the nine Durgas. She is depicted as holding a trident and a lotus in each of
her two hands and is shown mounted on a bull.
Brahmacharini: The name indicates the phase of Parvati's life when she was indulging in severe
austerities to appease Lord Shiva into marrying her. She had pledged that she would remain
unmarried (Brahmacharini) till Lord Shiva gives his consent to marrying Parvati. She is shown
as holding a water pot (Kumbha) in one hand and a rosary in the other. She is considered as a
holder of knowledge and wisdom. Rudrakhsa (rosary beads) form her favorite ornamentation.
Chandraghanta: As Chadraghanta, the goddess is depicted as having golden skin and with a
moon-crescent near her forehead. She is shown as having three eyes and ten hands, eight of
which carry weapons and two of which form gestures of giving boons and stopping harms. She is
shown as sitting on a tiger. She is usually associated with the giver of knowledge, bliss and
serenity.
Kushmanda: The fourth Durga is known as Kushmanda. She is depicted as emanating a cosmic
aura and is depicted as having eight hands, seven of which carry weapons while the eighth
carries a rosary.
Skanda Mata: Skanda Mata literally means the mother of Skanda. Skanda was the son of Lord
Shiva and Parvati and was the leader of the army of gods.The goddess is shown as having four
hands, two of which carry lotuses while two are in defending and granting gestures. She is shown
sitting on a lion with her son Skanda in her lap.
Katyayani: Katyaynai is so named because of her stay at the hermitage of sage Katyayan for the
purpose of penance. She is sometimes also said to be the daughter of sage Katyayan. She also is
shown astride a lion and has three eyes and four arms. In one hand she holds a lotus and in
another a weapon. The third and fourth hands show defending and granting gestures.
Kaalratri: The seventh Durga, Kaalratri, is depicted as having black skin with bountiful hair,
four arms and astride a donkey. In one hand she holds a cleaver and in another a burning torch.
With the other two hands she forms gestures of granting and defending. She represents the
enemy of darkness and ignorance.
Maha Gauri: Maha Gauri is depicted as the fairest of the nine Durgas and is often dressed in
white or green. She emanates peace and compassion and is shown with three eyes and as riding a
bull. She also has four arms, one of which carries a tambourine and another a trident. The other
two form defending and granting gestures. It is said that when Parvati, consort of Lord Shiva,
became dirty while observing penance, Lord Shiva bathed her with the holy waters of river
Ganga. Parvati's body turned lightning bright and thus she came to be known as Maha Gauri
(Gauri means fair).

187
Siddhidatri: Siddhidatri means the giver of siddhis (magical or spiritual powers for the control
of self, others and the forces of nature). It is said in Devipuran that the Supreme God, Lord Shiva
received all of these powers by propitiating the Maha Shakti. The Goddess is sometimes shown
atop a lion and sometimes atop a lotus. She is shown as having four arms, which hold a club, a
conch shell and a lotus. The fourth hand forms a gesture of granting. Siddhidatri is considered to
be the most powerful of all the nine forms of Durga.

Durga is said to be extraordinarily beautiful; she does not use her beauty for seduction, but rather
entrapment. She entices her victims and then defeats them. She rides a lion, and it appears
whenever her strengths are needed. Her role is not that of creator, but rather that of a maintainer:
she maintains cosmic order by defeating demons that plague the universe.
Durga is not only a powerful force for cosmic order but also a protector of her devotees. She
listens to her devotees and attends to their needs. The Devi Mahatmya describes her as a personal
savior who will save her devotees from forest fires, wild animals, robbers, imprisonment,
execution, and battle.

Goddess Durga keeps up the play of the divine universal God through the three attributes of
Nature, namely, Satva (equilibrium and serenity), Rajas (dynamism and kinesis) and Tamas
(ignorance and inertia). Knowledge, peace, lust, anger, greed, egoism and pride, all are Her
forms. Maha Saraswati is Her Sattviki Shakti or power of equilibrium. Maha Lakshmi is Her
Rajasik Shakti or power of activity. And Maha Kali is Her Tamsik Shakti the power of
destruction. All these are feminine forms.

Saraswati - / Goddess Lakshmi - Power of Activity – Mahakali - Power of Destruction –

Shiva's power is Shakti, the dynamic creative mother aspect of the Godhead. It is she who creates
and at the time of dissolution, it is she who swallows her own creation. Shakti cannot exist
without Shiva and Shiva cannot personify without Shakti.
Therefore Hinduism proclaims the highest personification of God, the supreme energy, to be
feminine. Hinduism is the only religion in the world, which conceptualizes the supreme form of
Divinity to be a woman. This demonstrates the elevated status of women in Hinduism as a
religion.

188
Festivals associated with Goddess Durga
An important festival of the Hindus associated with goddess Durga is that of Durga Puja, which
has been celebrated for ages by Hindus. In the Hindu epics Mahabharata and Ramayana there are
various references to goddess Durga. When the Pandavas entered the capital of Virata for their
period of one year in disguise they propitiated Durga who appeared before them and granted
them boons. Again, at the commencement of the great war of Kurukshetra, Lord Krishna advised
Arjuna to worship Goddess Durga to ensure victory in battle.

Ram Darbar –

The festival of Durga Puja is popularly attributed to a tale from the Hindu epic, Ramayana. Lord
Rama went to Lanka, the kingdom of Ravana - the demon king, to rescue his abducted wife, Sita.
Before starting for his battle with Ravana, Rama wanted the blessings of goddess Durga. He
came to know that the goddess would be pleased only if she is worshipped with one hundred
eight 'Neel Kamal' or blue lotuses. Rama, after travelling the whole world, could gather only one
hundred seven of them. He finally decided to offer one of his eyes, which resembled a blue lotus.
Durga, being pleased with the devotion of Rama, appeared before him and blessed him. The
battle with Ravana started on the 'Saptami' (the seventh day after the new moon night just prior
to the Autumn festival of Durga Puja) and Ravana was finally killed on the 'Sandhikshan' i.e. the
crossover period between Ashtami (the eighth day after new moon) and Navami (the ninth day
after new moon). Ravana was cremated on Dashami (the tenth day after new moon). Since the
period of this worship was different from the conventional period of worship of Durga (during
the spring - 'Basanta'), this puja is also known as 'Akal-Bodhan' or worship (Bodhan) at an
unconventional time.

Durga Puja is a Hindu festival observed in Ashwin Navaratri (month of October) and is
celebrated all over India with great joy especially in West Bengal. The festival is also popular by
other names like Dusshera and Navaratri. The ten days of festivity are dedicated to the supreme
mother goddess Durga.

Worship of goddess Durga signifies the process by which the divine potential within every being
removes its layers of ignorance and achieves the state of self-realization. Hindus celebrate this
occasion at an auspicious time every year to constantly remind themselves of the significance of

189
this very process. They contemplate the progress made on their spiritual journey and celebrate
with great joy the victory of the supreme consciousness over the demons of ignorance. The
festival is also a reminder that evil can never triumph over the power of truth.Durga Puja is the
greatest Hindu festival in which God is adored as Mother. Hinduism is the only religion in the
world, which has emphasized to such an extent the motherhood of God. Perhaps the greatest
testament to the power of Durga Puja is that even today the Mother is worshipped by billions of
Hindus world wide in exactly the same manner as she was thousands of years ago.

Face of Goddess Durga

Images of Durga usually have an extra divine eye in the middle of the forehead. There can be
four, eight, ten, eighteen, or twenty arms. The most common objects held in the hands are a
conch, discus, trident, bow, arrow, sword, dagger, shield, rosary, wine cup, and bell. Her hair is
in Karandamukuta, a crown style of hairdo. She wears gorgeous red clothes and several
ornaments, and stands on a lotus or the head of a buffalo or rides a lion. There are endless
aspects of Durga described in the Puranas and Agamas (ancient Hindu texts) and the
iconography is consequently varied.

Durga with Her Children Slaying Mahishasura

The most important form of Durga is as Mahishasuramardini or the slayer of Mahishasura (the
demon king). The image is of the Goddess cutting off the head of the buffalo-demon. This image
usually most commonly is shown with eight or ten arms, and the hands hold weapons and a
lotus. Mahishasura, the demon, may be shown half emerging in his human form from the carcass
of his former buffalo form.

190
At the Durga Puja, the most important festival of Durga, she is shown with four other deities -
usually smaller in size than that of goddess Durga. Two deities are placed on each side of the
main idol of goddess Durga. These deities are Kartikeya, Ganesha, Saraswati, and Lakshmi, who
are commonly identified as her children. The festival of Durga Puja usually involves beautiful
and larger than life clay idols of Durga and her accompanying deities.

In eastern India Durga Puja is celebrated with enormous vigor. Enormous tents spring up in
practically every locality and an amazing array of idols of Durga, crafted from the special clay of
river Ganga, are installed. These idols are crafted by skilful idol makers using a wide array of
alternative materials, the range limited only by imaginative creativity. The most common of
these of course is clay. However, other innovative media like shola pith, coconut husk, cloth, and
flowers, amongst others are popularly used. Legend has it that the idol of the goddess is
incomplete without a pinch of clay from a prostitute's courtyard. This probably was society's
attempt to include and accord status to its most alienated beings.

The four days (beginning with the sixth day after the last new moon before the festival) of the
festival is actually representative of the home-coming of goddess Durga along with Kartik,
Ganesha, Saraswati and Lakshmi. These four days are marked by celebration and merry-making.
The deities are presented with offerings throughout the festivities. On Vijayadasami, the
"Victorious Tenth Day," the idols are taken in a parade to a river or tank and immersed as a
representation of bidding a tearful goodbye to the deities. This is usually a very emotional time
for devout Hindus who accompany the idols to the immersion spot.

Rama and Lakshmana at War with Ten Headed Ravana - Kalamkari Painting
The same day sees millions of Hindus also celebrate the festival of Dusshera which marks the
end of evil, as depicted by the burning of huge effigies of Ravana, Kumbhakarna and Meghnad -
the three demon brothers, Ravana being the king of demons. All three were defeated by Lord
Rama on this day.

Other forms of festivities during the period preceding Dussehra or Vijayadashami also exist, the
most popular being that of the Navaratri festival, which involves the propitiation of Goddess
Durga in nine different forms called the Nava-Durga (explained in an earlier section), over the
nine days preceding Dussehra and starting on the first day after the last new moon preceding

191
Dusshera. During Navaratri, one of each of these nine forms of goddess Durga is worshipped on
a particular night for the destruction of evil and for the preservation of Dharma (religion).

Conclusion
The Devi Mahatmya indicated that Durga, in the form of Mahamaya or Mahashakti, pervades the
universe in both its forms as material and thought. She creates, maintains, and periodically
destroys it. When the balance of the universe is disturbed, Durga assumes various forms to
restore order and balance. She is thus also, the guardian of dharma or cosmic order. This nature
of hers makes her akin to a female form of Lord Vishnu since the concept of a deity assuming a
separate form for maintaining the cosmic order is central to Vaishnavism - the Hindu sect which
follows Lord Vishnu as the sole universal power.

The Devi Mahatmya talks about three such cosmic interventions by Durga on behalf of the gods:
the battle with Madhu and Kaitabha, the battle with Mahishasura - the buffalo-demon, and the
battle with Shumbha and Nisumbha.

The Devimahatmya states that Durga is the universe. "As immanent in the world Durga is
equated with the earth. As transcendent, she is the heavenly queen who descends from time to
time to maintain harmony on earth." (Kinsley 1986, 105)

Devi Durga - Marble Dust Statue

The Divine Mother is beyond all material attributes, eternal and ever omniscient. She is beyond
any change, immutable and unattainable but by yoga. She is the refuge of the universe and her
nature is of pure consciousness.

Durga, the Mother Goddess is the symbol of all the auspicious and true qualities which define
the Supreme Being. Of all her forms, Devi Durga is the ultimate representation of infinite power,
purity and strength of purpose, which resides within the divine essence of every being.

Om. She Who Conquers Over All,

All-Auspicious, the remover of Darkness,
the Excellent One Beyond Time,
the bearer of the Skulls of Impure thought,
the reliever of difficulties, loving, forgiving,

192
supporter of the Universe,
accept the oblations of the devotee who is one with you,
accept the oblations of ancestral praise,
We bow to you.

COMPARISON BETWEEN PRAMBANAN & ANGKOR

Dr Uday Dokras PhD Stockholm, SWEDEN

Prambanan was rediscovered in 1733 by C.A. Lons, a Dutch explorer.

The first efforts to reveal the full extent of the temple complex were done in
1885 and 1918, though looting became common with Dutch residents
adorning their gardens with priceless statues and local people taking
foundation stones to use as construction material. Archaeological
restorations were conducted in 1937, 1978 and 1982, and continue to this
day. Given the size of the temple complex, the Indonesian government
decided to rebuild shrines only if at least 75% of their original masonry was
available. Most of the smaller shrines are now visible only in their
foundations, with no plans for their reconstruction. In 1991, the entire site
was designated as a Unesco World Heritage Site.

Ruins of Prambanan Temple with volcanic Mt. Merapi in the distance, 1852

Prambanan Temple Compounds

193
Built in the 10th century, this is the largest temple compound dedicated to
Shiva in Indonesia. Rising above the centre of the last of these concentric
squares are three temples decorated with reliefs illustrating the epic of
the Ramayana, dedicated to the three great Hindu divinities (Shiva, Vishnu
and Brahma) and three temples dedicated to the animals who serve them.

Brief synthesis According to UNESCO

Prambanan Temple Compounds consist Angkor, in Cambodia’s northern

of Prambanan Temple (also called Loro province of Siem Reap, is one of the most
Jonggrang), Sewu Temple, Bubrah Temple important archaeological sites of Southeast
and Lumbung Temple. Prambanan Temple Asia. It extends over approximately 400
itself is a complex consisting of 240 square kilometres and consists of scores of
temples. All the mentioned temples form temples, hydraulic structures (basins,
the Prambanan Archaeological Park and dykes, reservoirs, canals) as well as

194
were built during the heyday of Sailendra’s communication routes. For several
powerful dynasty in Java in the 8th century centuries Angkor, was the centre of the
AD. These compounds are located on the Khmer Kingdom. With impressive
border between the two provinces of monuments, several different ancient urban
Yogyakarta and Central Java on Java Island. plans and large water reservoirs, the site is
a unique concentration of features
While Loro Jonggrang, dating from the 9th testifying to an exceptional civilization.
century, is a brilliant example of Hindu Temples such as Angkor Wat, the Bayon,
religious bas-reliefs, Sewu, with its four Preah Khan and Ta Prohm, exemplars of
pairs of Dwarapala giant statues, is Khmer architecture, are closely linked to
Indonesia’s largest Buddhist complex their geographical context as well as being
including the temples of Lumbung, Bubrah imbued with symbolic significance. The
and Asu (Gana temple). The Hindu temples architecture and layout of the successive
are decorated with reliefs illustrating the capitals bear witness to a high level of
Indonesian version of the Ramayana epic social order and ranking within the Khmer
which are masterpieces of stone carvings. Empire. Angkor is therefore a major site
These are surrounded by hundreds of exemplifying cultural, religious and
shrines that have been arranged in three symbolic values, as well as containing high
parts showing high levels of stone building architectural, archaeological and artistic
technology and architecture from the 8th significance.
century AD in Java. With over 500 temples, The park is inhabited, and many villages,
Prambanan Temple Compounds represents some of whom the ancestors are dating
not only an architectural and cultural back to the Angkor period are scattered
treasure, but also a standing proof of past throughout the park. The population
religious peaceful cohabitation. practices agriculture and more specifically
rice cultivation.
Criterion (i): Prambanan Temple Criterion (i): The Angkor complex
Compounds presents the grandiose culture represents the entire range of Khmer art
of Siva art as a masterpiece of the classical from the 9th to the 14th centuries, and
period in Indonesia, and the region. includes a number of indisputable artistic
Criterion (iv): The property is an masterpieces (e.g. Angkor Wat, the Bayon,
outstanding religious complex, Banteay Srei).
characteristic of Siva expression of the 10th Criterion (ii): The influence of Khmer art
century. as developed at Angkor was a profound one
Integrity over much of South-east Asia and played a
Prambanan Temple Compounds comprises fundamental role in its distinctive evolution.
of two groups of buildings which includes Criterion (iii): The Khmer Empire of the
Loro Jonggrang, Sewu complexes, 9th-14th centuries encompassed much of
Lumbung, Bubrah and Asu (Gana). The 508 South-east Asia and played a formative role
stone temples of various shapes and sizes in the political and cultural development of
are either in a complete and preserved the region. All that remains of that
condition or have been retained as ruins. civilization is its rich heritage of cult
This site includes all elements necessary to structures in brick and stone.
express its exceptional significance and is Criterion (iv): Khmer architecture evolved
well maintained. There are no threats of largely from that of the Indian sub-
development or neglect; however the area continent, from which it soon became
is prone to natural threats such as clearly distinct as it developed its own
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. special characteristics, some independently
evolved and others acquired from
neighboring cultural traditions. The result
was a new artistic horizon in oriental art
and architecture.

195
It is characterised by its tall and pointed architecture, typical of Hindu temple
architecture, and by the 47m high central building inside a large complex of
individual temples. The temple complex dates from the 10th century, and is
dedicated to Shiva.Next to the main complex (called Loro Joggrang), the
Buddhist Candi Sewu and the temples of Lumbumg, Burah and Asu also are
part of this WHS.

The temple complex consists of three zones, each of which is

surrounded by a wall: an inner and most holy zone containing eight main
temples and eight smaller shrines, each of which have been reconstructed; a
middle zone containing 224 small pervara temples of which only two have
been reconstructed; and an outer zone without temples, where the very
large number of temple authorities and priests would have lived. The most
prominent temple, dedicated to Shiva, rises to 154 feet (47 meters) and has
four chambers in the cardinal directions. The eastern chamber contains a
ten-

foot statue of Shiva, the north chamber has a statue of Shiva's

consort Durga Mahisasuramardini depicting Durga as the slayer of the Bull
demon, the west chamber houses a statue of Shiva's son Ganesh, and the
south is occupied by Shiva's teacher, the sage Agastya. The temple is

196
adorned with panels of bas-relief sculptures telling the story of the Hindu
epic the Ramayana and the Bhagavata Purana.

The temple was first built around 850 CE by Rakai Pikatan and expanded
extensively by King Lokapala of the Sanjaya Dynasty. Historians suggest that
the construction of Prambanan was probably meant to memorialize the
return to power of the Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty in Central Java after almost a
century of domination by the Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty. In the 930's,
following state political turmoil and the volcanic eruption of nearby Mt.
Merapi, the royal court was transferred to East Java by Mpu Sindok, who
established the Isyana Dynasty. This marked the beginning of the decline of
Prambanan. It was later abandoned, scores of trees grew amidst its soaring
stone towers, and many temples collapsed during a major earthquake in the
16th century. Although the temple ceased to be an important center of
worship and pilgrimage, the ruins were still recognizable and known to the
local Javanese people.

Ground plan of Prambanan Temple

197
Unreconstructed pervara temple with Shiva temple in background
____________________________________________________________________________________
Martin.Gray
https://sacredsites.com/asia/indonesia/prambanan_temple_yogyakarta_java.html

Aerial view of Prambanan Temple complex

198
______________________________________________________________________________

The main complex of Prambanan, has another 3 temples nearby which

are worth visiting too, namely Candi Lumbung, Candi Bubrah and Candi
Sewu. The latter of the three has very intricate carvings which hint at how
extraordinary this temple must have been in its heyday before the several
earthquakes that hit this region up until 2006 (with the Yogyakarta
earthquake) and in 2014 (with the volcanic ash from Mt Berud volcanic
eruptions).

The effects of these several disasters is clearly visible as most of the temples
are in ruins but recent restoration works have helped at least conserve what
is still standing. Nonetheless, Prambanan is the largest Hindu temple site in
Indonesia and one of the biggest in South East Asia. In a way it is
comparable to Ayutthaya in Thailand.

199
Very few people know that the word Prambanan means countless
Hindu priests in Sanskrit for its 240 small temples surrounded the main
temple. The main temple complex has a structural design which is really
beautiful, high slender and impressive that reminds one of the original but
much shorter and wider temples in South India. It is amazing that this Indian
styled architecture crossed the ocean to Southeast Asia and became a model
of many Hindu temples in this region including Angkor.

200
Only the main temple complex and few small temples have been restored to
its original form, most of the complex is the piles of stone since the complex
is located in the earthquake prone area, its design cannot stand the quake
well. The main temple complex dedicated to three highest gods of Hindu and
their mythical vehicles, the details of stone craving are really stunning and
beautiful.

The most stunning is the biggest temple for Shiva; the temple has 4 rooms,
each room for Shiva or his family.

Candi Sewu, a Buddhist temple nearby has a complex layout which is

similar to Prambanan that many small temples surrounded the main one like
mandala. Similar to Prambanan, most of the temples are just the piles of
collapsing rock only the main temple and few minor ones are fully restored. I
really like the unique design that the spires are in the shape of stupa which
is the big contrast to Prambanan. Prambanan is really a great sight and the
size of the temple is smaller than My Son of Champa in Viet Nam with
different in the art forms and designs. WShile there are many similarities
between Angkor, My Son and Hindu temple in India especially the temple
design and function are different from Prambanan; the closest similarity is
the pre-Angkor temple in Rolous, Cambodia, echoing history says that early
Angkor civilization may came from Java, and the Khmer art reached its zenith
when they finally combined both schools of Java and Champa after Angkorian
conquered My Son.

201
Prambanan Temple Compounds got inscribed under two criteria: as a
masterpiece of human creative genius, and as an outstanding example of an
architectural ensemble that represents a significant stage in human history
(i.e., spread of Hinduism in the East). It happens to be the biggest and most
extensive Hindu religious site in the predominantly Islamic country.

Prambanan, on one hand, may look quite similar to Angkor Wat. True
enough, they are both intended as Hindu temples. From afar, these two may
even look like asparagus tips. In closer inspection, however, the temples in
Prambanan are a totally different architectural masterpiece that is unique in
its own way. In fact, Prambanan was built over 300 years earlier (9th century
vs. 12th century). On the other hand, Prambanan still faces yet another
challenge: it is often overshadowed nowadays by the more famous
Borobudur given their close proximity to each other. But, in ancient times,
the former might have looked far more impressive in terms of lay-out, scale
of construction, and even its setting. After all, the construction of Prambanan
can largely be seen as a response of the Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty to the
Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty's Borobudur.

Its central main towers are almost total reconstructions via anastylosis,
which is an archaeological term that refers to reconstructing ruined
buildings and monuments. The key to anastylosis is that, as far as is
possible, the original architectural elements and materials are used to
reassemble the structure. ... Anastylosis gives preference to one particular
phase and Indonesia is proud that it was all their efforts. Nevertheless, strict
measures are still being observed such as prohibiting public access to the
temples' interiors. The management body no longer plans to reconstruct all
of the temples - the tons of rubble are there to act as a reminder of the site's
painful history in confronting the destructive forces of nature. Moreoever,
some stones are already missing as locals used them in building their houses
nearby, rendring massive rehabilitation a definite impossibility.

The site is a Trimurti site, Prambanan is dedicated to the highest three

Hindu gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. The commanding 47-metre high
Shiva temple (or Loro Jonggrang), the largest in the area, lies at the center.
Here, a local myth is also highly intertwined with Prambanan: Loro Jonggrang
is a legendary Javanese princess, and it is believed that she is depicted in a
statue inside the Shiva temple; hence, the Shiva temple is often referred to
by locals as Loro Jonggrang temple as well.

This legend is worth knowing when visiting this temple. The carvings and
reliefs in the temples are quite different from those of Angkor, though both
depict Hindu characters,icons, and stories. I can say that the images and

202
artworks there are more "pure" in the Hindu sense of the word; in contrast,
Angkorian art is made in the image of the Khmers.

The nearby ruins of the 8th-century Ratu Boko Palace which is nestled in the
Boko Hills, some 3km from Prambanan temple compounds. Given its altitude
of 196 metres, the site offers a commanding view of the Prambanan plains
and townscape, with Mt. Merapi as the background. In the evening, the
beautifully glittering Prambanan temple dominates the skyline. The
Prambanan Temple complex helps us to illustrate the glorious past of the
ancient Javanese Kingdom. The grandeur of the temples, the sophisticated
stone engraving and the mystical atmosphere surrounding the precinct are
not to be missed!

The Prambanan archeaological site (or what remains of it) is pretty small and easily
explorable. It has to be understood that temples currently standing in the
compound hardly make up 15% of what used to be there. Originally, more than 240
temples comprise the compound, yet only a handful remains today. Throughout
many centuries, earthquakes (the last strong one being the May 2006 shake) and
several bouts of volcanic eruptions of Mt. Merapi further added damages to the
already abandoned and neglected royal religious site since the early 10th century.
So it was relatively short lived as an active place of worship.

The Prambanan Earthquake

A major earthquake in the 16th century caused serious damage to the

already crumbling forgotten temples. The
British rediscovered the Prambanan temple in Indonesia, along with Borobudur, in
the early 19th century.

Half-hearted excavations by archaeologists in the 1880s along with facilitated

looting occurred during this time. Many locals in the area, took ancient stones
from the temple to use for building their own homes, etc. In 1918, the Dutch
began reconstruction of the compound and proper restoration only in 1930.

Efforts at restoration continue to this day for Prambanan Yogyakarta Indonesia. The
reconstruction of the main Indonesia Shiva temple was completed around
1953 and inaugurated by Sukarno (the first President of Indonesia). Candi
Prambanan Jogja was selected as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991.

Many of the many smaller temple chambers, have Hindu deities still in a
perfect form almost untouched by the earthquake.

203
Angkor LEFT and Prambhanam RIGHT

4th Century Temples of Shiva, Krishna, Vishnu in MySon sanctuary, Vietnam

Posted on August 18, 2016 by cganesh

MySon sanctuary is abandoned and partially ruined Hindu Temples (Mainly

Siva as Bhadresvara) built between 4th – 13th century by the kings of
Champa (Chiêm Thành in Vietnamese).
Mỹ Sơn (Kingdom of Cham) is located near the village of Duy Phú, in the
administrative district of Duy Xuyên in Quảng Nam Province in Central
Vietnam, 69 km southwest of Da Nang, and approximately 10 km from the
historic town of Trà Kiệu. The temples are in a valley roughly two
kilometres wide that is surrounded by two mountain ranges.

Between 4th and 13th centuries there was a unique culture on the coast of
contemporary Vietnam, owing its spiritual origins to the Hinduism of India.
These huge tower temples were constructed over 10 centuries of
continuous development in what was the heart of the ancestral homeland
of the ruling Dua Clan which unified the Cham clans and established the
kingdom of Champapura (Sanskrit for City of the Cham people) in 192 CE.
Although Mahayan Buddhismwas influential during this period, Saivism
survived it in Vietnam.

204
These temples are constructed in fired brick with stone pillars and
decorated with sandstone bas-reliefs depicting scenes from Hindu
mythology.
Their technological sophistication is evidence of Cham engineering skills
while the elaborate iconography and symbolism of the tower-temples give
insight into the content and evolution of Cham religious and political
thought.
In the past, about 70 temples of Siva, Krishna, Vishnu etc used to exist
here, but now only few remain.

History of MySon Sanctuary, Vietnam

Earliest evidence recovered at Mỹ Sơn relate to the era of King Fànhúdá
(Chinese: 范胡达; pinyin: Fànhúdá; Vietnamese: Phạm Hồ Đạt, Sanskrit :
Bhadravarman, literally “Blessed armour” but also meaning the Jasminum
sambac flower), who ruled from 380 until 413 CE.
He spent latter part of his reign waging war against the population of
Chinese-occupied northern Vietnam.
Bhadravarman built a hall containing a lingam to worship Siva under the
Sanskrit name Bhadreśvara “Blessed Lord“, a composite created from the
king’s own name and the word īśvara “lord” commonly used to refer to
Siva.

He erected a Stele at MySon, which has inscription that he has dedicated

the entire valley of Mỹ Sơn to Bhadreśvara. The text ends with a plea from
Bhadravarman to his successors: “Out of compassion for me do not destroy
what I have given. Drawing upon the doctrines of saṃsāra and karma, If you destroy
[my foundation], all your good deeds in your different births shall be mine, and all

205
the bad deeds done by me shall be yours. If, on the contrary, you properly maintain
the endowment, the merit shall belong to you alone.”

Bhadravarman’s successors heard his plea, for Mỹ Sơn became the

religious hub of Champa for many generations.More than two centuries
after Bhadravaman’s foundation, the Bhadresvara temple was destroyed
by fire.

In the 7th century, King Sambhuvarman (Phạm Phạn Chi in Vietnamese, Fan
Che as transcribed from the Chinese), who reigned from 577 until 629 CE,
rebuilt the temple, reinstalled the god under the nameSambhu-
Bhadresvara, and erected a stele to document the event.

This stele affirmed that Sambhu-Bhadresvara was the creator of the world

206
and the destroyer of sin, and expressed the wish that he “cause happiness
in the kingdom of Champa.”

The stele also applauded the king himself, claiming that he was “like a
terrestrial sun illuminating the night” and that his glory rose “like the moon on
an autumn evening.”

In 605 CE, Chinese general Liu Fang led an army southwards from the area
of what is now northern Vietnam, defeated the elephant-riders of
Sambhuvarman, and sacked the Cham capital, making off with an
enormous booty that included over one thousand Buddhist books as well
as the gold tablets commemorating the reigns of the previous eighteen
kings.
Heading back north with their heist, the Chinese invaders were struck by
an epidemic that felled a large number of them, including Liu Fang.
Sambhuvarman, for his part, returned home to his kingdom, began the
process of rebuilding, and made sure to send regular shipments of tribute
to the Chinese court, in order through appeasement to prevent a
recurrence of the recent disaster.
The original temple map was reconstructed by scholars, after bombing
destroyed the original edifice during Vietnam War.
King Prakasadharma (Po Kia Pho Pa Mo, as transcribed from the Chinese)
ruled Champa from 653 AD to 687 CE.
Upon corronation, he assumed the name Vikrantavarman and expanded
the borders of Champa toward the South.
He was dedicated to both Gods Siva and Vishnu, which was unusual for
Champa Kings.
In later years, Mỹ Sơn served as the religious and cultural center of the
Cham civilization in central Vietnam, as well as the burial place of kings
and religious leaders.

People of Champa maintained written records in both Sanskrit and old

Cham. They wrote on perishable materials, such as large leaves, and also

207
created inscriptions in stone. They used scripts borrowed from India. None
of the writings on perishable materials have survived.

However, numerous stone inscriptions have been preserved, transcribed,

and translated into modern languages.

208
Myson, Angkor, Asparagus stalk and Prambhanam TOWERS

209
210
 Resolution of the interpretational issues of the statue of Durga
Mahisasuramardini in northern cella of Shiva temple of Prambhanan
The statue depicting Goddess Durga as Mahishasuramardini stands in the inner sanctum of the
Shiva Temple located on the Prambanan Temple complex in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The inner
sanctum has four chambers, each of which faces a cardinal direction and houses a statue. The
Durga statue is in the north-facing chamber. Prambanan Temple Story in Indonesia

211
PRAMBANAN TEMPLE OF LORD SHIVA
A very beautiful and ancient prambanan temple of Lord Shiva in Java, Indonesia. This temple of
Lord Shiva, built in the 10th century, is known as Prambanan temple. About 17 km from the city
Locate on the distance, this temple is very beautiful and ancient, as well as famous for a story
related to it.
There is a statue of a goddess along with Lord Shiva in this temple. That idol is worship as
Goddess Durga. Here is a story behind the establishment of Goddess. It is said that at one time
there was a demon king name Praabu Baka of Java. She had a very beautiful daughter, name
Roro Jonggangong. Bandung Bondovosso, a person who want to marry Roro Jonggarang, but
Roro Jonggarang did not want to do that.

Roro to refuse Bandung marriage proposal Bondovoso Jonggrng laid bets ahead of him.
Condition that Bandung Bondovoso to create a thousand images in a single night. If he does that,
then Roro Jonggangang will marry her. To fulfill the conditions made 999 statues in one night
Bandung Bondovoso reported and he going to make the final image. Seeing Roro Jonggrng have
the same light of day with the installation of fire equipment to the entire city of rice.

STORY OF THE TEMPLE

When Bandung Bondovoso came to know the truth, he became very angry and he curse Roro
Jonggarang to become the last idol. The same statue of Roro Jongrangang is worship in the
Prambanan temple as Goddess Durga.Due to the fact that the story of this temple is connect to
Roro Jonggarang, the local people here also know this temple by name as Roro Jonggarang
Temple. Roro Jonggarang Temple or Prambanan Temple is an important center of devotion for
the Hindus as well as local people.
There are three main temples in Prambavan temple – one Lord Brahma, one Lord Vishnu and
one of Lord Shiva. The faces of all Gods idols are towards the east direction. In front of every
main temple related to it in the west direction. This temple dedicated to God’s vehicles. Hans in
front of Lord Brahma, Garuda for Lord Vishnu and Nandi temple for Lord Shiva. Apart from
these, there are many more temples in the premises.

Shiva temple locate in Prambanan and it is very big and beautiful. This temple is in the middle of
the temples of the three gods. There are four rooms inside the Shiva temple. One of which is the
huge statue of Lord Shiva, in the second is the idol of Lord Shiva’s disciple Agastya; in the third
it is the statue of Lord Ganesha in the fourth and the fourth Parvati. Lord Vishnu in the north of
Shiva temple and Lord Brahma temple in the south.

The beauty and texture of Prambanan temple is worth seeing. Pictures of Hindu epic
Ramayana also remain on the walls of the temple. These pictures show the story of Ramayana.
This artwork on the walls of the temple makes this temple even more beautiful and attractive.
This excellently modeled figure with a benign face represents the six-armed goddess Durga
subduing the demon Mahisha, hence popularly revered as Mahishasura-mardini – which in literal
translation would mean “Durga subduing the demon Mahisha”. Unlike the usual Mahishasura-
mardini icons, a painting or sculpture, that represent the demon as half buffalo and half man this
statue represents the two figures, the demon’s anthropomorphic icon and the buffalo’s animal
form, as detached, complete and independent. Here the demon, the usual human form, appears to
be riding the buffalo, though a bit awkwardly, he is seated on its hind part. The goddess has held

212
the demon by his head with one of her left hands while she is striking on his breast with a spear
held in one of her right hands. In an effort to contain it the goddess has planted one of her feet on
the buffalo’s neck, though taking the animal just as the demon’s mount, not his component as the
animal form is conceived in most other representations, the goddess seems to spare its life.

Corresponding to this duality – the demon separated from the animal, his basic character as also
his essential form the legends consider him to originate in, the goddess’s apparent act –
annihilation of the demon, is completely different from her intrinsic ‘bhava’ – the essence of her
being as reflects in the demeanour of her face. Instead of wrath or anger, or an eagerness to curve
a wrong her deep contemplative face enshrines some kind of deep concern perhaps for mankind.
Not ferocious or awful, as someone killing a buffalo should naturally look like, in her triply
curving, proportionate and balanced figure, colourfully clad and gracefully adorned the goddess
is the model of sublime beauty. Whatever its central theme – killing a demon linked with an ugly
looking animal like buffalo, the statue, each detail minutely carved and brilliantly painted,
outstands in aesthetic beauty.

The statue’s aesthetics being its focal point the artist preferred keeping not only the statue’s
human form unmixed from buffalo’s but also conceived his figure as one of a normal human
being. Perhaps for emphasizing this aspect further he has carved a devotee figure on
the goddess’s right that has been modeled exactly like the demon. Rendered – carved and
painted, in characteristic South Indian idiom adhering on one hand to her mythical aspect and on
the other to South Indian cult of ornamentation and benignity of form, the six-armed goddess is
carrying in her right side hands ‘chakra’ – disc, spear with axe-head and triply formed blade, and
sword, and in those on the left side, trident and shield, the sixth holds the demon’s head. Clad in
tight fitted ‘antariya’ – lower wear, and a sensually fashioned ‘stana-pata’ – breast-band, and
appropriately ornamented – a towering crown along a halo, beautiful frill suspending along her
girdle between the parting of legs, an elaborate girdle and ornaments on neck, ears, shoulders,
arms, feet and other body-parts, the image of the goddess has been installed on a rectangular
platform consisting of a plain moulding on the top, and conventional lotus motifs in the rising.

The goddess has her right foot planted firmly on the platform, while with the left she is
containing the animal that pressed by her divine force seems to bend. Besides the buffalo figure,
and the devotee’s, the platform is also the base of the ‘prabhavali’ – fire-arch that the goddess
enshrines

213
. statue of Durga Mahisasuramardini in northern cella of Shiva temple.

Apart an elaborate ‘kirttimukha’ motif on the top conceived with multiple fangs, large bulbous
eyes, ferns-like whiskers and an over-all awful appearance, the circular arch rises using uniform
pattern – a beaded lace running across the entire length curving in variously shaped loops to
frame various floral and vine motifs all conceived arabesques-like on decorative line. The statue
has been brilliantly painted and minutely rendered but the craftsman has evaded hitting the
demon’s body as also any trace of blood gushing from it; perhaps blood-shed not his choice.

214
 Slaying the
Buffalo Demon (Mahishasura Mardini)ca. 11th century India (Bihar)
Durga slays Mahisha, who emerges in his anthropomorphic form, one foot still in the neck of the
decapitated buffalo and the other in the mouth of Durga’s lion. Her army of followers is
suggested by the small sword-wielding female warriors that bracket her feet.

215
216
217
 Chapter I

Warrior
Goddess
Dr Uday
Dokras
PART II

One of the most invoked forms of the Great Goddess is her manifestation as the youthful, multi-
armed deity who successfully battles the mighty buffalo demon that symbolizes among other
things, the elemental powers of brutish ignorance. In her this incarnation she is referred to
as Durga, the 'unattainable'.

The Great Goddess Durga was born from the energies of the male divinities when the gods lost
the long drawn-out battle with the asuras (demons). All the energies of the gods united and
became supernova, throwing out flames in all directions. Then that unique light, pervading the
Three Worlds with its luster, combined into one, and became a female form.

The Devi projected an overwhelming omnipotence. The awesome three-eyed Goddess was adorned
with the crescent moon. Her multiple arms held auspicious weapons and emblems, jewels and
ornaments, garments and utensils, garlands and rosaries of beads, all offered by the gods. With her
golden body blazing with the splendor of a thousand suns, seated on her lion or tiger vehicle, Durga
is one of the most spectacular of all personifications of Cosmic Energy.

The tremendous power of the Goddess was poised ready for the grim battle to wipe out demonic
forces, the asuras whose exaggerated ego-sense was destroying the balance of the universe, and

218
whose sole purpose was to dominate and control. It was the universal war between knowledge
and ignorance, truth and falsehood, the oppressor and the oppressed.

The world shook and the seas trembled as the Goddess engaged the Great Demon Mahisasura
and his hosts in fierce battle, creating her own female battalions from her sighs breathed during
the fighting.

The Great Goddess first annihilated the army of the titan. Then she roped his own mighty
buffalo-form with a noose. The demon escaped, however, emerging from the buffalo body in the
form of a lion. Immediately, the Goddess beheaded the lion, whereupon Mahisa, by virtue of his
Maya-energy of self-transformation, escaped again, now in the form of a hero with a sword.

Ruthlessly the Goddess riddled this new embodiment with a shower of arrows. But then the
demon stood before her as an elephant, and with his trunk reached out and seized her. He
dragged her towards him, but she severed the trunk with the stroke of a sword. The demon
returned, now, to his favorite shape-that of the giant buffalo shaking the universe with the
stamping of its hoofs. But the Goddess scornfully laughed, and again roared with a loud voice of
laughter at all his tricks and devices. Pausing a moment, in full wrath, she lifted to her lips,
serenely, a bowl filled with the inebriating, invigorating, liquor of the divine-life force, and while
she sipped the matchless drink, her eyes turned red. The buffalo-demon, uprooting mountains
with his horns, was flinging them against her, shouting defiantly at her the while, but with her
arrows she was shattering them to dust. She called out to the shouting monster: "Shout on! Go on
shouting one moment more, you fool, while I sip my fill of this delicious brew. The gods soon
will be crying out for joy, and you shall lie murdered at my feet.

Even while she spoke, the Goddess leapt into the air, and from above came down on the demon's
neck. She dashed him to the earth and sent the trident through his neck. The adversary attempted
once again to abandon the buffalo-body, issuing from its mouth in the shape of a hero with a
sword; but he had only half emerged when he was caught. He was half inside the buffalo and
half outside, when the Goddess, with a swift and terrific stroke, beheaded him, and he died.

The chief demon Mahisasura was thus dead, and the gods praised the Goddess, joyfully
worshipping her with flowers, incense and fragrant paste:

Thou Ambika [a name of Durga] dost overspread the universe with thy power.
The power of all divine beings is drawn into Thy from.
Thou art Great Mother, worshipped by all divine beings and Sages.
We bow ourselves in devotion to Thee.
Bless us with all that is good for us.

We bow before Thee, O Devi,

Thou who art the good fortune of the virtuous,
Ill-fortune in the house of the evil,
Intelligence in the minds of the learned,
Faiths in the hearts of the good,
The modesty of the high born.

- Devi Mahatmya
219
The world was at peace again. The skies cleared, the rivers kept their courses, there was sweet
singing and dancing. The winds blew softly, the sun shone brilliantly, the sacred fires burned
steadily. Strange sounds that had arisen in the various quarters died away.
The departing Durga offered the gods a boon. She promised that as 'Sakambhari' she would
nourish the world in time of need with the vegetation grown from her own body, and that in her
'terrible' form she would deliver her worshippers from their enemies, and bless them. Then she
vanished from the very spot on which the gods were gazing.
Thus the reveries of Mahisa are exterminated. Into this wondrous male fantasy intrudes the
Mother Goddess. She lures and entices him and, because she represents the power of the
unconscious and the pull downward and backward into the protective womb, the demon
unwittingly plunges into her dangerous orbit. In a throwback to reciprocal animal mating
postures, they dance in mutual desire and dread. Mahisa is forced into sacred, single combat
with the fascinating but enigmatic, dangerous creature. On the battle stage the disguise of each is
penetrated; then the demon and the Goddess are reduced to their true nature; in the last analysis
they are alike. Finally, like the ancient bull-kings who were themselves royal sacrifices,
fecundators of the earth, bearers of vicarious guilt, hero is transformed into victim and, having
lost his position in heaven, now Mahisa loses his very life. He is decapitated by the Mother
Goddess, and on earth, paradise is restored, but only temporarily, for the demon inevitably
returns to earth for the eternal cyclical repetition of the entire life process.

The myth is saturated with the potential for violence inherent in the male-female oppositions. As
the story unfolds, the relationship between Mahisa and the goddess is manifested at many levels:
psychologically both demon and goddess become what the other is, both behave like ferocious
animals and one never knows what will happen in the next instant, as the constant alternations,
which range from the bestial to the divine, are the only reality. Thus each of the antagonists can be
symbolically interpreted as now the monster/dragon, now with feminine or with masculine
attributes. Each can represent justice and power or evil and danger; and each contributes to the
orgiastic disorder necessary for recreation. The myth thus transcends the male-female alternative,
signifying psychic totality. The condition of the contemporary urban dweller who howls in fear in
the dark as he confronts the bad animal of his nightmare differs little from the fright syndrome of
the jungle dweller, forced into struggle with a live animal. Until the dreamer awakes, he is in the
same situation as his prehistoric ancestors were. Pervading the deepest levels of the psyche, ready
to spring at random, the residual animal, source of human energies, seeks recognition. The
unfocused, floating primordial imagery, rooted in the biological heritage, is stabilized in culture.
Externalized projections, first structured into dance, cultish animal rites, orgiastic fertility
ceremonies and much later into literature, art, myth and ritual, provide the camouflage of human
respectability and channel the anxiety into an acceptable form. Left to itself without organization,
animal nature will surely erupt.
When left unrecognized and unattended, under stressful conditions, animal impulses break
through in random fashion, and blind fury re-emerges in full force. As repository for the archaic
residue, Mahisamardini, the Goddess who slays the buffalo, is a therapeutic symbol.

Durga's name literally means "Beyond Reach". This is an echo of the woman warrior's fierce, virginal
autonomy. In fact many of the figures associated with her are officially virgin. This is not meant in the
limiting sense understood by the patriarchal order, but rather in Esther Harding's sense: she is "one-in-
herself", or as Nor Hall puts it, "Belonging-to-no-man". As Harding further observed of 'The Virgin
Goddess': 'Her divine power does not depend on her relation to a husband-god, and thus her actions are

220
not dependent on the need to conciliate such a one or to accord with his qualities and attitudes. For she
bears her identity through her own right.'

The disappearance of Durga from the battlefield after the victory over aggression expressed one
of the deepest truths of the episode, for the feminine action in the cosmic drama is without
retentive, ego-seeking ambition.

Durga is linked also with some of the oldest known prayers for humankind's protection. In
the Ramayana, Rama went to Lanka to rescue his abducted wife, Sita, from the grip of Ravana,
the Emperor of Lanka. Before starting for his battle, Rama aspired for the blessings of Goddess
Durga . He came to know that the Goddess would be pleased if offered one hundred blue lotuses.
But after traversing the whole world, he could gather only ninety-nine. Rama finally decided to
offer one of his own eyes, which resembled blue lotuses. Durga, being pleased with the devotion
of Rama, appeared before him, stopped him from committing this act and blessed him. In the
fierce battle that followed, Rama was able to annihilate Ravana, thus again triumphed good over
evil. To this day, this day is celebrated as Vijaydashmi (Day of Victory), and Goddess Durga
worshipped all over India.

Indeed the Mother Goddess, it is believed, controls the fate of all. But even though she makes her
appearance when the male deities conglomerate their respective energies, she is, in fact, not
'created' by them. All her incarnations are the result of her will to be in the world for the benefit
of mankind; she chooses when and how to effect her lilas (play of the Goddess in the world). In
this situation her sudden arrival spells doom for Mahisa, but only after a protracted interaction
during which the confrontations between animal/demon and Goddess, male and female, son and
mother, lover and beloved, equal combatants, victim and sacrificer, hero and deliverer, are given
due attention as an exploratory venture into the dynamics of the laws of opposites. Their combat
is, in the final analysis, an enactment of a many-aspected reality, reflecting a mode of thought
which perceives seeming opposites as mere stages in a graduated spectrum of reality which has a
minimum of definite boundaries.
She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars. Durga's
legend centres around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, prosperity, and
dharma, representing the power of good over evil.

9 Faces of Durga
1. Shailaputri. "Daughter of Mountain" ...
2. Brahmacharini. "Mother of devotion and penance" ...
3. Chandraghanta. "Destroyer of demons" ...
4. Kushmanda. "Goddess of The Cosmic Egg" ...
5. Skandamata. "Goddess of motherhood and children" ...
6. Katyayani. "Goddess of Power" ...
7. Kalaratri. "Goddess of Auspiciousness and Courage"
8. Mahagauri. Great Goddess
9. Siddhidhatri-"Goddess of Supernatural Powers or Siddhis"
Navadurga (Sanskrit: नवदुर्गा, romanized: Navadurgā) also
spelled Navdurga and Navadurgas, are nine manifestations and forms
of Durga in Hinduism. especially worshipped during Navaratri and Durga Puja. They are often

221
considered collectively as a single deity, mainly among the followers
of Shaktism and Shaivism sect of Hinduism.

According to Hindu mythology, the nine forms are considered the nine stages of Durga during
the nine-day long duration of the war with demon-king Mahishasura, where the tenth day is
celebrated as the Vijayadashami (lit. 'victory day') among the Hindus and is considered as one of
the most important festivals.

Navaratri
During the festival of Navratri, nine unmarried virgin girls up to the age of nine years are
worshiped and fed as they are considered to be the incarnations of these nine goddesses. Then,
the Nabapatrika ritual during Durga Puja involves tying the branches of eight plants with their
leaves with a banana plant (naba meaning 'nine', and patrika meaning 'leaves').

9 Main forms

222
S.
Vahan
No Name Stage Mantra Depiction
a
.
Parvati in her ॐ She is adorned with light
stage of देवी ornamentation on her limbs and
Shailaputri
Nandi childhood with शैल was clothed in red and pink robes.
1. "Daughter of
(bull) the divine and पुत् She has two hands both holding a
Mountain"
principal form र्यै trident and lotus. She is seated
being Durga नमः upon the behind of a white bull.
ॐ
She is dressed as a female ascetic
Brahmacha देवी
and is adorned by dried-
rini Durga in her ब्र
up Rudraksha beads and flowers as
2. "Mother of — phase of ह्म
her ornamentation. She has two
devotion and asceticism. चारि
hands, both of which carried a
penance" ण्यै
rosary and a water utensil.
नम:
ॐ She has ten hands, nine of them
Chandragh देवी are armed by a trident, mace, bow,
anta Durga in the चंद् arrow, lotus, sword, bell and a
3. Tiger
"Destroyer form of Shakti. रघण् waterpot, while one other hand
of demons" टायै blesses her devotees. She is seated
नम: upon a fierce tiger.
Lion ॐ ऐं
ह् She has eight hands, six of which
रीं held a discus, mace, lotus, bow,
Kushmanda
Durga in the क् and arrow in one hand, sword and
"Goddess of
4. form लीं rosary and the two other hands
The Cosmic
of Mahashakti. कूष् carried a jar of honey and
Egg"
मां waterpot. She is mounted upon the
डायै back of a lion.
नम:
ॐ
Skandamat She has four hands, two of which
देवी
a held lotuses, the third holding her
Durga in her स्क
"Goddess of son, the six-headed infant
5. stage of न्द
motherhood Kartikeya seated on her lap, and
motherhood. माता
and the fourth saves her devotees. She
यै
children" is seated upon the back of a lion.
नम:
6. Katyayani Durga in the ॐ She is adorned with heavy
"Goddess of warrior stage. देवी ornamentation on her limbs and is
Power" कात् dressed in green and pink
याय vestments. Her four hands each
न्यै carried a sword, shield, lotus and

223
 trident. She's seen seated on a
नम:
fearsome lion.
She has three bloodshot eyes,
ॐ unkempt hairs, and wears a
Kalaratri
देवी garland of skulls around her neck,
"Goddess of Durga in her
Donke काल which shone like lightning. Her
7. Auspiciousn form of
y रात् four hands all held a trident,
ess and destruction.
र्यै scimitar, vajra, and a cup. She is
Courage"
नम: seated upon the behind of a
donkey as her vehicle.
ॐ
She has four hands, three of which
Mahagauri देवी
carried a trident, mini-drum, and a
"Goddess of Durga in her महा
8. Ox pink lotus while her one hand
Beauty and form of recovery. गौर्
promised her devotees protection.
Women" यै
She is seated upon a white ox.
नम:
ॐ ऐं
ह्
Siddhidhatr
Durga in her रीं
i Each of her four hands carried a
stage of reaching क्
"Goddess of discus, conch shell, pink lotus and
9. Lotus her highest and लीं
Supernatural a mace. She is seated upon a fully
supreme form as सिद्
Powers bloomed lotus.
Mahashakti. धिदा
or Siddhis"
त्यै
नम:

Other forms
According to traditions and Hindu scriptures Navadurga has different forms. The Agni
Purana lists them as
1. Rudrachanda
2. Prachanda
3. Chandogra
4. Chandanayika
5. Chanda
6. Chandavati
7. Chandarupa
8. Atichandika
9. Ugrachanda
Nine forms of Rajarajeshwari are worshiped as Navadurga forms on the nine days of Navaratri at
the famous Kanaka Durga Temple in Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh
1. Swarna Kavachalankrita Durga
2. Bala Tripurasundari
3. Annapurna
4. Gayatri
5. Lalitha Tripura sundari

224
 6. Saraswati
7. Mahalakshmi
8. Durga
9. Mahishasuramardhini

The Tantric traditions of Buddhism included Durga and developed the idea further. In Japanese
Buddhism, she appears as Butsu-mo (sometimes called Koti-sri). In Tibet, the goddess
Palden Lhamo is similar to the protective and fierce Durga. According to legend, Durga was
created for the slaying of the buffalo demon Mahishasura by Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, and the
lesser gods, who were otherwise powerless to overcome him. Embodying their collective energy
(shakti), she is both derivative from the male divinities and the true source of their inner power.
She is also greater than any of them. Born fully grown and beautiful, Durga presents a fierce
menacing form to her enemies. She is usually depicted riding a lion and with 8 or 10 arms, each
holding the special weapon of one of the gods, who gave them to her for her battle against the
buffalo demon. Durga Puja, held annually in her honour, is one of the great festivals of
northeastern India.

Shiva, (Sanskrit: “Auspicious One”) also spelled Śiwa or Śiva, one of the main deities
of Hinduism, whom Shaivites worship as the supreme god. Among his common epithets are
Shambhu (“Benign”), Shankara (“Beneficent”), Mahesha (“Great Lord”), and Mahadeva (“Great
God”).

Shiva
Shiva is represented in a variety of forms: in a pacific mood with his consort Parvati and
son Skanda, as the cosmic dancer (Nataraja), as a naked ascetic, as a mendicant beggar, as a
yogi, as a Dalit (formerly called untouchable) accompanied by a dog (Bhairava), and as
the androgynous union of Shiva and his consort in one body, half-male and half-female
(Ardhanarishvara). He is both the great ascetic and the master of fertility, and he is the master of
both poison and medicine, through his ambivalent power over snakes. As Lord of Cattle
(Pashupata), he is the benevolent herdsman—or, at times, the merciless slaughterer of the
“beasts” that are the human souls in his care. Although some of the combinations of roles may be
explained by Shiva’s identification with earlier mythological figures, they arise primarily from a
tendency in Hinduism to see complementary qualities in a single ambiguous figure.

Shiva’s female consort is known under various manifestations as Uma, Sati, Parvati, Durga,
and Kali; Shiva is also sometimes paired with Shakti, the embodiment of power. The divine
couple, together with their sons—Skanda and the elephant-headed Ganesha—are said to dwell
on Mount Kailasa in the Himalayas. The six-headed Skanda is said to have been born of Shiva’s
seed, which was shed in the mouth of the god of fire, Agni, and transferred first to the
river Ganges and then to six of the stars in the constellation of the Pleiades. According to another
well-known myth, Ganesha was born when Parvati created him out of the dirt she rubbed off
during a bath, and he received his elephant head from Shiva, who was responsible for beheading
him. Shiva’s vehicle in the world, his vahana, is the bull Nandi; a sculpture of Nandi sits
opposite the main sanctuary of many Shiva temples. In temples and in private shrines, Shiva is

225
also worshipped in the form of the lingam, a cylindrical votary object that is often embedded in
a yoni, or spouted dish.

THE MANY HANDS OF DURGA

She has ten hands, nine of them are armed by a trident, mace, bow, arrow, lotus, sword, bell
and a waterpot, while one other hand blesses her devotees. She is seated upon a fierce tiger. The
ten arms of the deity symbolize that she protects her devotees from all directions namely the
eight corners and from the sky and the earth. The ten hands of Goddess Durga hold in them
a conch, discuss, lotus, sword, bow with arrow, trishul, mace, thunderbolt, snake and flame.

3 Pics of Durga in the form of Mahashakti.

Who gave goddess Durga arms to fight demons?

Indra gave her his vajra, Varuna gave her his conch, Agni gave her a missile or spear, Vayu gave
her a bow and arrows, Vishwakarma gave her his axe and an armour, and the lord of the
mountains gave her a lion. The representations of Durga, whether it's her idols or pictures, carry
all these weapons and more.
Is Durga a lion or tiger?
In almost all of her portraits, Maa Durga is seen riding a lion. Lion is the 'vahana' or vehicle of
Maa Durga. The animal also represents the power of Maa Durga.
Who gave trishul to Durga?
Shiva's-Trishul

226
Shiva, the God of Destruction, gifted Durga with his trishul or trident. The three prongs of the
weapon symbolize multiple important trinities in the Hindu myth and philosophy.

Whose head does Kali carry?

Durga became so enraged that her anger burst from her forehead in the form of Kali. Once born,
the black goddess went wild and ate all the demons she came across, stringing their heads on a
chain which she wore around her neck.

file:///C:/Users/UDAY/Downloads/Meal%20Plan/My%20Books/Prambanan.pdf

227
Shiva Temple of Prambanan and the Mahishasuramardini statute in East
Corner

Scholars believe that the Hindu community in Nusantara worship Trimūrti (Brahmā, Visnu, and
Śiva) equally. This opinion is shared among the experts. However, it is not prevalent within
Hinduism. Hence, it contradicts the concept of Ista Devata (the glorification of one Devata
among the others). Ni Kadek Surpi in his research Śivagrha (Prambanan Temple) as an
Archetype of Hindu Theology in Nusantara (An Endeavor to Discover Hindu Theological
Knowledge through Ancient Temple Heritage) in July 2020

Carried out a data analysis using an Ethnographic Content Analysis (ECA) concluded that
Prambanan Temple is convincing as an Archetype of Hindu Theology, in two typologies.
The typology of Nirguna Brahman lies in the concept where Prambanan is a place to worship
Parabrahman, The Absolute, The Supreme God.
Meanwhile, the typology of Saguna Brahman lies in the concept where Prambanan is a Śivagrha,
The House of Lord Śiva, a place to worship Śiva as the Highest Gods.

Prambanan temple construction uses the Vāstupurusamandala pattern, which made it as the
grandest temple in Nusantara. Even though Śivagrha is popular as a temple complex to worship

228
Tri Murti as equals, the fact which lies in temple structures as well as in the manuscript (prasasti)
proves that it has a Śivaistik Concept, where Śiva is worshiped as the highest Devata
(Parabrahman). This typology of Saguna Brahman is the base of Śivaistik Theology.

Goddess Durga and Lord Shiva in the Prambanan Temple Complex in Indonesia.
The complex has 250 temples. The Shiva Temple in the complex was built in ~850
CE.
Iconography of Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu, governed by the Shaiva Agamas that revere the
ultimate reality as the Hindu deity, Shiva. Āgama Sanskrit: आगम, in the Hindu religious context
means a traditional doctrine or system which commands faith. Temple worship according to
Āgamic rules can be said to have started during the Pallava dynasty (551-901 A.D.) in South
India, but they were fully under establishment during the Chola dynasty (848-1279 A.D.) The
temples during the Chola period expanded to Sri Lanka and islands in South East ornerAsia. The
temple complex was expanding with niches for various deities on the stipulated sides of the
sanctum. Lingam was universalised and prakarams (precincts) with subsequent deities came up.
The temple parivara(deities related to primary deity) expanded considerably during the Chola
period. The niches of following Āgamic rules for building Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu, a South
Indian state continues even in the modern era. Some of the prime images like that
of lingam, Vinayagar and Parvati are present in all the Shiva temples. Almost all the temples
follow the same custom during festivals and worship methods with minor exceptions. Most of
the Shiva temples in Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka (like Munneswaram temple, Koneswaram
temple, Tennavaram temple, Ketheeswaram temple, Naguleswaram) are built in Dravidian
architecture.

229
Lingam

Decorated form of Shiva Lingam

The Lingam (also, Linga, Ling, Shiva linga, Shiv ling, Sanskrit लिङ्गं liṅgaṃ, meaning
"mark" or "sign") is a representation of the Hindu deity Shiva used for worship in Hindu temple.
[16]
The lingam is the principal deity in most Shiva temples in South India. The lingam is often
represented with the Yoni, a symbol of the goddess or of Shakti, female creative energy. The
union of lingam and yoni represents the "indivisible two-in-oneness of male and female, the
passive space and active time from which all life originates".A complementary theory suggests
that the Lingam represents the beginning and ending Stambha pillar symbolizing the infinite
nature of Shiva. The propagation of linga worship on a large scale in South India is believed to
be from Chola times (late 7th century A.D.), through Rig veda, the oldest literature details about
worshipping Shiva in the form of linga. Pallavas propagated Somaskanda as the principal form
of worship, slightly deviating from the Shaiva agamas; Cholas being strict shaivas,
established lingams in all the temples. The relation between Shiva and the lingam extends to
the Indus Valley civilization, where several remains, such as the round stone caps at Harappa and
the well-known seal of polycelphalic yogi (saint), have led scholars to attribute the primordial
native origin. Svayambu lingam indicates a lingam that comes into existence on its own accord
and not erected by human beings. Some of the temples are built around the lingam, with its
position maintained as the sanctum.
The temple structures is divided into five lingams with the main one at the sanctum supplying
power to the rest. The others are dhvaja lingam or flag lingam (signifying flag pole), bhadra
lingam or prosperous lingam (signifying the balipeetha), stupa lingam (signifying vimana tower)
that raises over sanctum and the sacrificer or officiating priest
Parvati (Sanskrit: पार्वती) is a Hindu goddess. Shaiva tradition is replete with a number of
form of goddesses and all of the consorts, Parvati is the most celebrated and artistic. Parvati is
nominally the second consort of Shiva, the Hindu god of destruction and rejuvenation. However,
she is not different from Satī, being the reincarnation of Shiva's wife. Parvati is the mother of the
gods and goddess, Ganesha and Skanda (Kartikeya). Some communities believe her to be the
sister of Vishnu. Parvati, when depicted alongside Shiva, generally appears with two arms, but
when alone, she is shown having four or eight arms, and astride a tiger or lion. Generally
considered a benevolent goddess, Parvati also has wrathful incarnations, such as Durga, Kali,

230
Shitala Devi, Tara, Chandi, and the Mahavidyas as well as benevolent forms like Kathyayini,.
Mahagauri, Kamalatmika, Bhuvaneshwari, and Lalita

Nataraja or Nataraj, The Lord (or King) of Dance; (Kooththan)) is a depiction of the Hindu god
Shiva as the cosmic dancer Koothan who performs his divine dance to destroy a weary universe
and make preparations for god Brahma to start the process of creation. A Tamil concept, Shiva
was first depicted as Nataraja in the famous Chola bronzes and sculptures of Chidambaram. The
dance of Shiva in Tillai, the traditional name for Chidambaram, forms the motif for all the
depictions of Shiva as Nataraja. He is also known as "Sabesan" which splits as Sabayil aadum
eesan in Tamil which means "The Lord who dances on the dais". The form is present in most
Shiva temples in South India, and is the main deity in the famous temple at Chidambaram. The
sculpture is usually made in bronze, with Shiva dancing in an aureole of flames, lifting his left
leg (or in rare cases, the right leg) and balancing over a demon or dwarf (Apasmara) who
symbolizes ignorance.
Durga (Sanskrit: दुर्गा); meaning "the inaccessible" or "the invincible"; "one who can
redeem in situations of utmost distress” is a form of Devi, the supremely radiant goddess,
depicted as having eighteen arms, riding a lion or a tiger, carrying weapons and a lotus flower,
maintaining a meditative smile, and practicing mudras, or symbolic hand gestures. The name is
made of Sanskrit dur- = "with difficulty" (compare Greek δυσ- (dys-)) and gā ("come", "go").
The buffalo sacrifice depiction transposes into ritual Durga's feat killing the buffalo demon. The
deity is north facing usually depicted in the wall of first precinct around the sanctum. In Tamil
Nadu Shiva temples, she stands gracefully on the severed head of buffalo and lion is rarely
included.

231
 DEMON MANISH
In the left hand of Durga we see the Asura or Rakshasa( demon) who behaded ( only the Head) of
this demon but here he is alive and appears to be wriggling albeit held tight by his hair and alive
and struggling.This is the unique feature of this temple. The iconography of other statutes serve a
dead head.( SEE above pic) Her bottom right hand is holding up the tale of the buffalo and her
bottom left hand is pulling at the hair of the demon Mahish. Durga and the Buffalo DemonHere
is the story of Manish:
The buffalo demon, Mahisha stomped across the three worlds, kicking up dust, polluting
the earth and sea.
Neither Indra, king of gods, nor Kumara, commander of the celestial armies could stop
him. In despair the Hindu gods called on Vishnu for help. Vishnu confronted the demon
Mahisha first as Narasimha the man lion and then as Varaha, the boar, but each time he
failed to subdue the demon.

232
Shiva, the supreme ascetic, disturbed by the violence opened his third eye unleashing the
fire of doom. Even the power of Shiva's third eye capable of destroying the three worlds
could not arrest Mahisha's march.
"Nothing can stop Mahisha now: he will soon control the universe and make Nature
dance to his tunes," said Brahma the creator.
"It will never be so, Nature can never be conquered," said Brahma as his divine strength,
his shakti, emerged from his body in the form of the goddess Brahmi. She rode a swan
and held books of wisdom in her hands.
Simultaneously, the shaktis of the other Hindu gods emerged taking female forms. From
Indra, rose Indrani bearing a thunderbolt, riding an elephant, from Kumara rose Kaumari
holding a lance and riding a peacock, from Vishnu rose Vaishanavi on an eagle with a
discus whirling on her finger, from Varaha came the sharp tusk sow Varahi, from Shiva
came Shiavani riding a bull bearing a trident.
The seven shaktis, unrestrained by the bodies of the Hindu gods, were fearsome beings -
unbridled, untamed, restless energies of the cosmos. They would not submit to the
authority of any man, beast or god, let alone a demon.
They rose to the sky and merged with each other in a blinding light. The sounds of the
conchs, drums, and bells filled the air. With bated breath, the gods watched the light.
From the heavenly light arose a beautiful goddess. "Who are you?" asked the gods.

"I am Durga, the inaccessible one," replied the goddess. "I am

Prakriti, the substance that gives form and identity to all things.
I am Shakti, the power that enables all creatures to exist, to feel,
think, act and react. I am Maya, the delusion that makes life
alluring yet elusive."

233
234
235
Artists impressions of the same object can differ from artist to artist because it is but a
conception, artist's interpretation, or artist's rendition and is the representation of an object or a
scene created by an artist when no other accurate representation is available. It could be an
image, a sound, a video or a model. Artist's impressions are often created to represent concepts
and objects that cannot be seen by the naked eye; that are very big, very small, in the past, in the
future, fictional, or otherwise abstract. For example, in architecture, artists' impressions are used
to showcase the design of planned buildings and associated landscape. Artists' impressions are
particularly prominent in historigraphical descriptions. Thestatue of the Hindu goddess Durga
from the Shiva temple at Prambanan, Java, Indonesia, c. 750 - c. 950 CE. According to legend,
the statue is a result of the transformation into stone of a local princess. by her cruel husband.

It is apparent from a detailed study of the Prambanan

Maheshshasurmardini that a live model posed for the carving as seen from the abdominal folds
of the plump model. Similarly the calves and lower legs are chunky.

Here the demon is in form of a Buffalo yet his soul seems to have been taken away in form of a
DWARF ( small human like figure) which as mentioned earlier is Manish the demon she
killed.A certain amount of voluptuousness is created by the breast size and their depiction in the
midst of revealing jewellery.

236
The hips too are large and flare out of the Lungi(Saree?) SARONG. In Indonesia the sarong is
generally known as a kain sarung ('sarong cloth') except for in Bali where it carries the
name kamben, possibly etymologically related to kemben (Javanese torso wrap). The sarung or
sarong is often described as an Indonesian skirt; it is a large tube or length of fabric, often
wrapped around the waist and worn by men and women throughout much of the Indonesian
archipelago. The sarong is also commonly described as a unisex tubular skirt.
In Bali, sarongs are not stitched together as a tube, but remain as a piece of cloth to wrap around
the waist and secured with a knot.
Other than common checkered motifs, other woven or print methods might be employed, such
as batik, ikat, songket, and other kinds of tenun traditional woven clothes. Sarongs are used by

237
various ethnic groups in Indonesia. They are made from a variety of materials such as cotton,
polyester or silk. Indonesian women wear traditional costumes called kebaya as upper garments,
while for lower garments they wear sarongs dyed in the batik method, with flower motifs and in
brighter colors. However, in Javanese culture, the wearing of batik sarungs is not restricted to
women on formal occasions such as weddings but is everyday wear.Whether 1000 years ago it
was so, we do not know!
A temple was first built at the site around 850 CE by Rakai Pikatan and expanded extensively by
King Lokapala and Balitung Maha Sambu the Sanjaya king of the Mataram Kingdom. According
to the Siwagrha inscription, the original name of this temple is Siwagrha Temple, which in
Sanskrit means Shiva’s House. This temple was built as an offering to the Trimurti, namely the 3
main Hindu gods, namely Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. But indeed Lord Shiva is preferred in this
temple.
The Origin of Prambanan Temple

The history of this Prambanan temple began when the archipelago was still in the era of the
Hindu-Buddhist Kingdom. The construction of this temple was initiated by Rakai Pikatan. He
tried to build a magnificent Hindu-style temple to match the Buddhist-style Borobudur Temple
that had been built previously.The construction of the Prambanan temple is also thought to be
aimed at marking the return of the Sanjaya family to power in Java. Indeed, there was a rivalry
between the Sanjaya dynasty who were Hindus and the Buddhist Sailenda dynasty regarding
their power in Java.

The construction of the temple became a transition from a Buddhist to a Hindu style in the
Mataram or Medang Kingdom. Prambanan Temple was also built to glorify Lord Shiva. The
original name of this building in Sanskrit is Siwagrha temple or Siwalaya temple. The temple
building was first built around 850 AD by Rakai Pikatan. Then the development process was
continued by the next kings such as King Lokapala and King Balitung Mah Sambu. The process
of building the temple is also accompanied by changes in the water system and the areas around
the temple so that the temple is more awake.

The temple complex was built periodically and continued by other kings such as King Daksa and
King Tulodong. Hundreds of additional temples were also built around the main temple building
as a companion temple.

After that, a very magnificent temple building was formed. The splendor of the Prambanan
temple also received wide acceptance from the people of that era. This temple is dedicated to
Trimurti, the three main Hindu gods, namely Brahma as the creator god, Vishnu as the preserver
god, and Shiva as the destroyer god.

The splendor of this temple makes Prambanan the great temple of the Mataram Kingdom.
Prambanan Temple serves as a meeting place, rituals, and important royal ceremonies. also
read The History of Borobudur Temple and Its Origin Story

238
Inside the Shiva temple as the main temple, there is a Shiva statue in the garbhagriha or main
room. Archaeologists believe that the statue is a statue of the embodiment of King Balitung.

The Legend of Prambanan Temple

Prambanan Temple was abandoned around 930 AD. This is most likely caused by the violent
eruption of Mount Merapi in the north of the Prambanan temple. The capital of the Mataram
kingdom was moved to East Java by Mpu Sindok, who later founded the Isyana dynasty.

Another possible cause for the transfer of the capital is a war or power struggle. As a result, the
Prambanan temple became neglected and neglected. The temple building began to crumble and
collapse. After an earthquake in the 16th century, the Prambanan temple became increasingly
damaged. After the split of the Mataram Sultanate in 1755 AD, the ruins of this temple became
the boundary between the Yogyakarta Sultanate and the Surakarta Sunanate. At that time, many
local residents knew the existence of this temple, but did not know its history and origin. At that
time, developed myths and fairy tales about the origin of the existence of the temple. The fairy
tale tells the story of thousands of temples that were built in one night with the help of spirits at
the request of Rara Jonggrang’s daughter, but then the princess was cursed to become a statue for
cheating. The story became so famous that the temple is also known as Roro Jonggrang
Temple. Even today, the story of the construction of the temple in 1 night is still widely told as
part of the legend of the community.

239
About the Author--- UDAY DOKRAS
The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He
was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human
Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human
Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant
to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of
Business Management and Research, Nagpur.

In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi

millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of
Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done
his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a
MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he
has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth
Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years.
In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was
invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of
Seychelles.
Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English.
SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”

RESEARCH PAPERS-1320 + in Researchgate and academia.edu & scribd

Followers(readers) 665,000 consolidated as on 26 th September,2022.

Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS

240
 Dr.
Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Management and Efficacy Consultant, India

Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and
failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project
marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN

241
From the Newspaper Times of India March
24, 2018

242
Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in
which is about Dr Uday Dokras

243
Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA
releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA
gimes( May 2010)

244
245
246
Some of my books

247
248
249
Some of the 200+ BOOKS BY DR UDAY DOKRAS
Published by
The Indo Swedish Author’s Collective Stockholm
The Indo Swedish Author’s Collective Finland

Dr. Uday Dokras

250
 Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers

The Cambodian Trilogy

I.HINDU CAMBODIA

II.HYDROLOGY of ANGKOR
ANGKOR is known as a Hydraulic city- full or canals and river and
waterways. It is this water system they say that brought the downfall of this
intrinsic kingdom. But is that TRUE?

251
 III.ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT
VANISHED- Angkor

Building Materials of the Hindu Temple

Indo Nordic Author's collective, 2021
In depth study of how Building Materials of the Hindu Temple was used in
India,Indonesia and Cambodia and India

The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN

TEMPLE COMPLEX, AMRITSAR

252
 Mathematics in Temple Designs

Jain ART
Book on Jain Art and Iconography

Jain Temples- Part I -Complete

Compendium-Book I
A to Z of the architecture, Design,Cosmology,Philosophy of Jain temples in

253
 Jain Temples II
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF JAIN TEMPLES AND THE
ACTUAL PHOTOGRAPHS(ORIGINAL) OF 3JAIN TEMPLES of Nagpur

DWARKA- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the

Lost CITY of KRISHNA

TIRUPATI TEMPLE Book part I

TIRUPATI TemplePart II
254
 Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods
Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods. Animals in Hinduism. demi Gods

SATYANARAYAN PUJA-The Complete

Compendium
Satyanarayan Puja or 9 Graha Puja( a puja of 9 planets) has been
performed by most Hindus not only now but for 1,000’s of years.

MAHALAXMI Puja
Hindu Goddess MAHALAXMI Puja

255
 ARCHITECTURE OF PALESTINE

Palestine my Love
Palestine my Love is about the culture arts and crafts of palestine so we
recognize it as a entity that is fighting for recognition of not only its
legitimacy but also its cultural heritage

QUINTET (5) BOOKS ON MANDALA

Unravelling the MAZE of the MANDALA

BOOK I
First part of a two book treatise on MANDALAS. This introductory phase
introduces mandalas

Maze of MANDALA BOOK II

256
Advanced Mandala routine for those who want to know more about
MANDALAS

Mandala BOOK III on Nakshatra

BOOK IV MANDALA & ARCHITECTURE

The Use of Mandalas in Building Temples and Modern Buildings

Book V on Mandala of the Oriental

Kingdoms

257
Islamic Architectureal Arts of of Imam Ali's
2 Shrines

Hindu Gods in Scandinavia

Did the Hindu Gods originate or live in Scandinavia once? Find out

Book on Divinity and Architecture

What is divinity? How has man tried to harness architecture to create magic
in space

258
 Virat Hridaya Padma-sthalam
CHIDAMBARAM Temple -Celestial
Mysteries
This book is about a mysterious and revered tempe built by the Chola
Kings of South India 2000 years ago

T2- Temple Tech. A Book

How are Hindu temples built and the technology that follows this craft.
From A to Z Complete Guide.

Rendezvous with Sri RAM Portfolio of

Temple Art by Srishti Dokras, Architect
Special section on Hindu Foods by Karan
Dokras, Product Guru

259
 Best Foot Forward
The story of Footwear through the ages up to COVID times

Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial

Mysteries
A to Z of Temples. A total Panoramic View of design and architecture of
Hindu temples in 350 page...

DUOLOGY (2) on JAINISM

Ativir
ATIVIR means Very Brave and is the name given to Lord Mahavir the 24 th
Saint(TIRTHANKAR) Contains rare translations of the Dialogue of the
Mahavir with his disciples called GHANDHARVAVAD

260
 Vardhaman-वर्धमान
IThis book is about Jainism- written by a non-

THE TRILOGY(3) on DEVRAJA The God

kIngs of Khemer

Book I DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo

China-Cambodia.
This is the first Book of a Trilogy that traces the growth of Hinduism in
South East Asia.

BOOK I I DEVRAJA- The Great Civilizations

of South East Asia -HINDU Era
How Hinduism reached Cambodia and how the Hindu Kings called Devraj
Built these magnificent structures

261
Devraja BOOK II I Devraja and Raj Dharma
God King and Kingly Religion The HINDU
Era of Great Civilizations of Khemer
Book 2 of a Trilogy that traces the advent of Hinduism on South East Asian
and Indo-Chinese

Vayu- Man's taming of the winds

Man's conquest of nature spans a million years. How was wind tamed by
him. Here is the full story... more

VIMANA Ancient Conquests of Wind

Ancient flying machines of Gods and Men(?) Were they true. Did they really
exist. 7000 years ago?

262
 LIGHT HOUSES In words and pictures

BOOK Architecture of the Lighthouse of

Alexandria-BOOK
Indo Swedish Author's Collective, 2020
The lighthouse was built on an island off the coast of Alexandria called
Pharos. Its name, legend

Cosmology of lotus
Indo Nordic Author's Collective, 2020
The Lotus is the king of the flower world but few know it as a part of
creation. Find out the Cosmology.

Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur

Temple
263
 Borobudur remains a mystery even today. The largest Buddhist Stupa in
the world has many unanswered...
Win with this new DIET

Hindu tempel of India , Cambodia and

Indonesia
Hindu Temples dot India, Cambodia and Indonesia

DISRUPTION-Book

Book Architecture Creativity

Creativity and Architecture are linked and go hand in hand. This Book is a
culmination of 16 publications that have been put together as a book

Project HR Management
264
 Indo Swedish Author's Collective
PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT/'Dr UDAY DOKRAS The
project sphere has not been valued appropriately

Human Resource Engineering in Theme

Parks.
by Dr. Uday Dokras and Mansse Bhandari
As theme parks evolve into facilitating for greater thrill seeking
audience,the role of human res... more

Health Human Resource Management

Management of Health care workers in hospitals and the human resource
practices to be followed in hospitals.

WIN DIET Lose fat-Diet and Exercise Book

ONLY BODY SHAPING GUIDE YOU NEED
265
The Act on Co-determination at Work – an
Efficacy study
Thesis of the Author for the degree of Doctor of Law
Stockholm University, SWEDEN 1990

Later Bookks by the Authors

266
267