NUMERICAL METHODS IN ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE
(2) Significant figures. The digits used to express a number are called significant digits
figures). Thus each of the numbers 7845, 3.589, 0.4758 contains four significant figures
while the numbers 0.00386, 0.000587 and 0.0000296 contain only three significant figures
since zeros only help to fix the position of the decitmal point. Similarly the numbers 45000
and 7300.00 have two significant figures only.
(3) Rounding off. There are numbers with large number of digits e,g., 22/7 =
3.142857143. In practice, it is desirable to limit such numbers to a manageable number of
digits such as 3.14 or 3.143. This process of dropping unwanted digits is called rounding off.
(4) Rule to round offa number to n significant figures:
(i) Discard all digits to the right ofthe nth digit.
(ii) If this discarded numbeir is
(a) less than halfa unit in the nth place, leave the nth digit unchanged;
6) greater than half a unit in the nth place, increase the nth digit by unity;
(c) eractly halfa unit in the nth place, increase the nth digit by unity if it is odd other
wise leave it unchanged.
For instance, the following.numbers rounded off to three significant figures are
7.893 to 7.89 3.567 to 3.57
12.865 to 12.9 84767 to 84800
6.4356 to 6.44 5.8254 to 5.82
Also the numbers 6.284359, 9.864651, 12.464762 rounded off to four places of decimal
at 6.2844, 9.8646, 12.4648 respectively.
Obs. The numbers thus rounded off to n significant figures (or n decimal places) are said to be
correct to n significant figures (or n decimal places).
1.3. ERRORS
In any numerical computation, we come across the following types of errors:
(1) Inherent errors. Errors which are already present in the statement of a
problem
before its solution, are called inherent errors. Such errors arise either due to the given data
being approximate or due to the limitations of mathetmatical tables, calculators or the digital
computer. Inherent errors can be minimized by taking better data or by using high precision
computing aids.
(2) Rounding errors arise from the process of rounding off the numbers during the
computation. Such errors are unavoidable in most of the calculations due to the limitations
ofthe computing aids. Rounding errors can, however, be reduced
(1) by changing the calculation
procedure so as to àvoid subtraction of nearly equal
numbers or division by a small
number ;
or (iL) by retaining at least one more significant figure at each step than that given in the
data and rounding off at thelast step.
(8)Truncation errors are caused by using approximate results or on replacing an infinite
process by a finite one. If we are using a decimal computer having a fixed word length of 4
digits, rounding off of 13.658 gives 13.66 whereas truncation gives 13.65.
For example, if e* = l+* 277+ 0 = A (say)
APPROXIMATIONS AND ERRORS IN COMPUTATION
3
2
is replaced by ++91 * (say), then th truncation error is X-X'.
Truncation error is a type of algotithm error.
(4) Absolute, Relative and Percentage errors. If X is the true value of a quantity and X
is its approximate value, then |X-XT i.e. 1 Error | is called the absolute error E
Therelative error is defined by E, =
i.e.TrueError
value
and the percentage error is , =100 E, =100
X
If X be such number that I X-X' |< X,then X
a
of absolute
is an upper limit pn the magnitude
error and measures the absolute' accuracy.
Obs. 1. The relative and percentage errors are independent of the units used while absolute error
is expressed in terms of these units.
Obs. 2.1fa number is correct to n
decimal places then the error 10" =
For example, if the number is 3.1416 correct to 4 decimal places, then the error
100.00005.
.
1.4. USEFUL RULES FOR ESTIMATING ERRORS
To estimate the errors which creep in when the numbers in a calculation
cated or rounded off to a certain number of digits, the following rules are useful.
are trun-
If the approximate value of a number X having n decimal is then digits X,
(1) Absolute error due to truncation to k digits
= 1 X-X I<10-
(2) Absolute error due to rounding off to k digits
= IX-X I <10-
(3) Relative error due to truncation to k digits
(4) Relative
10
error due to rounding off to k digits
X-X
X
Obs. 1.Ifa number is correct to n significant digits, then the maximum relative error s
10-
fa number is correct to d decimal plares, then the absolute error s 10*
Obs. 2. If the first signifirant figure of a number is k and the number is correct to n
Significant
figures, then the relatiue error < 1|tk x 10" ).
I t ue verify this result by finding the relative error in the number 864.32 correct to five signiti-
Cant figu res,
4 NUMERICAL METHODS IN ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE
Here = 8, n = 5 and
absolute error > 0.01 x = 0.005.
0.005 1
Relative error s-864.32 864320 2 x86432 1
2x 80000 2 x8x 10*
1
8x10. .e. Hence the result is verified.
hx 10-1
Example 1.1. Round off the numbers 865250 and 37.46235 to four significant figures
and compute Bg, E,, E, in each case.
Sol. (i) Number rounded off to four significant figures = 865200
E, = IX-X, l = | 865250 865200 I = 50
X-X1 50
X.865250 6.71x 10
B = E, x 100 = 6.71 x 10-3
(ii) Number rounded off to four significant figures = 37.46
E = IX-X, I = I 37.46235-37.46000 I =0.00235
X-X0.00235
X 37.46235
= 6.27 x
10-5
E = E,x 100 = 6.27 x 10%.
Example 1.2. Find the absolute error if the number X =0.00545828 is
(i) truncated to threedecimal digits.
(ü) rounded off to three decimal digits.
Sol. We have X 0.00545828 0.545828 x 102
= =
) After truncating to three decimal places, its
approximate value X' =0.545 x 102
Absolute error IX-Xl =0.000828 x 10-2
=
0.828 x 10-510-2-3
This proves rule (1).
(ii) After rounding off to three decimal places, its approximate value X = 0.546 x 102
Absolute error = FX-X 1
=
0.545828-0.546 I x 10-2
= 0.000172 x 10-2 = 0.172 x 10-5
which is < 0.5 x 10-2-3, This proves rule (2).
Example 1.3. Find the relative error if the number X 0.004997 is =
(i) truncated three decimal digits
to
(ii) rounded off to three decimal
digits.
Sol. We have X 0.004997 = =
0.4997 x 102
(i) After truncating to three decimal
places, its approximate value X' =0.499 x10-,
Relative error 0.4997x 10 -0.499x 104
0.4997x10
0.140x 10-2 < 101-3
This proves rule (3).
APPROXIMATIONS AND ERRORS IN COMPUTATION
(i) After rounding off to three decimal places, the approximate value of the given
number
X 0.500 x 10-2
0.4997 x 102-0.500 x 102
Relative error
0.4997 x 10-2
0.600 x 103 =0.06 x 10-3+1
which is less than 0.5 x 10-31, This proves rule (4).
PROBLEMS 1.1
1. Round of the following numbers correct to four significant figures: 3.26425, 35.46736,
4985561, 0.70035, 0.00032217, 18.265101.
2. Round off the number 75462 to
four significant digits and then calculate the absolute
error and percentage error. (U.P.T.U, B. Tech., 2004)
8. If0.338 is the approximate valu of 1/3, find the absolute and relative errors.
(Bhopal, B.E., 2007)
4. Find the percentage error if 625.483 is approximated to three significantfigures
5. Find the relative error in takingt = 3.141593 as 22/7 (V.T.U. MCA, 2007)
6. The height of an
observation tower was estimated to be 47 m, whereas its actual height
was 45 m. Calculate the percentage relative error in the measurement.
7. Suppose that you have a task of measuring the lengths of a bridge and a rivet, and come
up with 9999 and 9 cm, respectively. Ifthetrue valuesare 10,000 and 10 cm respectively,
compute the percentage relative error ineach case. (Pune, B. Tech., 2004)
8. Find the value
of e using series expansion e=1 +x +
for or =
0.5 with an
absolute error less than 0.005.
9. 29 = 5.385 and yt = 3.317 correct to 4 significant figures. Find the relative errors in
their sum and difference.
19. Given:a =9.00 + 0.05, b 0,0356 0.0002, c
= = 15300 + 100, d = 62000 t 500. Find the
maximum value of absolute error in a +b +c +d.
11. Twonumbers are 3.5 and 47.279 both ofwhich are correet to the significant figures given.
Find their product.
12. Pind the absolute error and the relative error in the productof 432.8 and 0.12584 using
four digit mantissa. (Kerala B. Tech., 2003)
13. The discharge Q over a notch for head H is calculated by the formula Q = kH® where & is
a given constant. If the head is 75 cm'and an error of 0.15 em is possible in its measure
ment, estimate the percentage error in computing the discharge.
14. If the numberp is correct to 3 significant digits, what will be the maximum relative
error?
