CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION

What is a cell? A cell is a smallest unit that can live on its own and that makes up
all living organisms and the tissues of the body.
Cells are important elements of living things, be it humans or plants, even animals.
Every living organism is composed of cells.
Every organ in our body performs a variety of different functions such as digestion,
assimilation and absorption. Similarly in plants too, there are different organs of the
plant which perform specialized or specific functions. For instance the roots of the
plants help in the absorption of minerals and water.
In our bodies and those of every living organism, every organ is composed of smaller
parts known as tissues. A tissue is a group of like cells that perform a specific
function.
Types of cells
There are different types of cells. But let’s first deal with animal cell and plant cell
Parts of the cell

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Plant cell features & functions
1. Cell wall- it gives a cell a definite shape and structure, provides structural support
and protects the cell against infection and mechanical stress, including wear and tear.
Lastly, it prevents water loss from plant cells.
2. Cell membrane/plasma membrane- is one of the most crucial parts of the cell.
It is the outermost limiting membrane of the cell that encompasses all the cell
contents. This membrane is formed from proteins and lipids and acts as an
interface between the cell organelles in the cytoplasm inside the cell and the
extracellular fluid on the cell’s exterior, which bathes all the cells.
 It acts as a semi-permeable membrane that permits the passage of selective
substances from the outside to the inside of the cell and vice versa.
 It acts as a gate that allows the transport into the cell of important nutrients
and movement from the cell of waste products e.g Co2
3. Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance that is present between the nucleus and the
cell membrane. Inside the cytoplasm we have things like mitochondria, golgi bodies,
ribosomes etc.
3.1 mitochondria- are a double membrane found in most eukaryotic
organisms.
 They function as the cell’s “digestive system” by breaking down
nutrients and generating energy-rich molecules for the cell through
(oxidative phosphorylation).
 They regulate the metabolic activity of the cell.
 promote the growth of new cell and cell multiplication.

3.2 golgi bodies/apparatus- These are stacks of cisternae (flattened sacs of

unit membrane) that are mainly devoted to processing the proteins formed in
the ER (endoplasmic reticulum).
 Their fuction is to transform proteins into more complex molecules.

 They have a large number of vesicles, which are used to send molecules
to the cellular membrane, where excretion is carried out.

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 3.3 Ribosomes- These are small, spherical, non-membranous organelles
composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA).
 They are responsible for protein synthesis
 and are sites where the cell assembles proteins in accordance with
the genetic instructions obtained.

N:B Cells which have high protein synthesis rate feature the presence of a large
number of ribosomes. Ribosomes are found scattered in the cytoplasm as well as
adhering to the outer portion of the endoplasmic reticulum.

Endoplasmic Reticulum- The term ‘endoplasmic’ means within the cytoplasm and
‘reticulum’ refers to network. ER consists of a network of membranous sacs and
tubules called cisternae. There are two types of ER – rough ER and smooth ER.
Rough ER is the one that has a bumpy appearance due to the presence of ribosomes
attached to them.

The smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached to them. Rough ER is responsible
for protein synthesis, while the smooth ER synthesizes lipids and is responsible for
carbohydrate metabolism and detoxification of drugs and other poisons.
4. Nucleus
It is located in the center of the cell and it is usually spherical in shape. It is porous
and
 allows some materials between the cytoplasm and the inside of the nucleus.
 inside the nucleus is known as the nucleolus, besides this the nucleus also has
several threat-like structures known as the chromosomes. The chromosomes
carry genes and support in the transfer of inheritance of characters from the
parents to the offspring.
 It also works as the control center of the activities of the cell.
5. Vacuole
Vacuoles are fluid-filled sacs present in the cytoplasm of cells.
 Their main function is storage (cell sap), storing gases, fluids, nutrients,
waste materials, etc.
 They carry out a large number of different functions right from excretion of
wastes, to inter-cellular digestion, maintaining turgor pressure, cell pH, etc.

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5. Chloroplasts
 Produce energy through photosynthesis and oxygen-release processes, which
sustain plant growth and crop yield.
 As such chloroplasts are responsible for the biosynthesis of active compounds
such as amino acids, phytohormones, nucleotides, vitamins, lipids, and
secondary metabolites.
NB; in plant cells glucose produced by photosynthesis is converted into starch and
it is stored in the cytoplasm.
Animal cell features & functions
1. they have an irregular shape as they do not have a rigid cell wall.
2. they may have several small vacuoles, temporary vacuoles, used for digestion or
the excretion of excess water.
3. they have a denser cytoplasm- which contains more dissolved substances and
organelles e.g (more mitochondria where respiration takes place to release more
energy for fast movement).
4. contains lysosomes (often budded on the golgi apparatus)- Their function is
digestion, waste removal/breaking down excess or worn-out cell parts, they may also
be used to destroy invading viruses and bacteria.
N;B In animal cells (carbohydrates) are stored in the form of glycogen which is
stored in the liver and the muscles to be used when needed.
Similarities between plant cells and animal cells
Both animal and plant cells are eukaryotic cells and have several similarities. The
similarities include;
 common organelles like cell membrane, cell nucleus, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes and golgi apparatus.

Differences between plant cells and animal cells

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 1) The plant cells have a cell wall which surrounds the cell membrane. On the
other hand, the animal cells have no cell wall.
2) In plant cells, there are chloroplasts which are helpful in photosynthesis. No
chloroplasts in animal cells
3) In plant cells, there is a large vacuole (like a fluid sack) in comparison to
animal cells
4) Animal cells are ‘blobby’. On the other hand, the cells in plants are more
structured because of the presence of a cell wall. It forms a lattice-like
structure which helps with rigidness.

SPECIALIZED CELLS
What is cell specialization/cell differentiation? this is the process by which
unspecialized cells such as stem cells become specialized in form and function to
perform specific roles within a multicellular organism.
How does a cell become specialized? Gene expression, this causes them to acquire
unique features and functions. This can involve changes in their shape, size,
metabolic activity, and the production of specific proteins and organelles. E.g a
muscle cell is specialized for contraction.

Specialized cells in plants

Plants have many types of specialised cells, which perform different functions in
their leaves, stems and roots.

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1. Guard cells-

Adaptation
-they are kidney-shaped structures that surround the stomatal openings.
Functions
-they surround each stoma for their protection
-regulate the rate of transpiration by opening and closing of the stomata
-control gaseous exchanges in the epidermis of leaves, stems and other organs.
2. Root hair cells

Adaptation
- They are long and thin in order to penetrate between soil particles, and they have a
large surface area for absorption of water through the process of osmosis, including
mineral ions.
-walls are thin to ensure that water moves through quickly.
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-No chloroplasts present.
Functions
Absorption of water and mineral ions from the soil.

3. Palisade mesophyll cells

Adaptation
-column shaped to maximize absorption of sunlight
-they are paired tightly together and contain chloroplasts (where photosynthesis
takes place).
Functions
Responsible for photosynthesis
4. Xylem vessels

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Adaptation
-no top and bottom walls between xylem vessels, so there is a continuous column of
water running through them.
-cells are dead without organelles or cytoplasm to allow free passage of water
-their walls are thickened with lignin (offering support to the plant).

Functions
-transports water and mineral salts from the roots up to other parts of a plant (this
process is called transpiration stream).
-provides support to the plant.
Phloem vessels
Adaptation
-Thin cell wall made of cellulose
Functions
transports sucrose and amino acids up and down the plant (this process is called
translocation). In general this happens between where these substances are made (the
sources) and where they are used or stored (the sinks). So this means that sucrose is
transported from sources in the root to sinks in the leaves in spring time. And from
sources in the leaves and sinks in the root in summer.

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Common misconceptions
Xylem and phloem tissue are often confused. Xylem carries water and mineral
salts, while Phloem transports sugars and amino acids. In a vascular bundle in a
stem, Phloem is on the outside and Xylem is on the inside.

Specialized cells in humans

They include red blood cells, white blood cells, sperm cells, egg cells, nerve cells,
muscle cells, ciliated cells and villi.
1. red blood cells

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 Adaptation
-they contain haemoglobin, which carries oxygen
molecules
-they do not have a nucleus, which allows more space
to carry oxygen.
-they are a flat disc shape with dips on both sides
(biconcave). This gives them a large surface area, and
the chance of absorbing as much oxygen as they can in
the lungs.
Function
They carry oxygen around the body, which is needed for respiration.
2. white blood cells(also known as leukocytes)
There are different types of white blood cells and they are responsible for defending
the body against infections and diseases.
a) Lymphocytes-consist of T cells (natural killer cells) and B cells (to protect
against viral infections and produce proteins(antibodies) to help fight
infection.
b) Phagocytes-(continuously produced in the bone marrow). Are a type of white
blood cell that can surround and kill microorganisms such as bacteria and
fungi, ingest foreign material and remove dead cells. (examples include
neutrophils and macrophages) and can both carry out phagocytosis, which is
a process of recognizing and engulfing a pathogen.

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Phagocytosis

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3. sperm cell

Adaptation
-has a tail for movement
-many mitochondria which release energy for movement.
-part of the tip on their heads (acrosome) releases enzymes to digest the egg
membrane to allow fertilization to take place.

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-the haploid nucleus contains the genetic material for fertilization.
Function
They fuse with egg cell during fertilization to form a zygote which can then develop
into a new organism.
4. egg cell
Adaptation
-has cytoplasm containing nutrients for growth of a developing embryo
-has a nucleus that contains the genetic material for fertilisation
-cell membrane changes after fertilization by a single sperm so that no more sperm
can enter.
Function
Fuses with sperm cells to produce a zygote during fertilization.

5. Ciliated cells in respiratory tract

Features: tiny hairs called cilia which can move mucus.
Function: waft mucus with bacteria and dust away from the lungs.

6. Muscle cells
Features: cells merge together to form fibres that can contract.
Function: cause movement

KEY DEFINITIONS

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WHAT ARE ORGANELLES? Structures within a cell (e.g. nucleus, vacuole,
cytoplasm and chloroplast are all organelles of a plant cell).
WHAT IS A TISSUE? IT IS A GROUP OF CELLS WITH SIMILAR
STRUCTURES, WHICH WORK TOGETHER TO PERFORM A SHARED
FUNCTION.
WHAT IS AN ORGAN? IT IS A STRUCTURE MADE UP OF A GROUP OF
TISSUES, WORKING TOGETHER TO PERFORM A SPECIFIC FUNCTION.
WHAT IS AN ORGAN SYSTEM? IT IS A GROUP OF ORGANS WITH
RELATED FUNCTIONS, WORKING TOGETHER TO PERFORM BODY
FUNCTIONS. E.g. the circulatory system carries blood to all parts of the body. It is
made up of heart, arteries, veins, capillaries and blood.
WHAT IS AN ORGANISM? Various organ systems together make up an
organism. A human organism has:
Respiratory system Digestive system Circulatory system Nervous system
Endocrine system.
LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION

MOVEMENT IN AND OUT OF A CELL

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(a) Diffusion-it is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration down a concentration gradient, as a result of their
random movement.
Examples of diffusion in living organisms
• CO2 used by plants for photosynthesis diffuses from the air into the leaves,
through the stomata (pores at the surface of leaves). There is a lower
concentration of CO2 inside the leaf, as the cells are using it up. O2 (waste
product of photosynthesis diffuses out in the same way).
• Flowering plants use diffusion to attract pollinators like bees.
• Absorption of nutrients in the digestive system. Nutrients from food are
broken down and then diffuse across the lining of the small intestines and
into the bloodstream, where they can be transported to the rest of the body.

• Gas exchange in the lungs-oxygen diffuse from the air in the lungs into the
blood stream, while carbon dioxide fusses from the bloodstream into the
air in the lungs allowing exchange of gases necessary for respiration.

• Many aquatic organisms rely on diffusion to take up nutrients and eliminate

waste products from their environment. For example; fish gills are
specialized structures that allow for the exchange of gases and nutrients via
diffusion.

(b) Osmosis- is the diffusion of water molecules from a region of their higher
concentration (higher water potential) to a region of their lower concentration (lower
water potential), through a partially permeable membrane.

QUESTION- Describe and explain the importance of water potential gradient in the
uptake of water by plants.

Answer; the water potential gradient between the soil and the plant plays a crucial
role in driving the movement of water into the roots and up through the plant.

 This helps water to reach the leaves so that photosynthesis can take place
 It regulates if a plant is turgid or plasmolysed

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QUESTION-USING THE KNOWLEDGE YOU HAVE ABOUT OSMOSIS,
EXPLAIN WHAT THE PICTURE BELOW MEANS. (3)

ANSWER:
- The concentration of sugar molecules is higher on the concentrated solution
(L) and lower on the diluted one (R).
- The concentration of water molecules is higher on the (R) and lower on the
(L) (a lot of place is taken up by sugar molecules).
-There is a water potential gradient between the 2 sides. The water molecules diffuse
down this gradient, from a high water potential (R) to a low water potential (L).

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NB-It is confusing to talk about the 'concentration of water', so we can say that a
diluted solution (R) has a high water potential and a concentrated solution (L) has a
low water potential.
Effects of Osmosis on plant and
animal cells

1. When placed in H2O:

Concentration of H2O outside the

cell is higher than inside it. Cells
will take in H2O by osmosis:
Where water will move from
across a cell membrane from an
area of high water concentration
to an area of low water
concentration. As a result,

• plant cells become

turgid, meaning it will
expand and become firm.
The central vacuole in the
cell will fill with water,
pushing the cell membrane
against the cell wall, which
will resist further expansion,
causing the cell to become
stiff and rigid. This turgor
pressure is what helps to maintain the shape and
structure of the plant.
• animal cells will burst (no cell wall).

2. When placed in concentrated sugar or salt solutions:

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 NB- Concentration of H2O inside the cell is higher than outside it. H2O get
out of the cells by osmosis:
• plant- in this case the plant cell is the selectively permeable membrane.
The concentrated sugar solution outside the plant cell has a lower water
potential than the inside of the plant cell. This means that water molecules
inside plant cell will move out of the cell and into the sugar solution,
causing it to lose water and become dehydrated. The cell membrane will
also shrink away from the cell wall (plasmolysis). Cells become flaccid
(soft and limp). The plant loses its firmness and begins to wilt.
• Animal- in this case, the concentrated sugar solution outside the cell is
hypertonic, meaning it has a higher concentration of solutes than the cell’s
cytoplasm. As a result water will move out of the cell in an attempt to
balance the concentration of the solutes on both sides of the membrane.
Then the cell shrinks, and becomes crenated (plasmolysis).

(C) Active transport-it is the movement of ions in or out of a cell through cell
membrane from their region of lower concentration to their region of higher
concentration, up a concentration gradient, using energy acquired from respiration.
e.g. ion uptake by root hairs and glucose uptake by epithelial cells of villi.

TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
Plants have transport systems to move food, water and minerals around. These
systems use continuous tubes called xylem and phloem:
Adaptation and functions of xylem and phloem-
Adaptation
-no top and bottom walls between xylem vessels, so there is a continuous column of
water running through them.
-cells are dead without organelles or cytoplasm to allow free passage of water
-their walls are thickened with lignin (offering support to the plant).

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Functions
-transports water and mineral salts from the roots up to other parts of a plant (this
process is called transpiration stream).
-provides support to the plant.
Phloem tissue
Adaptation
*sieve tubes-these are arranged end to end to form long tubes and are connected by
sieve plates which are porous and allow movement of materials from one cell to
another.
*companion cells-each sieve tube element is associated with a companion cell that
provides metabolic support including production of ATP (Adenocine triphosphate-
energy molecule) and the synthesis of proteins and other organic compounds.
*parenchyma cells-provide structural support and store nutrients for the plant
*reduced organelles-the sieve tube elements lack most of the typical organelles
found in plant cells, such as nucleus, ribosomes, and vacuoles. This allows for more
space within the cells for the transport of organic compounds.
*pressure flow mechanism-the movement of materials through the phloem is
facilitated by a pressure flow mechanism, which involves the creation of a high
pressure gradient at the source cells and a low pressure gradient at the sink cells.

Functions
Transports organic compounds such as sugars and amino acids from the leaves and
other tissues to the rest of the plant, including roots, flowers and fruits (this process
is called translocation).

In general this happens between where these substances are made (the sources) and
where they are used or stored (the sinks). So this means that sucrose is transported
from sources in the root to sinks in the leaves in spring time. And from sources in
the leaves and sinks in the root in summer.
Structures of xylem and phloem tissues as seen in transverse sections of
unthickened, herbaceous, dicotyledonous roots, stems and leaves:

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NB-
* in the roots xylem and phloem are in the centre to withstand stretching forces.
*in the stems they are arranged in bundles near the edge to resist compression and
bending.
* They are grouped together into veins and vascular bundles as they pass through
leaves.
Root hairs and water uptake by plants
Functions of root hair cells
-absorption of water and mineral ions from the soil
-Provide anchorage and support to the plant.
-facilitate exchange of gases between the plant and the soil. E.g oxygen diffuses from
the soil into the root hair cell, while carbon dioxide and other waster gases diffuse
out of the cells and into the soil.
-protection against pathogens-root hair cells are involved in the defence mechanisms
of plants against pathogens. They secrete substances that inhibit the growth of
pathogenic microorganisms and also help to trap and immobilize these pathogens.
How water moves from the root, stem and leaf
- Water enters root hair cells by osmosis. This happens when the water potential in
the soil surrounding the root is higher than in the cell.
- As the water enters the cell, its water potential becomes higher than in the cell next
to it, e.g. in the cortex.

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- as Water vapour evaporates from a leaf, it creates a kind of suction
-more water is drawn into the leaf from the xylem by traspiration pull
- Roots also produce a root pressure, forcing water up xylem vessels.
- Xylem vessels are very thin, so they act like a capillary tube helping to withdraw
water upward
- Water moves from xylem to enter leaf tissues.
-In the leaves, water passes into the surrounding cells.
- it move through the spongy mesophyll layer by osmosis along a concentration
gradient.
-Water then diffuses through the stomata into the surrounding air.
Transpiration in plants and factors affecting transpiration rate
Transpiration- is the evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells,
followed by loss of water vapour from plant leaves, through the stomata.
Ways in which transpiration is important to the plant
1. it results in a transpiration pull which thereby increases the rate of absorption of
water along with minerals from the soil through the roots.
2. is in transportation of absorbed minerals to all parts of the plant
3. it provides water for photosynthesis
4. helps in cooling the structures of the plant when exposed to hot sunlight.
5. helps cells to maintain their turgidity
6. excess water is removed from the cells of the plant to prevent plant decay
7. osmotic balance of the plant is maintained by the process of transpiration
8. helps in the distribution of dissolved substances to all parts of the plant
9. helps in maintaining balance in the environment by protecting trees and thereby
forests.

Factors affecting the rate of transpiration

These are light intensity, temperature, humidity, and wind speed.

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 Factor Explanation
1. Temperature As temperature increases, the rate of
evaporation and diffusion increases as
the particles have more energy
2. Light intensity The stomata can be opened and closed
to allow the diffusion of co2 from the
atmosphere and therefore water vapour
can be lost through the pores
3. humidity Low humidity results in increased
transpiration rate-diffusion of water
vapour occurs more rapidly
4. wind speed As wind speed increases, the rate of
transpiration also increases because the
wind blows the water away from the
leaves, giving a larger concentration
gradient for vapour to diffuse out of the
leaf

NB- The opening and closing of the stomata is controlled by the guard cells.
• In light, guard cells take up water by osmosis and become turgid. Because
their inner walls are rigid they are pulled apart, opening the pore.
• In darkness water is lost and the inner walls move together closing the pore.

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QUESTIONS
1. Describe how water vapour loss is related to cell surfaces, air spaces and stomata.
Answer
*the cell surfaces of leaves and stems are covered by a waxy cuticle, which helps
prevent water loss by creating a barrier between the plant and the surrounding
environment.
The cuticle is however, not impermeable, and some water vapour can still pass
through it.
* air spaces-they allow diffusion of gases, including water vapour , between internal
and external environments of the plant.
The size and distribution of these spaces can affect the rate of water vapour loss,
with larger and more interconnected spaces allowing for more rapid diffusion.
*stomata- they are the site of water vapour loss in plants. When they are open, water
vapour can diffuse out of the plant through spaces between cells and the stomatal
pores.
Nb-the size and distribution of stomata, as well as their regulation by guard cells,
can greatly influence the rate of water vapour loss. E.g, plants in arid environments
may have fewer and smaller stomata, which can help to reduce water loss and
conserve moisture.

Investigate, using a suitable stain, the pathway of water trough plant stem to
the leaves.

Apparatus
 Glass jar
 Water
 Scalpel
 Plant stem
 Dye

Procedure
 Take a glass jar

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  Pour a glass of water into the jar
 Add drops of red dye slowly into the water until it changes colour completely
 Cut a plant stalk/stem (celery) using scalpel such that it fits well in the jar
 Place the end of the stem in the water
 Leaves the set-up for 1 hour in the sun

Observation
 The plant stem will begin to absorb the water due to transpiration
 The thin segments of the stem will be stained with the dye
 The water will move up through xylem vessels into the leaves
 By capillary action and transpiration pull
 Which help draw up the water into the leaves
 As the water reaches the leaves, the edges, and veins will also be stained red

Conclusion
 The stem stem and some parts of the leaves being stained with the red dye
shows that water was absorbed by the stem and was transported through xylem
until it reached the leaves.

Safety precautions
 Wear lab coat as dye would ruin colour of your clothes
 Wear disposable gloves- some people may have sensitive skin
 Use scalpel and not hands or knife to cut the plant stem

Reliability
 Repeat experiment to get more reliable results

WILTING
How does wilting occur?
Wilting occurs when a plant loses turgor pressure in its cells, causing it to bend and
appear limp.
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Turgor pressure is the pressure that the plant cells exert against their cell walls due
to the water content within the cells. This pressure helps the plant to maintain its
shape and turgidity.

*wilting occurs when a plant does not receive enough water or if there is an
interruption in the water supply. This means that its roots cannot take in enough
water to maintain turgor pressure, and the cells begin to lose their shape and become
flaccid.
*when the loss of water exceeds the rate at which the plant can replace it, the cells
lose their turgor pressure, and the plant begins to wilt.

*the loss of turgor pressure is caused by the loss of water from the cells, which is
either due to;
 Water deficiency-when the soil is too dry, plants may not be able to absorb
enough water
 Transpiration- environmental factors-e.g high temperatures, low humidity and
high winds which can cause wilting by increasing the rate of transpiration.
 Respiration-where the plant uses water during its metabolic processes.
 Diseases also may cause wilting because they can block plants’ ability to
absorb water and nutrients.
 Overwatering-causes waterlogging which deprives the roots of oxygen and
lead to root rot.

NB: wilting is often the first visible sign that the plant is under stress due to
insufficient water. If the plant is not watered soon enough, it may suffer
permanent damage or even die.

ADAPTATIONS OF THE LEAF, STEM AND ROOT OF PLANTS

GROWING IN DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS.
Plants which live in extreme environments have adaptations to control their
transpiration rate. Most modifications are adaptations to very dry (arid)
environments.

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Plants modified to cope with a lack of water are called xerophytes. Living in desserts
where water is scarce and evaporation is rapid, or in windy habitats where
evaporation can also be rapid, they have to cut down water loss.
Examples:
1. Marram grass (Ammophila)
Adaptations
*have very long roots to search for water deep down in sand dunes
*have leaves that roll up in dry weather to increase humidity around stomata,
reducing transpiration
*have sunken stomata to create high humidity and reduce transpiration
*have fine hairs around stomata, reducing air movement so that humidity
builds up and transpiration is reduced.
*thick waxy cuticle which prevents evaporation and the shiny surface reflects
heat and so lowers temperature therefore cutting down water loss.

2. Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia)

Adaptations
 Have leaves that are reduced to spines-this reduces the surface area for
transpiration and also acts as a defense against herbivores
 Reduced number of stomata
 Stomata closed during the day-when conditions for transpiration are more
favourable therefore reducing water loss
 Very long roots-provides large surface area for absorption of water
 Fleshy green stem-for storage of water, and reduced transpiration

3. Pine tree (pinus)

Adaptations
 Leaves are needle-shaped-to reduce surface area for transpiration and to resist
wind damage
 Sunken stomata-to create high humidity and reduce transpiration
 Thick waxy cuticle on the epidermis-to prevent evaporation from leaf surface

Water plants
1. Indian lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)
Adaptations
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  Floating leaves to allow diffusion of carbon dioxide necessary for
photosynthesis
 Stomata only on the upper surface to allow diffusion of gases
 Little roots for anchorage/ no need for roots to absorb water or
minerals

2. Water hyacinth (erichhornia csassipes)

Adaptations
*roots do not attach to the bed of the river or pond where they grow, but just
float in the water
*the stems and leaf stalks have hollow spaces in them, filled with air that helps
to float on the top of water where they can get plenty of light for
photosynthesis
*leaves and stomata are on both surfaces to allow absorption of carbon dioxide
from the air for photosynthesis
*the cuticle on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves is much thinner than
in plants that do not live in water, there is no need to prevent water loss from
the leaves.

TRANSLOCATION—It is the movement of organic food substances such as

sucrose and amino acids in phloem, from regions of production (leaves) to regions
of storage (roots) or regions of their use in respiration or growth.

NB: Sucrose and amino acids are transported to every tissue of the plant and each
cell use them in a different way. E.g
 Root cells-convert sucrose into glucose for respiration and storage
 Growing cells- make cellulose for cell walls from sucrose and use the amino
acids to make proteins for growth
 Fruits- use the sucrose to make the attractive scent and tasty nectar to attract
insects.

NB: the areas of the plant where sucrose is made are called sources, and where
they are delivered and made use of are called sinks.

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TRANSLOCATION OF APPLIED CHEMICALS (PESTICIDES)
THROUGHOUT THE PLANT
Pesticides are used to kill insects or fungi that feed on plants. Some pesticides only
kill insects or fungi that the spray touches. These are called contact pesticides.

Translocation is very important in systemic pesticides because when sprayed on the

leaves of the plant, they are absorbed by it through the cuticle or the stomata and
into phloem tubes. They move through the plant in phloem, through the leaves,
stems, flowers and fruits, and are taken in by any insect eating the plant or sucking
up phloem sap. So any insect feeding on the plant, even if it was hidden under a leaf
where the spray could not reach it, will eventually end up feeding on pesticide.
Disadvantages of systemic pesticides
1. can harm non-target organisms which are beneficial and feed on those
plants or insects targeted by the pesticide
2. Persistence-this can lead to unintended exposure of non-target organisms
and potential accumulation in the food chain
3. Resistance
4. can pose harm to animals and humans that come into contact with it,
which may be through consumption of contaminated food, inhalation or
skin exposure
5. can have negative environmental impact such as soil and water
contamination, damage to non-target plants and animals

TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS FROM SOURCES TO SINKS AT

DIFFERENT SEASONS
Examples;
Sources-part of a plant where substances are produced
Leaves-sucrose is produced here
Root hairs-nitrate ions are absorbed here

Sinks-part of a plant where substances can be stored

Roots/stems-starch is stored here

28
Root tips-amino acids are stored here

NB: when a plant is actively photosynthesising and growing, the leaves are generally
the major sources of translocated materials. They are constantly producing sucrose,
which is carried in the phloem to all other parts of the plant.
The sinks (roots, flowers and fruits)
*Roots may change some of the sucrose to starch and store it
*the flowers use sucrose to make fructose
*later when fruits are developing, large amount of sucrose may be used to produce
sweet, juicy fruit ready to attract animals.

NB: many plants have a time of year when they become dormant. During this stage,
they wait harsh conditions in a state of reduced activity.
*dormant plants do not photosynthesize, but survive on their stored starch, oils and
other materials. When the seasons change, they begin to grow again. Now the stored
materials are converted to sucrose and transported to the growing regions.

For example;
Potato plants
During summer –the leaves photosynthesize and send sucrose down into
underground stems. Here, the swellings called tubers develop. The cells in the root
tubers change the sucrose to starch and store it
During winter- the leaves die. Nothing is left of the potato plant above ground, just
the stem tubers beneath the soul so the plant survive on the stored starch.
In spring- they begin to new shoots and leaves. The starch in the tubers is changed
back to sucrose and transported in the phloem to the growing stems and leaves. This
will continue until the leaves are above ground and can photosynthesize.
So in short;
In summer, the leaves are sources and the growing stem tubers are sinks. In spring,
the stem tubers are sources and the growing leaves are sinks.

29
ENZYMES
What is an enzyme?-a biological catalyst that speeds the rate of chemical reaction
.
What is a catalyst?-a catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction and
is not changed by the reaction.
ENZYME ACTION
-all enzymes have an active site, which is a region or pocket on the surface of an
enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.
-This region usually contains amino acids residues with a specific shape, that are
specifically positioned to participate in a chemical reaction.
-this shape is complementary to the substrate
-when the enzyme breaks down the substrate, the substrate enters the active site to
form an enzyme substrate complex.
-the substrate is then broken down
-and the products are released from the active site
-the enzyme can then bind to another substrate molecule.

What do we mean by “each enzyme is complementary to only one type of

substrate?”
This simply means that the enzyme cannot break down other substrates. For
example;
 Protease enzymes are responsible for breaking down proteins into amino
acids which are absorbed into the blood. So proteases cannot however,
break down other molecules such as carbohydrates which can only be
broken down by carbohydrates enzymes.

ENZYME ACTION IN TERMS OF “LOCK AND KEY HYPOTHESIS"

The lock and key hypothesis is a model that explains how enzymes interact with
their substrates to catalyze chemical reactions in living organisms.
According to this model;

30
  Enzymes are like (locks) that substrate molecules (keys) fit into.
In more detail;
 The lock and key hypothesis proposes that each enzyme has a specific three-
dimensional structure that allows it to bind to a specific substrate molecule.
 This binding occurs at a region of the enzyme called (active site), which is a
pocket that is perfectly shaped to accommodate the substrate molecule.
 Just like a key fits into a lock, the substrate molecule fits into the active site
of the enzyme, forming an enzyme substrate complex
 The active site of the enzyme is then able to lower the activation energy
required for chemical reaction to occur, allowing the reaction to take place
more easily and quickly than it would.
 Once the reaction is complete, the products of the reaction are released from
the active site of the enzyme, and the enzyme is free to bind to another
substrate molecule and repeat the process.
ILLUSTRATIVE DIAGRAM

FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY

Enzyme activity can be affected by changes in temperature and pH
NB: Enzymes are protein molecules and like other proteins they have a specific
three-dimensional structure that is important for their function. So changes in
temperature and pH can cause changes in this structure, affecting enzyme
activity.
- TEMPERATURE

31
 -at low temperatures, enzyme activity is typically low, as the rate of
molecular motion is slow and enzyme may not have enough kinetic energy
to catalyze a reaction.
-as the temperature increases, the enzyme activity increases up to an
optimum. This is because as temperature increases, the kinetic energy of
an enzyme and substrate molecules also increases, leading to more
successful collisions between them, therefore forming enzyme substrate
complexes
NB: the optimum (best) temperature for enzyme controlled reactions is 37°C
(body temperature)
- However, at temperatures above optimum, the enzyme activity
decreases rapidly due to denaturation of the enzyme, which means
that enzyme’s structure is irreversibly damaged, leading to a loss of
activity.
The graph below shows the typical change in an enzyme's activity, with
increasing temperature:
DIAGRAM

A question may arise asking you to explain this graph.

You can say:
- According to the graph, the enzyme activity gradually increases with
temperature up to around 37°C OR body temperature
- Then as the temperature continues to rise above optimum, the rate of
reaction falls rapidly as heat energy denatures the enzyme.

32
NB: most enzymes are denatured at temperatures above 50°C. Which means
that the active site changes shape. This decreases the rate of reaction as enzyme
substrate complexes can no longer form.
2. pH
*Enzymes have an optimum pH range, which is the pH that the enzyme
activity is highest or which an enzyme works best.
The pH of a solution is how acidic or alkaline it is.
*This optimum pH varies for each enzyme, and it is usually close to the pH
of the environment where the enzyme naturally functions.
* the reason for this is that changes in pH can alter the charge on the amino
acid residues that make up the enzyme’s active site, affecting the enzyme's
ability to bind to the substrate.
*enzyme activity typically decreases as the pH moves away from the optimum
pH ranges.
*the change in pH causes the shape of the enzyme to change, and slows down
its activity, meaning that the substrate cannot fit into the active site.
*at extreme pH values/levels, the enzyme can become denatured, leading to a
loss of activity.

NB: the pH for most enzymes is around ( 7 ) neutral, but there are exceptions.
For example:
Enzyme Substrate End product Location pH
Salivary Starch Maltose Mouth 6.8
amylase
Pancreatic Fats Fatty acids & Duodenum 9.0
lipase glycerol
Protease Proteins Polypeptides Stomach 2.0
(pepsin)

NB: in pH also alter an enzyme's shape and slows down its activity, but this can
usually be reversed if the optimum pH is restored.
An extreme pH can denature enzymes-the active site becomes deformed
permanently.
The graph below shows how pH affects enzyme activity

33
Looking at graph:
1. pepsin- as the pH increases, the rate of reaction also increases until optimum
(2) where the enzyme works best.
*above this optimum, the rate if reaction decreases
*this decrease happens because the shape of the enzyme changes as the pH
moves from its optimum range, making it less effective at catalyzing the
substrate.
*at extreme pH levels, the enzyme becomes denatured, leading to a loss of
activity.
2. most enzymes- the pH for most enzymes is around (7), the graph shows that
as the pH increases, the rate of enzyme reaction also increases until optimum.
*at above optimum, that is above pH (7), the reaction also decreases, until there
is no reaction anymore.

ROLE OF ENZYMES IN SEED GERMINATION

Enzymes play a crucial role in seed germination. When seeds are exposed to water,
they begin to absorb that water and this triggers a series of chemical reactions that
activate the enzymes in the seed.
Seeds contain food in their cotyledons to provide energy and materials for growth.
This is in the form of starch, proteins and fats/lipids

34
1. Amylase –
*in the presence of water, gibberellic acid stimulates the production of
amylase
&amylase breaks down starch into glucose, allowing the formation of ATP.
*glucose provides energy necessary for growth and development
*glucose may also be used to synthesise cellulose for cell wall formation.
2. Proteases
*proteases break down proteins stored in the food into amino acids
*amino acids can be used to build new proteins and enzymes required for growing
embryo
3. Lipase
*lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids & glycerol which can be used for energy
production.

USE OF ENZYMES IN BIOLOGICAL WASHING POWDERS

Enzymes are used in biological washing products to help in the breakdown of tough
stains and dirt from clothes.
The enzymes used in these products are usually
*proteases
*amylases
*and lipases
1. Proteases-they are responsible for breaking down protein-based stains such as
blood. The proteases in the washing powder break down the protein (haemoglobin)
molecules into amino acids, which are soluble/ can dissolve in water and can be
washed away.
*this also includes sweat and grass stains, which are also broken down into smaller
fragments that can be easily washed away.
2. Amylases- these are enzymes responsible for breaking down starch-based stains
which can be caused by a variety of substances, such as
- Food stains- foods that contain starch like pasta, potatoes, rice etc
- Blood

35
 - Mud
- Grass
- Adhesives, including glue and tape which can leave stains if they come into
contact with fabric
These enzymes are responsible for breaking down of these stains into glucose, which
is more soluble and can be easily washed away.
3. Lipases- these enzymes break down fat and oil-based stains such as cooking oils,
grease and butter into fatty acids and glycerol which can dissolve in water and get
removed from clothes.
4. Cellulase-breaks down cellulose-based stains such as grass and dirt stains
They are effective in removing stains from clothes and other materials that have been
in contact with the outdoors.
NB:these enzymes work at lower temperatures, and if the temperature is too high,
the enzymes become denatured. And will no longer be effective in removing stains.

USE OF ENZYMES IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY

Enzymes are widely used in the food industry for various purposes such as
improving texture, taste, nutritional value etc.
[Link]-enzymes in yeast convert sugar to ethanol and carbon dioxide
*carbon dioxide causes the bread dough to rise
2. Brewing and distilling
*enzymes such as amylase and beta-glucanase are used in brewing and distilling to
convert starches and other complex carbohydrates into simple sugars that can be
fermented into alcohol
3. Fruit juice
NB-fruit juices are extracted using an enzyme called pectinase
*pectinase increases processing efficiency (pressing, solid settling or removal)
*pectinase extracts more juice or speeds up juice extraction
*pectin in fruits (such as apples and mangoes) is converted to sugars
*so that the juice becomes sweeter

36
*cell wall material is removed so that the juice becomes clearer.
4. Baby foods
*proteases are used to treat some high-protein foods
*they break down proteins into polypeptides and amino acids for young baby to
absorb the food easily
5. Cheese making- enzymes such as rennin (rennet) and chymosin are used in
cheese making to coagulate milk proteins, form curds and separate whey from the
curds
6. Dairy processing- enzymes such as lactase are used in dairy processing to break
down lactose in milk into glucose and galactose, making it suitable for people with
lactose intolerance.

USE OF MICROORGANISMS TO MANUFACTURE ANTIBIOTIC

PENICILLIN
Penicillin-it is a type of antibiotic drug that is used to treat bacterial infections.
Penicillin is made by growing the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum in a large
fermenter.
 The fungus is grown in a culture medium containing carbohydrates, amino
acids, mineral salts
 Firstly;
 Add small amount of penicillium spores to a nutrient rich solution in the
fermenter
 The solution is stirred continuously to
-keep the fungus in contact with fresh supplies of nutrients
-mix oxygen into the culture
-roll the fungus into little pellets
*conditions in the fermenter need to be carefully controlled to optimize
production like;
 Temperature- needs to be maintained (20-30 degrees) for constant
production or fungal growth,
OR for fungus to produce penicillin as fast as possible,

37
 OR to prevent enzymes from denaturing because of high temperature,
as fungus produces heat energy during respiration, which can also kill
the fungus.
 Use of water jacket helps maintain constant temperature-cools
contents of the fermenter.
 Enzymes need optimum pH so pH has to be maintained by adding
acids and alkalis to ensure maximum production
 oxygen levels also have to be maintained for fungal respiration
*waste products such as carbon dioxide have to be removed
*the spores will then begin to grow and multiply in the solution
*Eventually forming a dense culture of the fungus
*as the fungus grows, it will then start producing penicillin as a byproduct.
*small amounts of sugar has to be fed all the time that the fungus is producing
penicillin
*Penicillin will then be secreted into the nutrient solution and the culture is kept
going until the rate of production is slow
*the solution containing penicillin then passes through a filter where the liquid is
treated to concentrate the penicillin in it.
*penicillin can then be packaged for use

38
STRUCTURE OF THE FERMENTER PRODUCING PENICILLIN

Names of parts of the fermenter Functions

1. Water jacket -Maintains constant temperature
-prevents overheating
2. Nutrient inlet Supplies glucose, ammonia and amino
acids for growth
3. Stirrer/paddle Keeps nutrients moving or gives uniform
mixture
39
 4. Probe/sensor Monitors temperature or pH
5. Air supply Supplies oxygen for respiration
6. Outlet Allows collection of liquid containing
penicillin after fermentation

HUMAN NUTRITION
Nutrition- means taking in of nutrients which are organic substances and mineral
ions, containing raw materials or energy for growth and tissue repair, absorbing and
assimilating them.
Food tests
1. Test for starch
test for starch is an experiment which is performed to determine the presence of
starch in a given biological sample.
NB: we use iodine solution to test for starch.
*prepare a food sample
*put a food sample into a test tube
*add a few drops of iodine solution to the food sample using a pipette
*shake mixture
*if the starch is present, the solution will turn from brown to blue-black
2. Test for reducing sugars-
 Take a food sample and place it in a test tube
 Add a few drops of benedict solution to the test tube
 Place it in a hot water bath for a few minutes
 The mixture will turn brick-red, showing the presence of reducing sugar
NB: if reducing sugar is absent, the solution will blue

3. Test for protein-

 Add a few drops of biuret test/reagent to a food sample in a test tube
 Shake the solution to mix and wait for a few minutes
 Of protein is present, the solution will from blue to purple
4. Test for fats

40
  Add a food sample to 2cm³ of ethanol in a test tube
 Allow the to settle in a test tube
 If fats is present in that food sample, the solution will show milky-white
emulsion

Vitamins, minerals, fibre & water

Food type Principal sources Function Deficiency
Carbohydrates Bread, beans, Provide energy, Headache,
milk, potatoes, store energy, fatigue,
spaghetti, corn et breaking down difficulty
fatty acids and concentrating,
preventing ketosis bad breath and
constipation
Fats Vegetable oils, Provide energy, Hair loss, dry
nuts, seeds and fish protect cell rashes, weaker
growth, keep immune system
cholesterol and
blood pressure
under control
Proteins Eggs, fish, milk, Help in cell repairs Kwashiorkor,
pumpkin seeds, and making new Marasmus,
chicken etc ones impaired mental
health, organ
failure
Vitamin C Citrus fruits, Maintains healthy Scurvy-
cabbage, black skin and gums bleeding under
currants, guava, skin and
mango, tomato bleeding gums
Vitamin D Milk butter, Maintains hard Rickets- soft
cheese, egg yolk, bones, helps to bones that
fish, liver, sunlight absorb calcium become
from small deformed (bow
intestine legs)
Mineral salts Milk, cheese and Formation of Rickets, brittle
(Calcium) fish healthy teeth and bones and teeth,
bones, helps in slow blood
blood clotting clotting

41
 Red meat, liver, Formation of Anaemia (not
(Iron) kidney, cabbage haemoglobin in enough red
and spinach red blood cells blood cells-not
enough oxygen
delivered to the
tissues, constant
tiredness and
lack of energy
Fibre (roughage) Vegetables, fruits, Helps in Constipation
whole wheat bread maintenance of
peristalsis or
movement of food
in the gut
Water Drinks, fruits, Formation of Dehydration
vegetables blood, functions as which leads to
a solvent for dizziness,
transport of headache,
nutrients and tiredness, dry
removal of wastes mouth etc
(urine)

USE OF MICROORGANISMS IN FOOD INDUSTRY (YOGHURT AND

SINGLE CELL PROTEIN)
Yoghurt production
 Sterilize the equipment using bleach or steam to prevent contamination
 Heat (pasteurize) milk at 85-950C to kill all unwanted bacteria which could
cause contamination, and slow down production of yoghurt by competing
with LB and ST for lactose in the milk or even spoil the taste
 Milk is then cooled
 Add bacterial culture (lactobacillus bulgaricus and streptococcus
thermophilus)
 The bacteria convert lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid (fermentation)
 Which lowers the pH of the milk
 This increased acidity sours and thickens the milk to form yoghurt
o This lowering of the pH helps prevent growth of other microorganisms
that may be harmful, meaning yoghurt can be kept for a longer time.
 Yoghurt is then stirred and cooled to about 50C
 Flovourings, colourants and fruits may then be added before packaging.
42
Single cell protein production
Microorganisms such as yeast, fungi and bacteria are used to convert organic waste
materials or renewable resources such as sugarcane into protein-rich biomass
This is how it is produced:
 Microorganisms are grown in a bioreactor/fermenter under controlled
conditions (temperature and pH)
 Provide carbon source, including nitrogen, phosphorous and other nutrients
for optimal growth of the microorganism
 Sterile conditions have to be maintained to prevent contamination
 Oxygen is needed for respiration
 Cooling is needed as heat energy may be produced (water jacket)
 The resulting biomass is then harvested, dried and processed into a protein-
rich powder or pellet that can be added to animal feed or used as a protein
source in food products.
FOOD ADDITIVES
Food additives are substances that are added to food products to enhance their
flavour, texture, colour, appearance or even nutritional value.
USES, BENEFITS AND HEALTH HAZARDS RELATED TO FOOD
ADDITIVES
Uses of food additives
1. Preservation-many additives such as preservatives prevent spoilage, bacterial
growth and oxidation of food
2. Flavour- flavour enhancers and sweeteners are used to improve the taste of
food.
3. Texture-additives such as thickeners, emulsifiers and stabilizers are used to
improve the texture of food
4. Appearance- food colouring agents are used to improve appearance
5. Nutritional enhancement-some additives, such as vitamins and minerals are
added to food to improve its nutritional value.
Benefits of food additives
 Improved safety-preservatives and other additives can reduce the risk of
foodborne illnesses
 Longer shelf-life-additives such as preservatives can extend to shelf-life of
food , reducing waste and allowing for more widespread distribution

43
  Better taste and texture-additives can improve taste, texture and appearance
of food, making it more appealing to consumers
 Nutritional enhancement-some additives such as vitamins and minerals can
improve nutritional value of food
Health hazards related to food additives
 Allergic reactions
 Increased cancer risk
 Hormonal disruption
 Development problems
 Increased risk of obesity
BALANCED DIET
A balanced diet is a diet that provides all the necessary nutrients in right proportions
to maintain good health and prevent diseases.
Specific requirements for a balanced diet can vary depending on an individual’s age,
sex and activity level
(I) Children and teenagers- have different nutritional needs than adults,
as they are still growing and developing. They require more protein
, calcium and iron for healthy growth and development.
(II) Pregnant and breastfeeding women- they need a balanced diet that
provides all the necessary nutrients for themselves and their growing
babies. E.g fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins and
healthy fats.
(III) Older adults-they need a variety of food from all food groups. But
is also important for them to get enough calcium and vitamin D to
maintain strong bones.
(IV) Athletes- need a balanced diet that provides all necessary nutrients
for optimal performance and recovery. They also need enough
calories to meet their energy needs.

Malnutrition -this refers to a state in which there is a deficiency, excess or

imbalance of nutrients in the body.
Effects of malnutrition
(I) Starvation-*too little food can result in starvation

44
 *extreme slimming diets, such as those that avoid carbohydrates can result
in the disease called anorexia nervosa.
(II) coronary heart disease-*too much saturated or animal fat in the diet results in
high cholesterol levels
*cholesterol can stick to the walls of arteries, gradually blocking them
*if coronary arteries become blocked, the results can be angina and coronary heart
disease.
(III) Constipation-caused by;
*lack of fibre in food-fibre helps peristalsis, add bulk to stools, making them easier
to pass, if the diet lacks fibre, the stool can become hard and dry making it difficult
to pass.
*dehydration
*malnourished individuals-may be more prone to dehydration due to their weakened
state and inability to take in enough fluids.
*poor gut motility-malnutrition can affect the functioning of the gut, leading to slow
or sluggish motility. This means that food moves through the digestive system more
slowly, which can lead to constipation.
(IV) obesity-consumption of energy-dense, nutrient poor foods. These foods are
often high in calories, sugar and unhealthy fats, but low in essential nutrients like
vitamins, minerals and fibre. When people consume these type of food regularly,
this can lead to weight gain and eventually obesity.

45
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Functions of the digestive system

 Ingestion-taking in food
 Secretion (we secrete enzymes even mucus)
-Enzymes breakdown large insoluble substances into soluble
substances
-mucus acts as a protective layer because of friction caused by
substances moving in the gut. Prevent damage to tissues which may be
caused by these substances, even self-digestion by enzymes. And entry of
pathogens
 Mixing and propulsion (peristalsis)
 Digestion –mechanical or physical and chemical
 Absorption into the bloodstream and lymphatic system
 Egestion

46
ASSOCIATED ORGANS
 Mouth
 pharynx
 Oesophagus
 Stomach
 Small intestine (duodenum + ileum)
 Large intestine (colon + rectum+anus)
Accessory structures
 Tongue
 Teeth
 Salivary glands
 Pancreas
 Liver
 Gall bladder
These structures have ducts or tubes which lead into the alimentary canal.

DIGESTION
Digestion-it is the breakdown of large, insoluble food molecules into small water
soluble molecules that can be absorbed and used for energy, growth and repair.
There are 2 types of digestion; mechanical/physical digestion and chemical digestion
1. Mechanical/physical digestion-this is where large food pieces are broken down
into smaller and swallowable pieces.
*this process is carried out by teeth (incisors for biting and premolars and molars for
grinding) and mixing with saliva in the mouth.
*stomach muscles churn and mix food with digestive juices. In the stomach
*emulsification of fats by bile in the duodenum.
*The food are broken down to increase surface area for enzyme action.
2. Chemical digestion-breaking down large, insoluble molecules into small and
soluble molecules. It is carried out by enzymes. It occurs in the mouth, stomach and
small intestine.

47
DIGESTION THROUGHOUT THE ALIMENTARY CANAL
In the mouth
*Large food molecules are chewed and mixed with saliva in the mouth into smaller
pieces to increase surface area for enzyme action
*salivary glands secrete salivary amylase which breaks down some of the starch to
maltose
*As the ball of food enters the pharynx, a reflex action is initiated
In the oesophagus
*inside the oesophagus, circular muscles behind the bolus contract and relax in
front of the bolus pushing the bolus forward
*Longitudinal muscles also contract, shortening the length of the oesophagus and
widening its diameter which creates a channel for food to pass through.
*the contraction of circular and longitudinal muscles creates the necessary force for
the food bolus to move along the oesophagus and into the stomach
In the stomach
*the stomach muscles churn and mix food with digestive juices that have acids and
enzymes
*hydrochloric acid in gastric juice;
-creates low pH, which kills bacteria and other microorganisms present in the
food
-helps activate pepsin
-denature proteins, making them more accessible to digestive enzymes
*pepsin then breaks down proteins into polypeptides
In the duodenum
*pancreatic juice (which contains lipase, amylase and trypsin) and sodium
hydrogencarbonate that neutralises the acidity of food (chyme) from the stomach
flows into the duodenum.
*pancreatic amylase digests the rest of the starch to maltose
*trypsin digests polypeptides into peptones
*bile emulsify/breakdown fats into smaller globules, increasing surface area for
action of lipase
48
In the small intestine
*maltase digests maltose into glucose
*sucrase digests sucrose into glucose & fructose
*Lactase digests lactose into glucose & galactose
*erepsin digests peptones into amino acids
*lipase digests fats into fatty acids & glycerol

ABSORPTION -this is the movement of digested food molecules through the

wall of the small intestine into the blood. This occurs specifically in the villi.

STRUCTURE OF A VILLUS

49
ROLE OF A VILLUS
1. Blood capillary-absorbs nutrients (glucose and amino acids) including
water.
2. Lacteal-absorbs fatty acids and glycerol and transport them to the
lymphatic system.

Adaptation of villi
*villi walls are one-cell thick to increase diffusion rate
*epithelium have many microvilli-which increase surface area for
absorption by diffusion
*capillaries are close to the surface to provide a short pathway
*they have a good blood supply to absorb nutrients and transport them
to the body and maintain a diffusion gradient
*epithelial cells contain many mitochondria for production of energy by
respiration for use during active transport.
*lacteals have thin walls and are surrounded by muscle fibres, this allows
them to expand and contract in response to the flow of lymph and dietary
fats.
NB:FOOD MOLECULES ARE ABSORBED MAINLY BY DIFFUSION AND
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
ROLE OF HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN
*it transports absorbed food substances from small intestines to the liver.
NB: after a meal, the blood flowing in this vein contain very high concentrations
of glucose and amino acids as well as vitamins and minerals.
*it also transports other substances such as drugs, toxins and bacteria from
small intestine to the liver for detoxification and elimination. This helps protect
the body from harmful substances that may have been ingested with the food
or drink.

ASSIMILATION AND ROLE OF THE LIVER

Assimilation-is the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body
where they are used, becoming part of the cells.

50
ROLE OF THE LIVER IN THE METABOLISM OF GLUCOSE AND
AMINO ACIDS
*excess glucose in the blood arriving in the liver is converted into glycogen for
storage in liver and even muscles or;
*broken down through respiration, producing energy for other purposes.
*Some amino acids are transaminated to produce different proteins e.g fibrinogen
necessary in blood clotting
*the rest which are not needed cannot be stored, so they are broken by deaminated
to produce ammonia (NH3) which is highly toxic and a keto acid
*ammonia is converted into urea which is less toxic, which dissolves in blood and
is transported to the kidneys for excretion
*Keto acid is used primarily as energy for liver cells

ROLE OF FAT AS AN ENERGY STORAGE SUBSTANCE

*fatty acids and glycerol pass into the lymphatic system and then the bloodstream
*once in the bloodstream, nutrients are carried to all cells of the body
*some are oxidised to produce energy and others are used to repair the cells and
build new ones
*fat is a good storage compound-it releases twice as much energy as carbohydrates
when respired, and act as insulation in the skin
*some nerve cells from a myelin sheath from fat to prevent electrical impulses from
leaking out.
CHOLERA
Cholera- is a disease caused by bacteria present in contaminated food and water.
What causes cholera?
*the cholera bacterium (vibro cholerae) secretes a toxin (poison) into the small
intestine
*The toxin stimulates the cells lining small intestine to secrete chloride ions in the
lumen of small intestine

51
*this increases the concentration of the fluid in the lumen, and lowers the water
potential
*when the water potential becomes lower than in the blood flowing through the
vessels in the small intestine
*water diffuses out of the blood and into the lumen by osmosis.
*this leads to diarrhoea which is the loss of watery faeces from the body.
Nb: a remedy for diarrhoea is ORAL REHYDRATION THERAPY- where
patients drink a mixture of water, glucose and salts to rehydrate themselves.
HUMAN TEETH AND DENTAL DECAY
There are 4 types of teeth in humans (incisors, canines, premolars and molars) each
specialized for different functions.
Structure and function
Type of tooth Position in the Description Function
mouth
1. Incisors Front Chisel-shaped Biting off pieces
(sharp-edged) of food
2. Canines Either side of Slightly more Tearing
incisors pointed than
incisors
3. Premolars Behind canines 2 points (cusps) Tearing and
½ roots grinding food
4. Molars Back 4/5 cusps Chewing and
2/3 roots grinding food

STRUCTURE OF A TOOTH

52
Causes of tooth decay
*bacteria living in the mouth and food particles left between the teeth form a layer
called plaque
*bacteria use/breakdown sugars/carbohydrates by respiration
*producing acid
*this acid dissolves/erodes away the enamel exposing the dentine
*dentine is softer, and dissolves more rapidly
*if decay reaches nerve endings, this may lead to pain.
*This results in a toothache, and possibly an abscess (infection of the jaw).
ADDING FLUORIDE TO PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY
NB: fluoride is commonly added to public water supply as a public health
measure to prevent tooth decay.
*fluoride helps prevent destruction of the tooth surface caused by acids
produced by bacteria

53
*it forms a reservoir on the teeth from which fluoride is released during attack
*it reduces the loss of minerals from the tooth and promotes repair of early
tooth decay.
ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST ADDITION OF FLUORIDE TO
PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY
AGUMENTS FOR
 It helps prevent tooth decay by strengthening tooth enamel-this helps reduce
the incidence of tooth decay and related dental problems, especially in low
income communities where excess to dental care is limited.
 There is no need to buy fluoridated toothpaste
 It is cost-effective (cheap) and able to reach large populations without need
for individual interventions
 It serves as a public health measure that benefits everyone in the community
regardless of their socio-economic status, age or ethnicity because it is
available to everyone who drinks the water.

ARGUMENTS AGAINST
 Health risks- some studies suggest that at high doses, it may cause skeletal
fluorosis, dental fluorosis and neurological problems
 Some see it as a form of forced medication, as it is difficult to avoid exposure
to fluoridated water in many communities. As a result, it violates individual
rights.
 Fluoridation is unnecessary if people take proper care of their teeth
 Has a negative impact on the environment, such as increasing levels of
fluoride in rivers and lakes which can affect aquatic life.
PROPER CARE OF TEETH
 Avoid sugary food, especially between meals so that bacteria cannot produce
acid
 Clean teeth regularly to remove plaque
 Use dental floss or a toothpick to remove pieces of food and plaque trapped
between them
 Use fluoride toothpaste/drink fluoridated water as it hardens the enamel
 Visit a dentist regularly to ensure that tooth decay is reacted to early and get
any stubborn plaque removed.

54
PLANT NUTRITION
Photosynthesis-it is the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from
raw materials (carbon dioxide & water) using energy from light.
The equation for photosynthesis
Word equation & symbol equation

The process of photosynthesis

*green plants take in carbon dioxide through stomata in the leaves by diffusion
*water is absorbed through plants' roots by osmosis, and transported to the leaf
through xylem vessels.
*chlorophyll traps light energy and absorbs it
*this energy is used to break up water molecules, then to bond Hydrogen and carbon
dioxide to form glucose. (Light energy is converted into chemical energy)
*glucose can then be converted to sucrose for transport around the plant, or to starch
for storage
*Oxygen is released as a waste product, or used by plant for respiration

Investigating the importance of chlorophyll in photosynthesis

Process
 Take a potted plant with variegated leaves (green & white)
 Destarch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for about 48hrs

55
  Expose the plant to the sunlight for a few days
 Test on of the leaves for starch using iodine solution
Observations
 Areas that bad the green patches will test positive (turn blue-black)
 Areas that had yellow patches will test negative (remain brown)
Conclusion
 Photosynthesis takes place only in green leaves because of the presence of
chlorophyll
 The yellow areas do not perform photosynthesis because of the absence
of chlorophyll
 This proves that chlorophyll is important for photosynthesis

2. Importance of light in photosynthesis

Process
 Take a potted plant
 Destarch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness for about 48hrs
 Test one of the leaves for starch to check that it does not contain any
 Fix a leaf of this plant in between two strips with a thick paper
 Place the plant in light for a few days
 Remove the cover from the leaf and test it for starch
Observations
 Positive starch test will be obtained only in the part of the leaf exposed to
light and negative test in parts with paper strip
Conclusion
 Light is necessary for photosynthesis

3. Importance of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis

Process
 Take two destarched potted plants
 Cover both the plants will bell jars and label them A and B

56
  Inside set up A, keep NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate) -which produces
carbon dioxide
 Inside set up B, keep NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide)-which absorbs carbon
dioxide
 Keep both the set-ups in the sunlight for atleast 6hrs
 Perform the starch test on both of the plants

Observations
 Leaf from the plant in which NaHCO3 has been placed will give a positive
test
 Leaf from the plant in which NaOH has been placed will give negative
results as there is no carbon dioxide present
Conclusion
 Plant in set-up A gets carbon dioxide whereas in set-up B it does not
 This means that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis

Intake of carbon dioxide by plants

 During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide from the air by
diffusion through the stomata on the surface of the leaves
 These stomata open and close to regulate the amount of carbon dioxide
that enters the plant
 Once inside the plant;

57
  It diffuses through air spaces
 And dissolve in water (in cell walls) in palisade/spongy mesophyll
 The it diffuses through cytoplasm
 And finally chloroplasts

Effect of varying light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis

 Plants need light energy to make chemical energy needed to make
carbohydrates
 Increasing light intensity will boost the speed of photosynthesis
 However, at high light intensities, the rate becomes constant

Experiment
 Place a pond weed Elodia upside down in a test tube containing water
 Place a test tube in a beaker of fresh water at around 25°C. This helps
maintain a constant temperature around the pond weed
 Place excess sodium carbonate (NaHCO3) in the water to give a constant
saturated solution of carbon dioxide.
 Place the lamp (the only light source) at distance from the plant
 Count the number of oxygen bubbles given off by the plant in 1 minute
period. This is the rate of photosynthesis at that particular light intensity
 The gas should be checked to prove that it is indeed oxygen (relights a
glowing splint)
 Repeat at different light intensities by moving the lamp to different
distances.

58
Explanation
 Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is converted to ATP and H+
 At very low light intensities, the plant will be repairing only and not
photosynthesising
 As the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis also increases,
however, the rate will not increase beyond a certain level of light in9
 At high light intensities, the rate becomes constant even with further
increases in light intensity, there are no increases in the rate
 The plant is unable to harvest the light at these high intensities and the
chlorophyll system can be damaged by very intense light levels.

Effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis

 When the temperature rises, rate of photosynthesis rises also
 There is an optimum temperature at which the rate of photosynthesis is
maximum( which varies depending on plant species but most fall between
20-30°C)
 Beyond this temperature, the reaction quickly comes to a halt

Experiment
 Place a pond weed Elodia upside down in a test tube containing water
at 20°C
 Place the test tube in a beaker of fresh water
 Place excess sodium bicarbonate in the water to give a constant
saturated solution of carbon dioxide
 Place the lamp at a fixed distance from the plant
 Maintain the room temperature at 20°C
 Count the number of oxygen bubbles given off by the plant in a 1
minute period. This is the rate of photosynthesis at that particular
temperature
 The gas should be checked to prove that it is indeed oxygen
 Repeat at different temperatures
Explanation
 At low temperatures (below 10°C) the enzyme does not have enough
energy to meet many substrate molecules, so the reaction is slow

59
 When the temperature rises, the particles in the reaction move quicker
and collide more, so the rate of photosynthesis also rises

 At the optimum temperature, the enzyme is most efficient and rate of

photosynthesis is maximum

 At temperatures above 40°C the rate slows down. This is because the
enzymes involved in the chemical reactions of photosynthesis are
temperature sensitive and get destroyed (denatured) at higher
temperatures
60
Effect of carbon dioxide on the rate of photosynthesis
 When the concentration of carbon dioxide is low, the rate of
photosynthesis is also slow( the plant has spend time waiting for more
carbon dioxide to arrive)
 Increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide, increases the rate of
photosynthesis

Experiment
 Place a pond weed Elodia upside in a test tube containing water at 25°C
 Place the test tube in a beaker of fresh water
 Place excess sodium bicarbonate in the water to give a constant saturated
solution of carbon dioxide
 Place the lamp at a fixed distance from the plant
 Maintain the room temperature at 20°C
 Count the number of bubbles given off by the plant in a 1 minute period.
This is the rate of photosynthesis at that particular concentration of
carbon dioxide
 The gas has to be checked to prove that it is indeed oxygen
 Repeat at different lower carbon dioxide concentrations by using
different dilusions of saturated solution

61
 Explanation
 The rate of photosynthesis increases linearly with increasing carbon
dioxide concentration (from point A-B)
 The rate falls gradually, and at a certain carbon dioxide
concentration, it stays constant (point B-C). Here a rise in carbon
dioxide levels has no effect as the other factors such as light intensity
become limiting.

LIMITING FACTORS IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Limiting factor- it is something present in the environment in such low supply
that it restricts life processes.
Three factors can limit the speed of photosynthesis. E.g light intensity, carbon
dioxide concentration and temperature.
NB:if a component is in low supply, then productivity is prevented from
reaching maximum
1. Sunlight
 Light energy is important to the process of photosynthesis. It is
severely limiting at times of partial light conditions. E.g dawn or
dusk
 As light intensity increases, rate of photosynthesis will increase,
until the plant is photosynthesising as fast as it can. At this point,
even if light becomes brighter, the plant cannot photosynthesize
any faster.

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  Over the first part of the curve (between A and B) light is a
limiting factor. The plant is limited in how fast it can
photosynthesize because it does not have enough light
 Between B and C, light intensity is not a limiting factor. Even if
more light is shone on the plant, it cannot photosynthesise any
faster.

2. Carbon dioxide
 The primary function of carbon dioxide is to act as a substrate for
enzyme Rubisco which is responsible for fixing carbon from CO2
into organic molecules that can be used by the plant as a source of
energy for growth
 At low carbon dioxide concentrations, rate of photosynthesis is
limited by the amount of carbon that can be fixed
 As concentration increases, rate of photosynthesis also increases
until it reaches a point where the plant is no longer able to use all
the CO2, and beyond this point, increasing CO2 no longer increases
photosynthesis rate, meaning rate of photosynthesis is no longer
limited by CO2 but by other factors. E.g light
 It is often the least available gas in the atmosphere (0.3-0.4%) and
its concentration can affected by various factors such as
temperature, humidity and atmospheric pressure. For example, in
hot and dry environments, the stomata of the leaves close to prevent
water loss which can also limit the diffusion of CO2 into the leaf

3. Temperature
63
  At low temperatures, rate of photosynthesis is limited by the
activity of enzymes involved in the process-during these
temperatures, the activity of enzymes is reduced, and this can
reduce the rate of photosynthesis
 Diffusion of CO2 is also reduced during low temperatures-limiting
rate of photosynthesis
 At high temperatures, rate of photosynthesis is limited by damage
of enzymes involved in the process
 This reduces efficiency of photosynthesis and may lead to plant
death
 High temperatures can lead to closure of stomata, which can
reduce diffusion of CO2

OPTIMUM CONDITIONS FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN GREENHOUSES

When plants are growing outside, there is not much that can be done about
changing the conditions that they need for photosynthesis. But if crops are
grown in glasshouses/greenhouses, then it is possible to control conditions, so
that they are photosynthesising as fast as possible.
1. Carbon dioxide concentration
 Carbon dioxide can be controlled
 It is often a limiting factor for photosynthesis because of its natural
concentration in the atmosphere
 In a closed glasshouse, it is possible to provide extra CO2 for the
plants e.g by burning fossil fuels or by releasing pure CO2 from a
gas cylinder

2. Optimum light
 In cloudy or dark conditions, extra artificial lighting can be
provided so that light is not limiting rate of photosynthesis
 The kind of lights that can be used, can be chosen carefully so that
they provide just the right wavelengths that the plants need

3. Optimum temperature
 The temperature can be kept at the optimum level to encourage
plants to grow fast and strongly, and to produce large yield

64
  Temperature can be raised by using a heating system. If fossil fuels
are burnt, there is also a benefit from the CO2 produced.

Plants' mineral requirements and fertilizers

Plants need mineral ions to control chemical activities, growth and to produce
materials. These include magnesium ions and nitrate ions.
1. Nitrate ions-they combine with glucose to form amino acids
 Amino acids join together to make proteins during protein
synthesis
Deficiency- cause poor growth especially of leaves
 The stem becomes weak, lower leaves become yellow and die, while
upper leaves turn pale green

2. Magnesium ions-plants use them to manufacture chlorophyll

Deficiency- makes leaves turn yellow from the bottom of the stem upwards and
eventually stops photosynthesising.

Nitrogen fertilizers
 When the soil lacks minerals, fertilizers can be added to the soil
 Fertilizers are chemical compounds rich in mineral ions needed by
plants
 They help plants to grow faster, increase in size and become
greener. They simply make them healthier and increase the crop
yield.

NB: intense farming removes nitrates from the soil. These need to be replaced
to prevent a drop in in yield.
This can be done in 3 ways;
 Applying animal manure
 Crop rotation-growing leguminous plants such as peas, beans and clover
every 2-3 years because these plants develop root nodules containing

65
 nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and the roots are ploughed into the soil, boosting
nitrate levels.
 Adding artificial fertilizers such as ammonium nitrates

Dangers of overuse of fertilizers

1. Applying too much nitrogen fertilizer can lead to water getting drawn out
of plant roots by osmosis leading to plant wilt/death
2. Eutrophication-occurs when nitrates get leached out of the soil and enter
rivers/lakes Thereby polluting it
 This creates a layer of green algae on the surface of it causing lack
of light in the river
 Thus preventing the aquatic plants from photosynthesising
 Which leads to death of algae
 Leading to decomposers (bacteria) multiplying, decaying and
respiring using oxygen
 This leads to death of aquatic animals from lack of oxygen

How to avoid the dangers of overuse

 Apply right amount of fertilizers
 Apply fertilizers before rainfall or during cooler weather to reduce
nutrient run-off
 Apply them at the right time-especially when crops are actively growing
and have a higher nutrient uptake which can prevent other nutrients not
being taken up by plants but draining to into rivers and lakes
 Use right type of fertilizers-those with lower nitrogen and phosphorus e.g
slow release fertilizers which release nutrients over a longer period and
reduce the risk of nutrient run-off
 Use organic fertilizers such as manure or cover crops-which contain
lower concentrations of nutrients.

HUMAN TRANSPORT
Circulatory system-this is a system of tubes (blood vessels) with a pump (heart)
and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood.

66
Double circulation of blood-this is the mechanism in which blood circulates
twice through the heart for every one complete circuit.
We have pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit.
1. Pulmonary circuit- *right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the
lungs for gas exchange.
*blood pressure in this circuit is lower to prevent damage to the lungs.
2. Systemic circuit- *oxygenated blood returns to the heart from the lungs.
*the left ventricle then pumps the blood at high pressure around the body.
PATHWAY OF BLOOD THROUGH THE HEART
 Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium through the superior and inferior
vena cava
 Right atrium contracts , and tricuspid valve opens to let blood flow into the
right ventricle, and then closes to prevent back-flow.
 Right ventricle contracts, and pulmonary valve opens to let blood flow into
the pulmonary artery, and then closes to prevent back-flow
 Blood passes through pulmonary artery to the lungs at low pressure.
 In the lungs, blood becomes oxygenated-oxygen from the alveoli diffuses into
the blood, and carbon dioxide, diffuses out of the blood into the alveoli.
 From the lungs, oxygenated blood returns back to the heart by pulmonary vein
into the left atrium
 Left atrium contracts, opening the mitral/bicuspid valve letting blood enter the
left ventricle.
 Left ventricle contracts, letting blood pass through the aortic valve into the
aorta.
 The aorta pumps oxygenated blood at high pressure to the tissues.
 From the tissues, deoxygenated blood returns back to the heart at low pressure
to repeat the process again, through the vena-cava.

STURCTURE OF THE HEART

67
Structure of the heart Function
1. Muscular wall *the wall of the left ventricle is much
thicker than the right ventricle because
it needs to pump blood at high pressure
around the body, rather than just to the
lungs, which js a shorter distance.

*the wall also allows it to contract more

forcefully, which further enhances its
ability to pump blood more efficiently.
2. Septum *separates the left and right sides of the
heart, which ensures that oxygenated

68
 and deoxygenated blood remain
separate.
3. Chambers 2 atria (RA & LA) -receive blood from
veins and squeeze it into ventricles

2 ventricles (RV & LV) receive blood

from atria and squeeze it into arteries.
4. Valves  They are present in the heart and
veins and they prevent back-flow
of blood
5. Associated blood vessels  Vena-cava-brings deoxygenated
blood back to the heart

 Coronary artery-takes
deoxygenated blood to the lungs

 Pulmonary vein-brings
oxygenated blood back to the
heart

 Aorta-takes oxygenated blood to

the tissues.

EFFECT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON PULSE RATE

 When engaging in an exercise or other physical activity
 Muscles require more oxygen and nutrients to produce energy for movement
 Thus the heart-rate speeds up so that;
 The heart pumps more blood to the rest of the body
 Allowing more oxygen to be delivered to the respiring tissues
 And for waste products (carbon dioxide) to be removed from the muscles.
CORONARY ARTERIES
Coronary arteries are responsible for supplying oxygen and nutrients to the heart
muscle (cardiac muscle)

69
NB: the heart muscle needs a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients so that it
can keep on contracting and relaxing.
 Oxygen is necessary for the heart muscle to produce the energy it needs
to contract and pump blood
 Without a sufficient supply of oxygen, the heart muscle can become
damaged and weakened, leading to a variety of heart-related conditions
 The heart muscle also needs nutrinets (glucose, amino acids and fatty
acids) to maintain its structure
 The nutrients provide raw materials needed for the heart muscle to
repair itslef and grow new tissues as needed.

CORONARY HEART DISEASE

 Coronary arteries can become blocked (coronary heart disease)
 The blockage can be caused by the build-up of plaque within artery walls
(this is known as atherosclerosis)
 Where fatty deposits, cholesterol and other substances accumulate on the
inner walls of the arteries
 Causing them to become narrow and hardened
 This can restrict or block blood-flow through the arteries
 Causing a reduction in the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the heart
muscle, leading to (chest pain (angina), heart attack or other complications).
 High blood pressure-it can damage the inner lining of the arteries and increase
the build-up of plaque
 Poor diet with too much saturated animal fat-it can lead to cholesterol
building up in the arteries -blocking the blood vessels or forming a blood clot.
 Smoking-nicotine damages the heart and blood vessels
 Stress- tends to increase blood pressure-which results in the collection of fatty
materials in the arteries
 Obesity-can increase the risk of developing high blood pressure, high
cholesterol and diabetes, which can contribute to atherosclerosis
 Lack of exercise- the heart muscle loses its tone and becomes less efficient
in pumping blood
 Inherited factors/family history-heart disease can pass from one generation to
the next

PREVENTIVE MEASURES
70
  Coronary heart disease can be avoided by lifestyle changes such as
 Maintaining a healthy diet
 Exercising regularly
 Quitting smoking.
 Managing stress

SURGICAL TREATMENTS FOR CORONARY HEART DISEASE

1. CORONARY ANGIOPLASTY- here a small balloon is inserted in the
blocked artery to push the fatty tissue outwards-this allows blood to flow more
easily to the heart muscle.
2. Stents- this is an expandable tube that can be placed inside the arteries to hold
them open to ensure that blood keeps flowing through them. Drug eluting
stents release medicines to stop the artery narrowing again.
Benefits of stents
 Surgery is quick
 They last a long time
Issues around use of stents
 Require surgery which has risks-surgery can induce a heart attack or an
infection
 Patient can develop a blood clot near the stent (thrombosis)

3. Coronary bypass surgery-a piece of blood vessel is taken from the patient’s
leg, arm or chest and is used to create a new passage for the flow of blood to
the cardiac muscle, bypassing the blocked area.

MEDICINAL TREATMENTS
1. Statins- a medication that alters the balance of cholesterol in the bloodstream.

NB; there are 2 types of cholesterol

 Bad (LDL) Low density lipoprotein and good (HDL) High density
lipoprotein
Statins help to reduce the amount of bad cholesterol in our blood and
increase the good type, which lowers the overall risk of coronary heart
disease, including strokes and heart attacks.
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 DISADVANTAGES
 They have to be taken regularly
 And can cause side effects e.g headaches and kidney failure
ADAPTATIONS AND FUNCTIONS OF ARTERIES, VEINS AND
CAPILLARIES
1. Arteries
Function-carry oxygenated blood away from the heart at high pressure
(except pulmonary artery)

Adaptation
 Thick-elastic wall- help them resist high pressure and force of
blood as it is pumped from the heart which prevents bursting
 Smooth muscle tissue inside the walls- it contracts and relaxes, and
help regulate blood flow and pressure
 Have layer of endothelial cells- help reduce fiction and prevent
blood clots
 Narrow lumen- helps maintain blood pressure and ensure efficient
blood flow

2. Veins
Function-carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart at low pressure.

Adaptation
 Thinner-less elastic wall- they do not need to withstand any pressure
or force like arteries as blood is not pumped into them
 Valves- ensure one-way flow of blood and prevent back-flow of blood
 Smooth muscle tissue inside the walls- contracts and relaxes, and help
regulate the blood flow and pressure
 Endothelial cells- help reduce friction and prevent blood clots
 Wide lumen- offers less resistance of blood flow

3. Capillaries
Function- responsible for exchange of materials between the blood and tissue
cells
Adaptation

72
  Thin walls and very narrow lumen- bring blood into close contact
with body tissues, allowing for diffusion of materials between capillary
and surrounding tissue.
 Small in size- allows them to reach even the tiniest capillary beds in
the body
 Surrounded by pericytes- which help regulate blood flow, and can
contract to close off capillaries when needed.

TTRANSFER OF MATERIALS BETWEEN CAPILLARIES AND TISSUE

FLUID
 As blood enters capillaries from arterioles (small arteries), it slows down
 Oxygen and nutrients (glucose & amino acids) diffuse out of the
capillaries into the tissue fluid
 While carbon dioxide and other waste products diffuse from the tissue
fluid and into the capillaries
 Liquid in the blood plasma also passes
 This forms tissue fluid which baths the cells
 Some molecules such as ions and water become filtered as they are
pushed out of capillaries into the tissue fluid.

BLOOD COMPOSITION
There 4 blood components
1. Plasma- transports blood cells, nutrients, plasma proteins, carbon
dioxide, antibodies and antitoxins, hormones, ions, heat form the liver
and muscles to all parts of the body
2. Red blood cells-transports oxygen
3. White blood cells-killing pathogens
4. Platelets- responsible for blood clotting

PROCESS OF BLOOD CLOTTING

 When an injury causes a blood vessel to break, platelets are activated
 They change shape from round to spiny
 They the stick to the broken vessel wall and each other, and begin to plug the
break

73
  Thrombin then interact with fibrinogen (soluble plasma protein) to form
insoluble fibrin
 Fibrin strands to form a net that entraps more platelets and other blood cells
(white & red cells) producing a clot/scab that plugs the break
 This remains in place until new skin has grown underneath it, sealing the skin
again

IMPORTANCE OF BLOOD CLOTTING

 Prevents excessive blood loss from the body
 Maintains the blood pressure
 Prevents the entry of microorganisms and foreign particles into the
bloodstream
 Promotes wound healing

IMMUNE SYSTEM
1. Antibody production
 Antibodies are produced by lymphocytes, which are formed in lymph
nodes
 Lymphocytes produce antibodies in response to the presence of
pathogens such as bacteria
 Antibodies make bacteria clump together in preparation for action of
phagocytes; or
 Neutralise toxins produced by bacteria
 Once antibodies are made, they remain in the blood to provide long-
term protection

2. Tissue rejection
Transplants involve replacing a damaged organ with a donor organ.
However, lymphocytes and phagocytes will respond to any foreign
cells in the body, even if they are not pathogens
 When a transplanted tissue enters the body, the immune system
recognizes it as foreign
 And will attack and destroy it

74
  The transplanted organ triggers an immune response, which
causes antibodies to be secreted and the organ may be rejected.
How to prevent tissue rejection
 The donor organ has to be a similar tissue to that of the patient/recipient. E.g
from a close relative
 Recipients are given immuno-suppressive drugs that suppress the immune
system’s response to the transplanted tissue.

3. Phagocytosis
Phagocytes have the ability to move out of capillaries to the site of an
infection. They then engulf the infecting pathogens and kill them by
digesting them.
 The phagocyte recognizes the foreign particle/pathogen through
specific receptors on its surface
 It extends its membrane around the pathogen , forming a
phagosome-which is a membrane-bound vesicle enclosing the
pathogen
 Once inside the phagosome, lysosomes fuse with the phagosome,
releasing digestive enzymes that breakdown the foreign particle
into smaller fragments which can be excreted.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS-
 Fluid balance- returns tissue fluid to the blood
 Protection from infection-produce white blood cells (lymphocytes)
 Absorption of fats-transports digested fats (fatty acids and glycerol) from the
villi into the bloodstream
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND CIRCULATION OF BODY FLUIDS
Lymphatic system works in conjunction with the circulatory system to
transport fluids, proteins and immune cells throughout the body.
 As blood passes through the capillaries, some fluid and proteins leak into
the surrounding tissue
 Lymphatic vessels which are thin-walled and highly permeable , collect
this excess fluid and return it to the bloodstream through lymphatic ducts
75
  This helps to maintain the balance of fluids in the body and prevent the
build-up of excess fluid in tissues.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND PRODUCTION OF LYMPHOCYTES

 Lymphatic system contains specialized organs such as thymus, bone marrow
and lymph nodes, which are responsible for the production and maturation of
lymphocytes
 Thymus is involved in development of (T lymphocytes which protect people
from getting infected by destroying cancerous and infected cells)
 While bone marrow produces (B-lymphocytes which produce a antibodies
to fight infections
 Lymph nodes act as filters, trapping foreign particles and presenting them to
lymphocytes for identification destruction.

RESPIRATION AND GASEOUS EXCHANGE

RESPIRATION-is the chemical reactions that breakdown nutrient molecules in
living cells to release energy.
Uses of energy in the body
-muscle contraction
-making protein molecules; linking together amino acids into long chains
-cell division-to repair damaged tissues for growth

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-active transport
-transmitting nerve impulses
-maintenance of constant body temperature
There are two types of respiration
1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration

1. Aerobic respiration-this is the release of a relatively large amount of energy

in cells by breakdown of food substances in the presence of oxygen.
Word and symbol equations for aerobic equation
Word equation- glucose+oxygen→carbon dioxide+water
Symbol equation-C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O

2. Anaerobic respiration-is the release of relatively small amount of energy by

the breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen.

Equations of anaerobic respiration in muscles

Word-glucose→lactic acid+energy
Symbol-C6H12O6→2C3H6O3+energy
Anaerobic respiration in yeast
Word-glucose→ethanol+carbon dioxide+energy
Symbol-C6H12O6→2C2H5OH+2CO2+energy
Effect of lactic acid in muslces during an exercise
*when exercising, muscles respire anaerobically because blood cannot supply
enough oxygen to maintain aerobic respiration.
*this causes the formation and build-up of lactic acid in the muscles
*the effect of this include fatigue and oxygen debt

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*removing the lactic acid after exercise is what causes this oxygen debt-which is the
amount of extra oxygen needed to react with lactic acid in muscles and remove it
from the cells.
*the blood flows through the muscles, remove lactic acid and transports it to the
liver.
*in the liver, lactic acid is broken down/ respired (aerobically)
Role of anaerobic respiration in yeast
1. During brewing
*yeast is added to a source of sugar
*and kept in warm conditions
*yeast respires anaerobically through the process called glycolysis using the
sugar (fermentation)
*forming ethanol, which makes the drink alcoholic
*and carbon dioxide which makes it fizzy
2. bread making
*mix yeast, water and sugar, this makes the yeast to begin respiring anaerobically
*flour is added to make dough
*then is kept in a warm environment to rise-warm temperature is important because
fermentation is controlled by enzymes
*the dough rises due to carbon dioxide released by yeast
*when dough is cooked, high temperatures will kill the yeast and release any ethanol
formed
*air spaces are left where carbon dioxide was trapped.
Gaseous exchange-role of mucus and cilia
gas exchange usually involves two or more gases transferred in opposite directions
across a respiratory surface.
Draw a Respiratory system

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Nb;

Structure of the breathing system

Larynx-trachea-bronchi-bronchioles-alveoli and associated capillaries
Nb-gaseous exchange relies on diffusion.
To be efficient, the gaseous exchange must;
*have rich blood supply-blood carries oxygen and removes carbon dioxide,
maintaining a concentration gradient for efficient exchange
*be thin/one cell thick-for shorter distance for diffusion
*have moist surface-to allow gases to dissolve or make diffusion faster
*have large surface area- ensuring more site for oxygen and carbon dioxide to
enter and leave the respiratory surface
*have concentration gradient across surface-which is maintained by
movement of air and use of gas.
* have Red blood cells – contain haemoglobin to transport O2 away from the
lungs.
Role of mucus and cilia
Mucus-is a slimy, gel-like substance produced by goblet cells and other specialized
cells lining the respiratory tract.
*it serves as a protective mechanism by trapping inhaled particles, like dust,
pollen, pathogens and other foreign substances that enter the respiratory system
during breathing.

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 *helps to humidify and moisturize the air, preventing the delicate respiratory
tissues from dying out.
Cilia-are tiny, hair-like structures present on the respiratory surface of the cells
lining the respiratory tract.
*which continuously beat in coordinated waves, moving mucus along the
respiratory passages (mucociliary ascalator)
*the coordinated beating of cilia propels the mucus and the trapped particles
upward, away from the lungs and towards the throat, where it can be coughed up or
swallowed.
Inspired and expired air
Inspired air-air we breathe in
Expired air-air we breathe out
Composition of inspired and expired air
Inspired air Expired air
20% to 21% of oxygen 16% of oxygen-contains less because of
respiration
0.04% carbon dioxide 4% carbon dioxide-released from
respiration
Variable water vapour Saturated water vapour-released from
respiration or at 370C
At air temperature At 37% temperature-air warmed in the
lungs

Testing for carbon dioxide

To investigate the differences in composition between inspired and expired air, we
use limewater-as it changes colour when the gas is bubbled through from colourless
to milky.
Link between physical activity and rate and depth of breathing
*when you run, muscles in your legs use up a lot of energy.
*cells in muscles need a lot of oxygen very quickly.
*they combine oxygen with glucose as fast as they can, to release energy for muscle
contraction-leading to a need of a lot of oxygen.

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*then you start to breathe deeper and faster to get more oxygen into your blood.
*your heart beats faster to get oxygen to the leg muscles as quickly as possible
*a limit is then reached-the heart and lungs cannot supply oxygen to the muscles any
fatser.
*some extra energy, is produced by anaerobic respiration-some glucose is broken
down without combining with oxygen
*carbon dioxide and lactic acid concentration in tissues and blood increase and blood
pH decreases.
*brain senses the change and the nerve impulses are sent to the diaphragm, and the
intercotal muscles, stimulating them to contract harder and more often leading to
faster and deeper breathing.
Effects of tobacco smoke on the respiratory system
Tobacco contains irritants and carcinogens
Its 4 main chemicals include
1. Carbon monoxide
2. Nicotine
3. Smoke particles
4. Tar

1. Carbon monoxide-combines with haemoglobin in the red blood cells, which

prevents them from transporting oxygen.
2. Nicotine-(addictive) causes continual smoking
3. Smoke particles-irritate air passages-this causes inflammation plus an
increase in mucus production, which causes chronic bronchitis.
Presence of smoke particles in the alveoli plus coughing causes emphysema
(breathlessness)
4. Tar-a carcinogen-increases the risk of lung cancer.
Lines air spaces-increasing mucus production, paralyzing and damaging cilia
leading to bronchitis.

Ventilation, role of intercostal muscles and diaphragm

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There are 2 sets of muscles which help one breathe;
1. Intercostal muscles-between the ribs
2. Diaphragm-a large sheet of muscle and elastic tissue, underneath the lungs
and heart.

During inhalation (breathing in)

*external intercostal muscles contract and internal relax, ribcage moves upward
and outward, increasing volume of thorax.
*diaphragm muscles contract, and diaphragm moves downward
*increasing volume of thorax
*decreasing air pressure in the thoratic cavity
*air rushes into the lungs through the mouth or nose.

During exhalation (breathing out)

*internal intercostal muscles contract while external relax
*ribcage moves downward
*diaphragm muscles relax-diaphragm moves up
*thorax volume decreases
*air pressure in thoratic cavity increases
*air rushes out of the lungs.

EXCRETION
Definition-is the removal from organisms of toxic materials, waste products of
metabolism and substances in excess of requirements. E.g carbon dioxide, urea, salts
etc.
Functions of the kidneys

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 1. Removal of urea-kidneys help filter waste products like urea (by-product of
protein metabolism) from the blood, which can be toxic if allowed to over-
accumulate.
2. Removal of excess water-the kidneys regulate the body’s water balance by
adjusting the amount of water reabsorbed back into the bloodstream. Excess
water that is not needed is excreted with urine.
3. Reabsorption of glucose-glucose becomes filtered out of the blood at the
glomeruli and enter renal capsule.
*in a healthy person, the majority of the filtered glucose is reabsorbed back
into the bloodstream by specialized glucose transporters present on the
epithelial cells lining renal tubules.
4. reabsorption of some salts- kidneys help regulate levels of various
electrolytes(salts) in the body, including sodium, potassium, and chloride ions.
*these are essential for maintaining cellular function and fluid balance. Their
reabsorption happens through active transport mechanisms.

Structure of the urinary system

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Functions of the liver
 Detoxification-detoxifies harmful substances, including drugs, alcohol, and
metabolic waste products.
 It metabolises and eliminates these toxins from the bloodstream, making them
less harmful to the body.
 Metabolises carbohydrates, proteins and fats to provide energy for the body
 Produces and release glucose into the bloodstream to maintain stable blood
sugar levels.
 Produces bile
 Protein synthesis-including clotting factors that help in blood coagulation,
albumin that helps maintain osmotic pressure in the blood vessels, and other
important proteins involved in immune functions.
 Serves as a storage site for essential nutrients and vitamins, including
glycogen etc.
 Breakdowns drugs and hormones into inactive forms that can be eliminated
from the body.
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  Filters and processes blood from the digestive tract before it circulates to the
rest of the body.
 Removes and breakdown old or damaged blood cells, toxins and bacteria,
helping purify the blood.

Structure of a kidney
the kidney has three main parts; the cortex, medulla and pelvis-leading from the
pelvis is a tube called ureter.
The ureter carries urine
made by the kidneys to the
urinary bladder.

Structure and functioning of a kidney tubule (nephron)

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The first process that occurs in the kidney tube is ultra-filtration
 Renal artery brings blood to the bowman’s capsule
 Renal artery forms thin coils of capillaries –this is called the glomerulus
 In the glomerulus 20% of the blood gets filtered. The filtrate diffuses into the
bowman’s capsule
 This is because the capsule has small holes, so it is permeable to small
molecules like water, glucose, salts and urea.
 The rest of the blood stay inside the glomerulus, like protein molecules along
with blood cells which are too large to diffuse through.
Selective reabsorption (occurs through the rest of the kidney tubule)
 Filtrate from bowman’s capsule then moves through the proximal
convoluted tubule

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  Here, water, nutrients(glucose) and some salts are reabsorbed back into the
bloodstream-so that they don’t pass with the urine
 As the filtrate descends down into medulla-it gets increasingly salty
because of ions
 The salt attracts water and the water will diffuse out of the loop into the
surrounding blood vessel by osmosis
 It will then move through the ascending nephron loop-here water cannot
enter or leave, but sodium and chloride ions are actively pumped out by
active transport.
 From here, the filtrate travels through distal convoluted tubule-where
water can diffuse out if a person dehydrated. The change in water content
is detected by the hypothalamus, which alerts the pituitary gland to release
ADH into the bloodstream. The presence of ADH makes the distal
convoluted tubule and collecting ducts to become permeable to water. So
water will move back into the bloodstream by osmosis. This results in the
release of less, darker urine.
However, if there is a lot of water in the body-
 The hypothalamus will detect the change in water content of the blood
 The pituitary gland will stop releasing ADH
 This will make the membranes of distal convoluted tubule and the collecting
ducts to be impermeable to water
 Making the filtrate move freely
 This results in much, clearer urine produced because of the presence of excess
water.

 As the filtrate moves across the collecting duct, it is mostly water, with urea
and salts. It is now urine.

 Filtered blood returns to the vena cava through renal vein

 The urine formed passes down the ureter into urinary bladder where is stored
to be released.
Dialysis and its application in kidney machines
Dialysis-is a medical procedure used to remove waste products and excess fluid from
the blood when the kidneys are unable to perform their function adequately. It is
used to maintain glucose and protein concentration in blood and diffusion of urea
from blood into dialysis fluid.

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Application of dialysis in kidney machines
*a dialyzer or hemodialyzer is used
*blood is removed from a vein in the patient’s arm
*blood is kept moving through dialysis tubing in the dialysis machine using a pump
*the tubing is very long to provide large surface area
*the dialysis fluid has a composition similar to blood plasma (water, glucose, salts),
but with no urea or uric acid
*urea, uric acid and excess salts are then removed from the blood by diffusion into
the dialysis fluid
*dialysis fluid has to be changed regularly to maintain a concentration gradient.
*the cleaned blood is then passed through a bubble trap to remove any air bubbles
*and then it is finally returned back to the patient’s vein again.
dialysis machine

blood pump

arm used dialysis

fluid

fresh dialysis
fluid

Advantages of kidney transplant compared with dialysis

*with kidney transplant- a patient can return to a normal lifestyle while in dialysis
require lengthy session in hospital (3 times a week), leaving a patient very tired after
each session, which limits employment opportunities, reduce overall freedom and
flexibility

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*with kidney transplant there is a better long-term survival (transplant restores
kidney function while dialysis only offers temporary treatment
*there are fewer dietary restrictions with kidney transplant while patients undergoing
dialysis have to follow a strict diet to manage their condition e.g limited fluid intake,
managing protein intake etc.
*kidney transplant reduces treatment burden while dialysis requires frequent
treatment sessions.

Advantages of dialysis compared with kidney transplant

*dialysis is readily available as a treatment option while kidney transplant depends
on organ availability from a suitable donor (blood type, tissue match) which requires
a waiting period.
*in dialysis there is no surgery or risk of tissue rejection while kidney transplant
requires surgery which carries some risks such as tissue rejection or clotting, hospital
stays and a period of rehabilitation.
*no need for immune-suppressive drugs in dialysis but after kidney transplant,
patients require them for the rest of their lives to prevent tissue rejection.
*dialysis is accepted by many religions while kidney transplant is not accepted by
some religions.

COORDINATION AND RESPONSE

The human nervous system plays a crucial role in controlling and coordinating
various bodily functions, including movement, sensation, thought process and
regulation of vital organs.
The human nervous system is made up of two parts:
1. Central nervous system (CNS)-which consists of the brain and spinal cord
as areas of coordination.
*this is the main control center of the body, responsible for processing and
integrating information received from the (PNS) and initiating appropriate
responses.
*the brain is involved in higher order functions such as thinking, memory,
emotions and consciousness.
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 *the spinal cord acts as a pathway for transmitting signals between the brain
and the rest of the body.
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)-This one includes all the nerves outside the
(CNS)
*it connects the CNS to the limbs, organs and other parts of the body.

STUCTURE OF THE BRAIN

Principal functions
1. Cerebellum-*coordinates movement
*responsible for balance and posture
*eye movement etc
2. pituitary gland-(located below the hypothalamus)
*divided into two sections: anterior and posterior pituitary gland

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*produces a range of hormones, including-ADH, GROWTH HORMONE, THYROI
STIMULATING HORMONE, PROLACTIN-WHICH CONTROLS BREAST
MILK PRODUCTION ETC.
3. Cerebrum-(largest part of the human brain)
*carries out a large variety of functions involved in conscious activities e.g vision,
hearing, speech, thinking and memory.
4. hypothalamus-*monitors blood as it passes through the brain and in response,
releases hormones or stimulates the neighbouring pituitary gland to release
hormones.
*helps in regulation of body temperature
*monitors blood temperature and initiates a homeostatic response if this temperature
gets too high or too low
*osmoregulation-it monitors the water balance of the blood and releases the
hormone ADH if the blood becomes too concentrated. ADH increases reabsorption
of water in the kidneys.
* it regulates digestive activity-by regulating the hormones that control appetite as
well as the secretion of digestive enzymes.
*controls endocrine functions- by causing the pituitary gland to release hormones
that control a variety of processes, e.g metabolism, growth and development,
puberty, sexual functions, sleep and mood etc.
5. medulla oblongata-*control different unconscious (involuntary) functions,
including,
*breathing, heartbeat, blood pressure, swallowing and gag-reflex, sneezing-reflex
and vomiting reflex, coordination and head and neck movements etc.
NEURONES-these are nerve cells which carry information as tiny electrical signals.
There are 3 different types of nerve cells/neurons
1. Sensory neurone-carries signals from receptors to the spinal cord and brain
2. Relay neurone- carries signals from one part of the CNS to another
3. Motor neurone- carries signals from the CNS to effectors (muscle/gland)
STRUCTURES OF SENSORY, RELAY AND MOTOR NEURONE
1. Sensory neurone

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 2. Relay neurone

3. Motor neurone

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF A NEURONE

1. Axon- carries impulses away from the cell body to the next neurone
2. Dendrites- pick signals (impulses) from nerve endings
3. Myelin sheath- insulates nerve fibres and increases the speed at which nerve
impulses are transmitted
*also help reduce leakage of nerve impulses
4. cell body- *contains genetic information

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 *maintains the cell’s structure and provides energy to drive activities.
PATHWAY OF ELECTRICAL IMPULSES
1. Stimulus
2. Receptor
3. Sensory neurone
4. Central nervous system (brain/spinal cord)
5. Motor neurone
6. Effector
7. Response

STIMULUS, RECEPTORS AND EFFECTORS

1. Stimulus- any change in the environment
2. Receptors- are groups of specialized cells, which can detect changes in the
environment (stimulus) and turn them into electrical impulses.
NB-receptors are often located in sense organs such as the ear, eye and skin.
And each organ has receptors sensitive to particular kinds of stimulus.
3. Effectors- any part of the body that produces a response-e.g a muscle-
contracting to move an arm, or gland-releasing a hormone into the
bloodstream.

REFLEX ACTION-this is a rapid and automatic response to a stimulus.

NB; A reflex arc describes a pathway of an electrical impulse in response to a
stimulus.
STRUCTURE

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N:B-Examples include withdrawal reflexes
Stepping on a pin
*the pin is the stimulus
*receptor cells detect stimulus
*sensory neurone transmits impulses across a synapse to the relay neurone (spinal
cord)
*relay neurone transmits impulses across a synapse to the motor neurone
*motor neurone passes the impulse to the muscle in the leg
*which contracts, pulling the leg away from the pin (response)
When hand accidentally touches a hot pan
*receptor cells in the skin detect stimulus
*which stimulates sensory neurone, which carries the impulse from the finger to
the spinal cord
*inside spinal cord, it transmits the impulse across a synapse to the relay neurone.
*relay neurone passes the impulse to motor neurone across a synapse
*which passes the impulse to the effector (bicep muscle)
*which contracts and move the hand away from the hot pan
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 Knee jerk reflex
*When patellar ligament is tapped
*muscles spindles in the quadriceps are stimulated
*and generate nerve impulses which travel along sensory neurone to the relay
neurone in the spinal cord
*in the gray matter of the spinal cord, nerve impulses are transmitted across a
synapse to the motor neurone
*which finally reaches the quadriceps muscle
*quadricep muscle contracts, moving the lower leg forward.

ADVANTAGES OF SIMPLE REFLEXES

*FAST
*AUTOMATIC
*PROTECTIVE/DEFENSIVE/HELP AVOID INJURY
*HELP REMOVE PART OF THE BODY FROM SOURCE OF DANGER

SYNAPSE-the connecting space between neurones

NB-when an impulse reaches the end of one neurone, it stops
*this stimulates the release of tiny neuron-transmitter chemicals from vesicles-which
are responsible for passing nerve impulses from one neurone to the next across the
gap (synaptic cleft)
*where they bind to the second neurone
*which triggers electrical impulses in the next neurone
*the enzymes in the synaptic clef quickly breakdown the neuro-transmitters

ACTION OF ANTAGONISTIC MUSCLES (BICEPS & TRICEPS)

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NB- muscles operate as antagonistic pairs- this is because when one muscle
contracts, the other one relaxes/lengthens. The muscle that contracts is called the
agonist and the one that relaxes is called the antagonist.
*when biceps contract, triceps relax
*and the lower arm moves towards the scapula
*this results in the arm bending at the elbow, or being raised.
However,
*when triceps contract, biceps relax
*and the arm straightens/extends

STRUTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE EYE

Sense organs- these are groups of receptors cells responding to specific stimuli-
either light, sound, touch, temperature and chemicals

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FUNCTIONS
1. Cornea-refracts (bends) light as it enters the eye
2. Iris-controls how much light enters the pupil
3. Lens-changes shape to focus light onto the retina
4. Retina-contains light receptor cells- rods (detect light intensity) and cones
(detect colour)
5. Optic nerve-carries impulses between the eye and the brain
6. Pupil-hole that allows light to enter the eye

ACCOMMODATION-FOCUSSING ON FAR AND NEAR OBJECTS

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1. Distance objects
*ciliary muscles relax, giving them a small diameter
*this pulls on suspensory ligaments, which in turn;
*pull on the lens
*making the lens thinner (less convex)
Nb-as ciliary muscles are relax, this means there is no strain on the eye.

2. Near objects
*Ciliary muscles contract, giving the a smaller diameter
*this removes tension on suspensory ligaments, which in turn;
*stop pulling on the lens
*the lens becomes thicker (more convex)
Nb-as ciliary muscles are contracted, there is no strain on the eye, which can
cause a headache if a near object is viewed for too long.

PUPIL REFLEX
This is a type of reflex action which changes the size of the pupil, to control the
amount of light entering the eye.

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 Nb-in bright light
*circular muscles contract
*radial muscles relax
*pupil size is (constricted) or reduced to prevent too much light falling on the
retina and damaging it.
In dim light
*circular muscles relaz
*radial muscles contract
*pupil dilate to allow as much light as possible to enter the eye.

How pupil reflex comes about;

 Retina detects brightness of the light entering the eye
 Impulse passes to the brain along sensory neurone
 And travels back to muscles of the iris along motor neurone
 Causing pupil to change size due to contraction of circular or radial muscles.

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HORMONES
A hormone- is a chemical substance, produced by a gland, carried by blood, which
alters the activity of one or more specific target organs, and is then destroyed by the
liver.
ROLE OF ADRENALIN IN CHEMICAL CONTROL OF METABOLIC
ACTIVITY
Nb-when a person experiences a stressful or life-threatening situation, the adrenal
glands release adrenaline into the bloodstream.
1. Adrenalin Increases blood glucose concentration- by causing the liver to
convert the stored glycogen to glucose.
*the released glucose enters the bloodstream
*resulting in an increased bood glucose concentration
*this provides the body with a quick source of energy to cope with the threat
2. increases pulse rate, so that,
*the heart pumps blood faster
*to supply oxygen and nutrients to the brain and muscles quickly
*increasing energy for action (fight or flight)
Other effects of adrenaline include;
*increased breathing rate
*high mental awareness
*dilated pupils
COMPARISON OF NERVOUS AND HORMONAL CONTROL SYSTEMS
NERVOUS HORMONAL
Made of neurons Made of endocrine glands
Transmission is by electrical impulses Transmission is by hormones
Pathway is by axons and dendrons Pathway blood plasma
Transmission is fast Transmission is slow
Effect is short term Effect is long-term
Response is localized Response is widespread

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VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS
Voluntary actions- are those actions that are consciously initiated and controlled by
an individual.
Examples; raising hand, walking, speaking or reaching for an object.
Involuntary actions- these actions occur without conscious control or intention.
They are aften automatic and reflexive.
Examples; blinking, sneezing, coughing as well as physiological responses like
heartbeats, digestion or regulation of body temperature.

COORDINATION IN PLANTS
Tropism- are responses by part of a plant towards or away from a stimulus coming
from one direction.
Nb-the movement is always a growth movement. In general plants respond to stimuli
by changing their rate or direction of growth. They may grow either towards or away
from a stimulus. These responses are called tropisms.
Nb- two important stimuli for plants are light and gravity.

AUXINS-*are plant growth hormones/substances

* produced by the shoot and root tips of growing plants
Nb- auxins will always move away from the sun/light and towards gravity
*auxin accumulation in shoot promotes cell growth due to increased water
intake by osmosis.
*auxins accumulation in a root slows down cell growth due to reduced water
intake.

PHOTOTROPISM
This is the response in which a plant grows towards or away from the direction from
which light is coming.
Positive phototropism-
*when a shoot is exposed to light on one sight, auxins move away from the light.
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*more auxins are therefore present on the shaded side
*this increases water intake by osmosis in the cells of the shaded side, making it
grow faster/longer.
*the imbalance of auxins cause the shaded side to grow faster, causing the stem to
bend towards the light.
*this growth of a shoot towards the light is called (positive phototropism).
Negative phototropism (plant grows away from the light)
*in the absence of gravity, if a root is exposed to light, auxins move to the shaded
sight.
*the auxins cause reduced water intake on the shaded side, thus slowing down
growth.
*unequal growth bends the root away from the light.

Geotropism-response in which plant grows towards or away from gravity.

Positive geotropism
*if a root is placed horizontally in the absence of light;
*auxins accumulate on the lower side of the root due to gravity
*cells on the lower side grow more slowly
*and the root bends downwards towards gravity.
Negative geotropism
*if a shoot is placed horizontally in the absence of light
*auxins accumulate on the lower side of the shoot, due to gravity.
*cells on the lower side grow more quickly
*the shoot bends upwards

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HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis –is defined as the maintenance of a stable or constant internal
environment.

Section through the human skin

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Maintenance of a constant body temperature in humans (thermoregulation)
Why we need to regulate body temperature
*for proper enzyme functioning
*to ensure that cells can carry-out their essential functions efficiently
*constant temperature ensures that the body’s systems and organs function optimally
*supports the immune system-elevated body temperature can help fight off
infections by enhancing immune responses and inhibiting the growth of certain
pathogens.

How body temperature is regulated

Nb: *thermoreceptors in the skin detect changes in temperature and;
*sends signals to the hypothalamus of the brain

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*which then initiates appropriate responses to restore and maintain the desired body
temperature.
When you are cold (the body will try to save or conserve heat and generate
more;
This is done through;
1. Vasoconstriction-arterioles near the skin surface become narrower, so that
little blood can flow through them. This ensures that less heat is lost to the
surroundings.
2. Contraction of Hair erector muscles-this makes your hair to stand on ends.
This helps trap a mall layer of insulating air, so that it is harder to lose more
heat from your skin.
3. Shivering-your muscles contract automatically. Muscle contraction require
lots of energy from respiration-which results in heat energy from all chemical
reactions, and ends up warming the body.
4. Hypothalamus can increase metabolic processes that generate heat.

When you are too hot (the body will try to lose more heat)
1. Hair erector muscles relax-this allows your hair to fall flat, trapping less
insulating air.
2. Vasodilation-arterioles near the skin surface expand or widen-resulting in
increased blood flow, and more heat energy to be lost to the surroundings.
3. Sweating- as sweat evaporates, it takes heat energy on your body away with
(heat lost by radiation/convection), leaving the body cooler.
4. Hypothalamus can inhibit metabolic processes that generate heat, so that there
is reduced heat energy in the body.
Regulation of blood glucose concentration
When blood glucose is high; after a heavy meal
*this will be detected by the hypothalamus,
*which will send the signal to the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas to release
insulin into the bloodstream.
*insulin promotes the uptake of glucose by various tissues such as muscles, and fat
cells
*and its storage as glycogen in the liver and muscle tissues

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*this results in blood glucose concentration returning back to normal.
When blood glucose concentration is low
*this change will be detected by the hypothalamus of the brain
*which will send signals to the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas to release
glucagon into the bloodstream
*glucagon stimulates the liver cells to breakdown the stored glycogen and convert it
back to glucose.
*and releasing it back into the bloodstream-bringing the glucose content of the blood
back to normal.
Control of blood glucose and temperature by negative feedback
Blood glucose
*if blood glucose rises, the pancreas releases insulin which results in blood glucose
levels dropping back to normal
*when the level drops-pancreas secretes glucagon which results in blood glucose
getting back to normal
This is negative feedback-the change is fed back to the effector (pancreas)

Temperature
*if temperature rises above normal, actions take place that help to reduce it
*and if temperature is lower than normal, actions takes place that increase the
temperature (this is negative feedback)
Diabetes mellitus
Type 1 diabetes-this is a disorder in which the pancreas fails to produce enough
insulin to control blood glucose levels. It is characterized by uncontrolled high blood
glucose levels in the blood.
Signs and symptoms
Urinating more often, extreme fatigue, hungry while eating, blurry vision, injuries
take time to heal, weight loss.
Treatment
Monitoring blood glucose levels
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Injecting insulin throughout the day (before meals)
Type 2 diabetes-a disorder in which the body cells no longer respond to insulin
produced by the pancreas.
*the person still makes insulin but the cells are resistant to it and do not respond as
well as they should.
Signs and symptoms
Uncontrolled high blood glucose levels
Tingling, pain or numbness in hands, feet etc.
Treatment
*carbohydrate controlled diet
*exercise/weight loss

Role of pituitary gland, ADH in osmoregulation

Osmoregulation-process of maintaining water and solutes concentration across
membranes within the body.

When water levels in blood are too low

*hypothalamus of the brain will detect the change
*and send signals to the pituitary gland to release ADH into the bloodstream
*ADH travels to the kidneys where it acts on the cells of the collecting ducts
*making them more permeable to water
*allowing more water to be reabsorbed back into the bloodstream
*this results in smaller urine produced
*this helps maintain the balance of water and solutes in the body by conserving water
and preventing dehydration.

When water levels in blood are high

*hypothalamus detects the change

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*and it will inhibit the pituitary gland from releasing ADH into the bloodstream
*the collecting ducts in the kidneys become impermeable to water
*less water will be reabsorbed back into the bloodstream
*this results in a larger volume of clearer urine produced
*balance of water and solutes is maintained.

USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS

Drug- this is any substance that when taken into the body, modifies or affects
chemical reactions in the body.
Use of antibiotics for treatment of bacterial infections
Nb; when a bacterial infection occurs, the immune system usually fights off the
infection. However, in some cases the immune response may be insufficient or the
bacteria may be aggressive, leading to need for antibiotic treatment.
Antibiotics are designed to target bacteria and disrupt their vital processes; either by;
*directly attacking their cell walls, protein or DNA
*antibiotics are designed based on several factors
1. the type of infection
2. severity of infection
3. the suspected or identified bacteria causing the infection and the patient’s
overall health. E.g respiratory infections (pneumonia, bronchitis and sinusitis)
urinary tract infections, skin and tissue infections, STI’S-chlamydia, gonorrhea and
syphilis) gastrointestinal infections.
Importance of correct use of antibiotics

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*correct use of antibiotics as prescribed, completing treatment even when the
symptoms have disappeared help ensure eradication of bacteria and prevent
development of antibiotic resistance.
Nb; development of resistance of antibiotics by bacteria may be as a result of natural
selection, which causes;
 Mutation-change in the DNA
 Which causes bacteria to be resistant
 To reproduce and multiply
 And pass on the resistant gene over to their offspring

Why antibiotics only kill bacteria and not viruses

 Viruses are not alive
 They do not have cell walls (which are what antibiotics are designed to attack)
 They are designed to target specific bacterial components or enzymes, which
are absent in viruses
 Viruses multiply by hijacking host cells, taking over their cellular processes
to produce more, so antibiotics cannot target viral components without
harming host cells.
Effects of dagga and cocaine as drugs of abuse
dagga
*short-term memory, reduced attention, coordination and reaction time-these can
interfere with daily activities such as driving or operating machinery.
*bloodshot eyes, dry mouth, increased heart rate and increased appetite
*frequent or heavy use may increase anxiety disorders, depression and schizophrenia
*(respiratory problems) like-coughing, wheezing, and increased chances of
respiratory infections (chronic bronchitis)
*dependence (addiction)
Effects of cocaine
*increased short-term euphoria
*stimulation of the nervous system, resulting in increased energy alertness, and
confidence

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*decreased appetite, heightened sexual arousal and a sense of increased sociability
*increased heart rate, blood pressure, constricted blood vessels (putting a significant
strain on the heart and leading to heart palpitations, chest pains, irregular heart
rhythms and increased risk of heart attack and stroke.
*shortness of breath (when inhaled)-chronic coughing, lung damage and increased
risk of respiratory infections
*can damage nasal septum (when snorted), and surrounding tissues, can also cause
burns and sores on lips, mouth and throat.

Effects of excessive alcohol consumption

*it is a depressant-lowers the rate of nervous impulses by blocking synapses, leading
to slow reaction time.
*reduced self-control which can lead to increased crime rate
*liver damage (cirosis)
*there is stigma or discrimination –which can further isolate drinkers from support
systems and opportunities for recovery, including barriers to employment and social
integration.

Effects of abuse of heroin

*depressant
*there are severe withdrawal symptoms (cravings, severe anxiety, and restlessness,
profuse sweating and chills, muscle aches and pains, nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhoea) leading to dehydration and electrolyte imbalance, insomnia and sleep
disturbances, increased heart rate and blood pressure.
*theft –in order to purchase more
*infections (HIV/AIDS) especially when exchanging needles.

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REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Reproduction-is the process that makes more of the same kind of an organism.
There are 2 types of reproduction; sexual and asexual reproduction.

1. Sexual reproduction-is the process involving the fusion of haploid nuclei(a

nucleus containing a single set of unpaired chromosomes) to form a diploid
zygote(contains two sets of chromosomes) and the production of genetically
dissimilar offspring.

advantages of sexual reproduction

 Produces genetic variation in the offspring
 The species can adapt to new environments due to variation,
 Which gives them a survival advantage
 A disease is less likely to affect all the individuals in a population.
Disadvantages of sexual reproduction
 Two parents are needed
 Reproduction takes longer
 Low reproduction rate as only half of the genetic material from each parent is
passed onto the offspring, reducing the potential for rapid population growth.
 Favourable genes may not be passed to the offspring.

Asexual reproduction-is the process resulting in the production of genetically

identical offspring from one parent.
Asexual reproduction in bacteria
 Bacteria produce asexually by binary fission
 Inside an individual bacterium, the DNA replicates
 The cell elongates and a dividing wall is formed between the two copies of
DNA
 Then the cell divides into two identical daughter cells
 Containing a copy of the parental DNA

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FUNGI
 Fungi reproduces asexually by producing spores
 Formed inside the sporangium
 When ripe, the sporangium bursts open allowing the spores to be dispersed
 In suitable conditions, the spores germinate and grow to form new individuals.

Potatoes
 The parent plant photosynthesizes and stores the food (glucose) produced in
underground stems
 Which swell to form tubers
 Each tuber contains stored starch, and there are buds in depressions in the
surface known as eyes
 In suitable conditions, the buds use stored starch to form shoots, from which
roots also develop
 Each tuber can form a new parent.

Advantages of asexual reproduction

 It is quick
 Only one parent needed
 No fusion of gametes
 All good characteristics are passed onto the offspring
 Store large amounts of food which means rapid growth

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

 There is little variation
 Which means adaptation to environment is unlikely
 Disease may affect all the individuals in a population
Importance of commercial applications of asexual reproduction
 Plants can be cloned through stem cuttings, grafting or tissue culture to ensure
preservation and replication of specific tracts such as disease resistance, high

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 yields or unique characteristics-this helps maintain consistent quality, reduce
crop failure risks and improve overall agricultural productivity.
 Asexual reproduction allows for rapid multiplication of organisms which is
important for industries that require large scale production.
 Asexual reproduction ensures genetic preservation especially in industries
that depend on maintaining specific genetic profile such as pharmaceuticals.

Structure and functions of a flower

Functions of parts of a flower

1. Petal-attracts insects
2. Sepals-protect flower while in bud
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 3. Petiole/stock-supports the flower and makes it easily seen by insects and to
withstand wind
4. Anther-contains pollen sacs, in which pollen grains are formed (pollen
contains male sex cells)
5. Stigma-(sticky surface of ovaries) through which pollen tubes grows
6. Ovary-contains ovules which develop into seeds when fertilized.

Pollination-is the transfer of pollen grains from the male part of the flower (anther)
to the female part of the flower (stigma).
There are two types of pollination-self-pollination & cross-pollination
Self-pollination- is the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of the same flower,
or to another flower of the same plant.
Cross-pollination-is the transfer of pollen from anther of a flower to the stigma of
a flower on a different plant of the same species.
Differences between self-pollination and cross-pollination
Self-pollination Cross-pollination
Occurs in the same flower or between Occurs between two flowers of two
two flowers of the same plant different plants
There is increased chance of There is less chances of fertilization
fertilization and seed formation
There is less variation in the offspring There is more variation in the offspring
There is decreased ability to adapt to Increased ability to adapt to
environmental changes environmental changes.

Agents of pollination
NB-pollination can take place with the help of agents: wind and insects
Structural adaptations of wind and insect pollinated flowers
Insect pollinated Wind pollinated
Large brightly-coloured, scented petals- Small dull-coloured petals-as they do
to guide insects to the flower. not rely on visual attraction for
pollination
Produce scent, nectar-which attract No nectar.
insects.

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Scent acts as a chemical attractant, They produce a large quantity of dry
while nectar serves as a reward for pollen-which increases chances of
pollinators. successful pollination.
Have small, sticky stigma –so that Have feathery or branched stigma –
pollen grains attaches from insects. which increases surface area for pollen
capture, this enhances pollen grains
being intercepted as they are carried by
the wind.
They have broad, flat or elongated They have flexible stems to withstand
landing platforms where insects can wind currents without getting damaged
perch while feeding on nectar or
collecting pollen.
Have enclosed anthers Anthers are often exposed or positioned
outside the flower to allow for easier
dispersal of pollen by wind.
They have specialized structures like
elongated floral tubes, spurs or brushes
–that make it easier for insects to come
into contact with pollen and carry it to
other flowers.

Growth of pollen tube and process of fertilization

 When a pollen grain lands on the stigma, if form a pollen tube
 Pollen tube grows down the style of the flower
 Towards the ovary and ovule
 And moves through the micropyle of the ovule and dissolve
 Pollen nucleus then enters the ovule
 Where it fuses with the egg cell nucleus to form a zygote
 The zygote divides and develops into a plant embryo

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Structure of a non-endospermic seed
Nb-ovary develops into a fruit and the ovule
develops into a seed. Just remember when you
eat an apple that you are a eating the ovary.

 plumule goes to become a shoot

 radicle forms the first root
 cotyledon acts as a food store for the plant until it can photosynthesise.
Environmental conditions affecting germination
Germination-is the start of growth of a plant from a seed.

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Seeds need the following to germinate;
 water-which helps to activate enzymes which help in converting insoluble
food stores (fats, starch and proteins) into soluble ones for growth and energy.
 Oxygen-growth requires energy, which is released in respiration
 Suitable temperature-for enzymes in the seed to get activated (20-40 degrees
celcius), which triggers growth.

Seed dispersal
Nb; flowers produce seeds which can be dispersed by wind or by animals,
providing a means of colonizing new area.
Wind dispersed seeds
*some fruits contain seeds, and usually have parachute or a wing to help them to
be carried away from the parent plant by wind. E.g dandelion and sycamore.
The dandelion-has a group of fine hairs called pappus, which catches the wind and
act like a parachute.
The sycamore-*has a wing with large surface area
*when the fruit drops off the tree, it spins, slowing down in descent
*if caught by wind, the seed is carried away from the parent plant.
Animal dispersed seeds
There are two main modifications of fruits for animal dispersal. Succulent fruits
and hooked fruits.
1. Succulent fruits (tomatoes, blackberries)
*attract animals as a result of their bright colour, juice and nutrition
*when eaten, the seeds does not get digested, then passes with faeces, taking
it away from the parent plant.
*the faeces provide nutrients when the seed germinates.
2. hooked fruits(burr grass)
*catch onto animal fur as it brushes past the parent plant
*eventually, the seed drops off, or the animal grooms itself to remove them
*this disperses the seeds away from the parent plant.

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REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
Reproduction in humans occurs when the male gamete (sperm) fuses with the female
gamete (ovum) to for zygote.
Male reproductive system

Parts of the male reproductive system and their functions

Part Function
1. Testes/testicles Produce sperm and testosterone
2. Scrotum A sac that protects and keeps testes cool
(outside body temperature)
3. sperm ducts Allow passage of semen containing
sperm
4. prostate gland Produces semen
5. urethra Allows passage of urine including
semen and sperm
6. penis Hardens to deliver sperm into the vagina
during sexual intercourse.

Female reproductive system

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Parts of the female reproductive system and their functions
Part Function
1. ovaries Produce and store eggs also produce
oestrogen and progesterone
2. oviducts/fallopian tubes Allow passage of ovum from ovaries
Also act as a site for fertilization.
3. Uterus Acts as a site of implantation
Also development of the fetus
4. Cervix Is a ring of muscles that separate the
vagina from the uterus
5. Vagina Receives sperms from the penis during
intercourse

Differences between male and female gametes

Sperm cell Egg cell
Smaller in size Larger in size
Moves by tail (tail lashes from side to Moves with the help of cilia (beating
side) movement) and peristalsis in the
oviduct
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They are produced in millions Produced once every month
constantly

Secondary sexual characteristics at puberty

Sex hormones (testosterone in boys and oestrogen in girls) are responsible for the
development of secondary sexual characteristics.
In males;
 voice becomes deeper/bigger
 hair grows on chest, face, underarms and in pubic area
 shoulders become broad
 penis becomes larger
 testes begin to produce sperm

In females;
 breasts grow, nipples also enlarge
 hair also grows in underarms and pubic area
 hips develop
 uterus and vagina grow larger
 ovaries begin to release eggs and menstruation starts.
The menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle in women is a recurring process in which the lining of the
uterus which always prepares for pregnancy falls/sheds if pregnancy does not
occur.
Nb-this cycle lasts for about 28days.

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Menstrual cycle explained
NB-before the cycle begin,
 the wall of the uterus (endometrium) thickens, and becomes spongy, as it
prepares for fertilized egg.
 The wall is full of tiny blood vessels, ready to supply the embryo with oxygen
and nutrients if it arrives.
 If this does not occur the lining of the uterus sheds/falls this is phase-1 of the
cycle called menstruation.

Phase-2 Follicular phase

 Pituitary gland releases (FSH)-follicle stimulating hormone- which triggers
growth of follicles in the ovaries
 As follicles continue to grow, they start to produce more and more oestrogen
 Oestrogen helps repair the endometrium
 The increase in oestrogen sends signals to the pituitary gland to release
another hormone (LH)-luteinizing hormone

Phase-3 ovulation phase (on 14th day)

 (LH) causes the release of the egg from the ovaries

Phase 4-The luteal phase

 The left-over cells of the follicles form corpus luteum
 Which stays in the ovaries to keep producing progesterone
 Progesterone causes the endometrium/lining to keep on growing and not
menstruate.
 If there is no fertilized egg, the corpus luteum dies off, and progesterone is
no longer produced
 The lining of the uterus then breaks down
 Leading us back to phase 1 to start the process again.

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 However; if there is a fertilized egg,
 Corpus luteum does not degenerate quickly
 It continues to produce progesterone until placenta develops
 When placenta is formed, it will secrete progesterone throughout pregnancy
 Which maintains the endometrium so that menstruation does not happen
during pregnancy.
Functions of hormones involved in the menstrual cycle
FSH-*stimulates growth of follicles in the ovary
*causes the eggs to start maturing in the ovary
*stimulates the ovary to release oestrogen
OESTROGEN-*causes repair or thickening of the endometrium
*getting it ready for implantation
*inhibits the release of FSH
*Stops production or release of more eggs
*stimulates release of LH by pituitary gland
*stimulates change in cervical mucus.
LH-*causes ovulation
*causes the ovaries (corpus luteum) to produce progesterone
PROGESTERONE-*maintains the lining of the uterus during the second half of
the menstrual cycle (day 14-28)
*and during pregnancy to prevent menstruation.

Fertilization and implantation

 During intercourse, an erect penis delivers sperm into the woman’s vagina
(ejaculation)
 Sperm then swim from the vagina, through the cervix, uterus and finally the
fallopian-tube
 Where they will find the egg

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  A single sperm nucleus will fuse with the egg nucleus by secreting a
digestive enzyme (acrosin) from its acrosome-which helps penetrate the egg
membrane/jelly coat/zona pellucidum, to form a zygote.
 The egg membrane then becomes impenetrable to other sperm cells.
 The zygote moves slowly down the fallopian tube
 And start to divide by mitosis-from a single cell to about 16-32 cells called
embryo
 Which will implant itself in the uterus
 The embryo will release (hCG-human chorionic gonadotropin)-which makes
the corpus luteum to continue secreting progesterone, hence maintaining the
lining of the uterus so that menstruation does not occur during pregnancy.
 8 weeks later after implantation, the embryo is now a fetus.

Development of the fetus

Once the embryo has been implanted into the endometrium, things such as the
umbilical cord, placenta, amniotic sac and fluid also develop, and contribute in
the development of the fetus.
Functions of the placenta
 Placenta attaches to the endometrium and has finger-like projections called
villi which increase surface area for efficient diffusion.
 It allows diffusion of nutrients (glucose, amino acids, water, vitamins and
oxygen) from the mother’s blood to the fetal blood.
 Allows diffusion of waste products (carbon dioxide and urea) from the fetal
blood into the mother’s blood.
 Produce progesterone which maintains the endometrium during pregnancy to
prevent uterine contractions that could lead to premature labour
 Which also suppress the mother’s immune response to prevent rejection of the
fetus as a foreign entity.
 Prevents mixing of maternal blood and fetal blood which result in clotting and
may be fatal to both as they have different blood groups.
 Allows mother’s antibodies to cross through into the fetal blood, therefore
protecting the baby against infections, especially after birth.

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Functions of the umbilical cord
 Connects the developing fetus to the placenta
 Facilitates transport of nutrients, oxygen and other essential substances from
the mother’s blood across the placenta to the developing fetus, through the
umbilical vein.
 Has two arteries (umbilical arteries) which carry deoxygenated blood and
waste products from the fetus to the placenta.
 Allows passage of certain hormones and antibodies from the mother to the
fetus.

Functions of the amniotic sac

 Contains or secretes amniotic fluid
 Forms a protective barrier around the fetus, shielding it from external shocks,
pressure and external infections
 Also prevents entry of pathogens

Functions of amniotic fluid

 Acts as a cushion to protect the fetus
 Protect fetus from mechanical shock or injury (if the mother falls)
 Maintains constant temperature around the growing fetus
 Allows fetus to move freely
 Provides a sterile environment and collects fetal urine /waste

Antenatal care
This is a routine for healthy pregnant women, including healthy diets, exercises
for maintenance of good health etc.
1. Dietary needs-during pregnancy, the mother’s diet needs to be balanced so
that the fetus receives all the materials needed for healthy growth and
development. Her diet should contain
 Calcium-essential for development of baby’s bones, teeth and muscles
 Iron-for red blood cells formation which helps prevent the mother from
catching anaemia and ensures proper oxygen supply to the fetus.

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  Carbohydrates-energy source-which help increase mother’s body
which supports fetal growth and development
 Fats-source of energy, cell growth and development including fetal
brain development
 Proteins-growth and tissue repair of both mother and fetus.
2. Exercise
 Improves blood circulation
 Certain exercises like pelvic and prenatal yoga prepare the body for
labour and delivery
 Help manage weight gain which help reduce risks of complications
during pregnancy and delivery.
Things to avoid;
 Smoking and second-hand smoke-which can increase the risk of
premature birth, low birth weight and other complications
 Alcohol-depressant
 Drugs

The process of birth

 The first stage of birth (labour) is triggered by the hormone oxytocin
 Muscular walls of the uterus start to contract
 This pressure breaks the amniotic sac, releasing amniotic fluid
 Contractions gradually become more frequent
 And the baby is pushed down towards the cervix
 Which dilates to allow the baby to pass through
 The vagina also stretches to allow the baby to be born
 The baby is still attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord
 Umbilical cord is cut and tied
 The placenta then breaks or detaches from the endometrium and passes out.

Advantages and disadvantages of breast feeding compared with bottle-feeding

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Breast-feeding
Advantages disadvantages
 Has antibodies and no bacteria *may be painful to the mother
 No risk of allergic reactions *mother needs to be present for baby
 Comes at the right temperature to feed.
 No additives or preservatives
 No cost/preparation

Bottle-feeding (formula)
Advantages
 It is convenient and flexible
 Scheduling feedings may be easier
 Either parent or caregiver can feed the baby
Disadvantages
 Lacks antibodies-does not provide same protection as breast milk against
infections and diseases.
 You need to mix and prepare to make sure it’s the correct temperature
 Expensive
 Can cause constipation and gas
Methods of birth control
There are 4 main groups of birth control methods (natural, chemical,
mechanical and surgical).
Natural methods
1. Abstinence-no sexual intercourse at all
2. Rhythm method-intercourse is avoided during ovulation period.
Reliability of the rhythm method
 The regularity of the menstrual cycle is crucial for its
effectiveness
 Irregular cycles or variations in ovulation timing can reduce
the method’s reliability, leading to a higher risk of
unintended pregnancy.
Chemical methods

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 1. Contraceptive pill-*contains progesterone and oestrogen which prevent
ovulation?
*thickens cervical mucus making it difficult for sperm to pass through to the
fallopian tube
*alters uterine lining making it less receptive to the implantation of a fertilized
egg.
2. spermicide-*contains chemicals that create a hostile environment for sperm.
*they damage membranes of sperm reducing their mobility and
preventing them from moving effectively through the cervical mucus
and reaching the egg.

Mechanical methods
1. Condom-placed on a penis during intercourse to prevent sperm from entering
the vagina.
2. Diaphragm-dome-shaped rubber barrier fitted in the cervix to prevent entry
of sperm into the cervix.
3. Femidom- a plastic sheath placed inside the vagina to prevent entry of sperm
4. IUD (intrauterine device)-a plastic-coated copper coil inserted into the
endometrium to prevent implantation.

Surgical methods
1. Vasectomy-*sperm ducts are cut and tied
*so that no sperm leaves the testes and fertilize the egg
2. Laparotomy/tubal ligation-*oviducts are cut and tied,
* so that no egg can pass down into the fallopian-tube.

Artificial insemination-this is a procedure performed to improve chances of

pregnancy for women with fertility problems;
Nb, the problem causing infertility could be with the man not being able to produce
healthy sperm.
Procedure

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  Around the time of the woman’s ovulation,
 Sperm from a donor are taken
 The sperm are prepared and washed to concentrate healthy motile sperm that
are capable of fertilizing an egg
 The sperm are put into the woman’s uterus using a catheter
 To enhance chances of pregnancy

Problems or social implications of artificial insemination

 The man has to accept that the child is not biologically his own
 When the child grows, they may want to know their biological father
 The use of donor sperm can lead to diverse family structures and may
challenge traditional notions of family.

Use of hormones in fertility drugs

Nb-fertility drugs are used when the woman is not producing enough eggs
*she is given hormones (FSH-which ensures growth and maturity of multiple eggs
in the ovary) and LH-which causes ovulation or release of multiple eggs.
*the eggs can then be allowed to be released into the oviduct in the normal way.

In vitro fertilization (IVF)-may be used when the oviducts are blocked.

e.g due to STI’s which can lead to inflammation and scarring in the reproductive
organs resulting in blockage. Congenital anomalies such as malformed or blocked
oviducts. Previous surgeries like treating ectopic pregnancy etc.
procedure
 The woman is given (FSH) to stimulate eggs to grow and mature
 The eggs are removed from her ovaries just before they can be released
 They are placed in a liquid in a petri-dish
 Partner’s sperm are added and fertilization takes place
 Resulting zygotes are placed into an incubator
 Where they grow into embryos
 Later one or more embryos is taken out and inserted into the woman’s uterus
 Where they can implant and develop into a fetus

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Social implications of (IVF)
 Treatment is expensive
 may lead to multiple births while a couple only want on child, as multiple
embryos are usually placed into the woman’s uterus with the hope that at least
one will develop into a fetus
 some unused embryos are eventually destroyed even though they have
potential for human life.

Sexually transmitted infections

1. syphilis-caused by bacterium (treponema pallidum)
methods of transmission
 unprotected sexual contact, including vaginal, anal, or oral sex with an
infected person
 bacterium can enter the body through small breaks or cuts in the skin
or mucuous membranes
 can be transmitted from an infected pregnant mother to the fetus during
pregnancy or birth.
 Sharing of needles with an infected person.

Signs and symptoms

Chancre or hard sore on genitals, mouth or rectum rash, sore throat, fever, headache,
ulcers etc.
Effects
Hair loss, tooth loss, paralysis, tumors, damage to nervous system and brain,
dementia, blindness, loss of hearing and even death.
Treatment
Antibiotics

2. HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)-

 It is transported in body fluids
 A person can only become infected through direct contact of their body
fluids with those of someone infected with the virus

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How HIV affects the immune system
 The virus attacks lymphocytes in the bloodstream
 As lymphocytes produce antibodies which attack antigens
 There is reduced number of antibodies produced
 The reduced number of lymphocytes in the body leads to development of
AIDS.
 The person is left with no protection against diseases such as TB and
pneumonia.
 Phagocytes become less effective

Methods of transmission
 Unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected person
 Drug use involving sharing of needles used by an infected person
 Transfusion of infected blood
 Infected mother to fetus
 Breast-feeding while infected with the virus
 Using unsterilized surgical instruments.

Prevention methods
 Using condom during intercourse
 Abstinence
 Screening of blood for transfusion
 Using sterilized needles and surgical instruments
 Use bottled milk if mother is infected with the virus.

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ECOLOGY
Ecosystem-is a unit containing all the organisms and their environment, interacting
together in a given area.
Nb-the sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems.

Non-cyclical nature of energy flow

 In the ecosystem, energy is passed from one organism to another in the food
chain;
 But unlike water and other elements such as carbon and nitrogen, energy does
not return in a cycle
 Energy give out by organisms is lost to the environment (through respiration
(heat), movement, faeces and urea.

Key definitions
1. Producer-an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using
energy from sunlight, through photosynthesis.
2. Consumer-an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms.
3. Herbivore-an organism that gets its energy from eating plants
4. Carnivore-an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals
5. Decomposer-an organism that gets its energy from dead or waste organic
matter.
6. Trophic level-is the position of an organism in a food chain, food web or
pyramid of biomass, numbers or energy.

FOOD CHAIN- is a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from one organism to
the next beginning with a producer.
Examples;
1. Mahogany tree→caterpillar→songbird→hawk
2. Maize plant→locust→lizard→snake

Food web-is a network of interconnected food chains showing the energy flow
through part of an ecosystem.

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Examples;

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Nb; food webs may be unbalanced, especially if one population of organisms in the
web dies or disappears. This may happen for a number of reasons, including;
 Over-predation or hunting
 Disease
 Pollution
 Use of pesticides
 Lack of food
 Immigration

For example, in the first food web

 If all baboons were killed by hunters
 The leopard would have only impalas to eat
 So the impala population would decrease
 The scorpion population would increase because of less predation by
baboons
 But if there are more scorpions, they will eat more locusts, reducing the
locust population etc.

Food pyramids
We have 3 food pyramids (numbers, biomass and energy)
Nb-in a food pyramid,
 Each tropic level in a food chain is represented by a horizontal bar
 With the width of the bar representing the number of organisms, the amount
of biomass or the amount of energy present at that level
 The base of the pyramid represents the producer, the second level is the
primary consumer, then secondary consumer and so on.

Pyramids of numbers
 Pyramids of numbers show how many organisms we are talking about at each
level of the food chain

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  The width of the box represents the number of organisms in that trophic level.
For example;
grass→rabbit→fox

 The bar at the base is larger because there are lot of grass plants
 The second bar represents the number of rabbits feeding on the
grass. Their number is smaller than that of the grass plants.
 The bar on top represents the number of foxes which is smaller
than that of the rabbits.
Nb-pyramids of numbers are not always pyramid shaped. This sis because the size
of the organism is also important. One large organism, contains enough energy to
support many smaller organisms. The lager the organism, the fewer of them are.
Example;
Oak tree→ladybug→woodpecker
woodpeckers

ladybugs

Oak trees

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 grass→rabbit→flea

Pyramids of biomass
Nb-a pyramid of numbers is not always ideal in representing a food chain
 In this case a pyramid of biomass can be used
 A pyramid of biomass shows the total mass of organisms at each stage of the
food chain
 In general, all the producers have a higher biomass than the primary consumer,
so a pyramid will always start with a larger producer.
 The total energy present at a lower bar of the pyramid, must be greater that
the higher bar in order to support the energy requirements of the other
organisms.

Example;
grass→rabbit→snake→hawk

Nb-each bar represents the total mass of all the organisms in the food chain.

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In the above pyramid of biomass
 The mass gets smaller as you go up the trophic level
 This means the total mass of the organisms in each level decreases
 As each time an organism is consumed by another
 Most of the biomass and energy is either lost or used
 Mostly 10% of it is transferred up to the next level
 This is because, organisms don’t eat every part of the organism. For example,
the hawk in the above food chain cannot eat every part of the snake like its
skeleton and teeth
 Again, even bits that they eat might not be absorbed as they can’t break them
down properly
 Again, most of the nutrients that animals absorb are used to release energy
through respiration, making biomass to be released s waste products (carbon
dioxide and urea) rather than being stored in the organism.
 So not all the biomass gets passed on when an organism gets eaten.

Nutrient cycles
1. Carbon cycle
Nb-this cycle starts with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

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