General Chemistry

Principles and Modern Applications

Petrucci • Herring • Madura • Bissonnette
8th Edition

Chapter 2: Atoms and the Atomic Theory

Philip Dutton
University of Windsor, Canada
Prentice-Hall © 2002
Modified by Assoc. Prof. Dr. Armağan KINAL
Assoc. Prof. Dr.Esra Evrim YALÇINKAYA
 Contents

• Early Chemical Discoveries and the Atomic Theory

• Electrons and Other Discoveries in Atomic Physics
• Chemical Elements
• The Nuclear Atom
• Chemical Elements
• Introduction to Periodic Table
• The Concept of the Mole and the Avogadro Constant
• Using the Mole Concept in Calculations
 Early Discoveries
Before the end of the eighteenth century,
the principal gases of the atmosphere
nitrogen and oxygen had been isolated,
and natural laws had been proposed
describing the physical behavior of
gases. However, chemistry cannot be
said to have entered the modern age until
the process of combustion was
explained. In this section, we explore the
direct link between the explanation of
combustion and Dalton s atomic theory.
 Law of Conservation of Mass

2 AgNO3( aq )  K 2CrO4 ( aq ) 
 Ag 2CrO4 ( s )  2 KNO3( aq )
Law of Conservation of Mass
Law of Constant Composition
Law of Constant Composition
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 Consequences of Dalton’s theory

 In forming carbon monoxide, 1.33 g

of oxygen combines with 1.0 g of
carbon.

 In the formation of carbon dioxide

2.66 g of oxygen combines with 1.0 g
of carbon.
 Discoveries in Atomic Physics
• A qualitative understanding of atomic structure
need a few key ideas about the interrelated
phenomena of electricity and magnetism.
Q  Q
   Neutral
• Electricity and magnetism were used in the Q  Q
   Positively charged
Q  Q
experiments that led to the current theory of atomic
   Negatively charged
structure.
• All objects of matter are made up of charged
particles.
An object having equal numbers of
positively and negatively charged
particles carries no net charge and is
electrically neutral.
Force between the charged particles is
defined as Coulomb Force.

Q1 Q2
F k 2 Positive and negative charges attract each other, while
r two positive or two negative charges repel each other.
 Behavior of charges
Figure 2-5 shows how charged particles behave when they
move through the field of a magnet. They are deflected from
their straight-line path into a curved path in a plane
perpendicular to the field.
Discovery of electrons
Discovery of electrons
 Properties of cathode rays
Another significant observation about cathode rays is that they are deflected by
electric and magnetic fields in the manner expected for negatively charged particles.

J. J. Thomson (1856 1940)

established the ratio of
mass (m) to electric charge
(e) for cathode rays.

For an electron m/e = -5.6857 x 10-9 g coulomb-1

 Charge on the electron

 From 1906-1914 Robert Millikan showed ionized oil drops can

be balanced against the pull of gravity by an electric field.
The charge is an integral multiple of the electronic charge, e.
X-Rays and Radioactivity
 X-Rays and Radioactivity
Radioactivity refers to the particles which are
emitted from nuclei as a result of nuclear
instability. Radioactivity had been discovered
by Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908).

Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) identified two types of radiation from

radioactive materials, alpha and beta radiation. A third form of radiation,
which is not affected by electric or magnetic fields, was discovered in
1900 by Paul Villard. This radiation is called gamma rays.

By the early 1900s, additional radioactive elements were discovered,

principally by Marie and Pierre Curie. Rutherford and Frederick Soddy made
another profound finding: The chemical properties of a radioactive element
change as it undergoes radioactive decay.
X-Rays and Radioactivity
4
2 He 2 Alpha particles carry two fundamental units of
positive charge and have essentially the same
0
mass as helium atoms.
1 e
Beta particles are negatively charged particles
produced by changes occurring within the nuclei
of radioactive atoms and have the same properties
as electrons.

Gamma rays is the type of radiation that is not

affected by electric or magnetic fields.
 Thomson Atom Model
The plum pudding model of the atom by J. J.
Thomson, who discovered the electron in 1897,
was proposed in 1904 before the discovery of
the atomic nucleus in order to add the electron
to the atomic model. In this model, the atom is
composed of electrons surrounded by a soup of
positive charge to balance the electrons'
negative charges, like negatively charged
"plums" surrounded by positively charged
"pudding". The electrons (as we know them
today) were thought to be positioned
throughout the atom, but with many structures
possible for positioning multiple electrons,
particularly rotating rings of electrons (see
below). Instead of a soup, the atom was also
sometimes said to have had a "cloud" of
positive charge.
 The nuclear atom
Geiger and Rutherford performed gold foil experiment in 1909
 The nuclear atom
The results obtained from Rutherford’s experiment are

These results cannot be

explained by Thomson atom
model

Expected situation Real situation

 Conclusions from a-particle experiment

Rutherford atom model

Rutherford discovered
protons in 1919 In 1932, James Chadwick showed
that a newly discovered penetrating
radiation consisted of beams of
neutral particles. These particles,
called n e u t r o n s, originated from
the nuclei of atoms.
 Properties of Three Fundamental Particles

 mn  me
mp ~
Electron (e) carries one negative charge
Proton (p) carries one positive charge
Neutron (n) has no charge on it
Atomic mass unit (amu): is defined as exactly of 1/12 of the mass of the atom
known as carbon-12 isotope.
The number of protons in a given atom is called the atomic number (Z), The total number of
protons and neutrons in an atom is called the mass number (A)
In a Zp pe Atomic Diameter 10-8 cm
neutral
atom A  p  n n  A Z Nuclear diameter 10-13 cm
 Scale of Atoms
The heaviest atom has a mass of only 4.8 x 10-22 g
and a diameter of only 5 x 10-10 m.
Useful units:

 1 amu (atomic mass unit) = 1.66054 x 10-24 kg

 1 pm (picometer) = 1 x 10-12 m
 1 Å (Angstrom) = 1 x 10-10 m = 100 pm = 1 x 10-8 cm

Biggest atom is 240 amu and is 50 Å across.

Typical C-C bond length 154 pm (1.54 Å)
Molecular models are 1 Å /inch or about 0.4 Å /cm
 Chemical Elements
All atoms of a particular element have the same atomic number, Z, and,
conversely, all atoms with the same number of protons are atoms of the
same element. The elements shown on the inside front cover have atomic
numbers from Z=1 to Z=112. Each element has a name and a distinctive symbol.
Chemical symbols are one- or two-letter abbreviations of the name (usually
the English name). Some elements known since ancient times have symbols
based on their Latin names
Element name Symbol Element name Symbol
Carbon C Ferrium Fe
Oxygen O Plumbum Pb
Nitrogen N Natrium Na
Sulphur S Kalium K
Neon Ne
Silicon Si
Elements beyond uranium (Z=92) do not occur naturally and must be synthesized
in particle accelerators.
 Isotopes, atomic numbers and mass numbers
proton number + neutron number A  Charge (p-e)
Proton number Z X Element symbol

Contrary to what Dalton thought, we now know that atoms of an element do not
necessarily all have the same mass.

20 21 22 All neon atoms have 10 protons in their

Example: 10 Ne 10 Ne 10 Ne
nuclei, and most have 10 neutrons as
well. A very few neon atoms, however,
Isotope have 11 neutrons and some have 12.

Atoms that have the same percent natural abundance

atomic number (Z) but
20 21 22
different mass numbers (A)
10 Ne 10 Ne 10 Ne
are called isotopes

%90,9 %0,3 %8,8

 Isotopes, atomic numbers and mass numbers
When atoms lose or gain electrons, for example, in the
course of a chemical reaction, the species formed are called
20 
I. 10 Ne ions and carry net charges. Because an electron is negatively
ion charged, adding electrons to an electrically neutral atom
22 2
II. 10 Ne produces a negatively charged ion. Removing electrons
results in a positively charged ion.
First neon ion contains 10p, 10n, 9e içerir. (+1 charged)
Second neon ion contains 10p, 12n, 8e içerir. (+2 charged)
Example: 35
Cl
Find electron, proton and neutron numbers of 17
Z  p  17 A  p  n  35  17  n  n  18 p  e  17
Example: Write down the symbol of the element having 29 proton, 34
neutron and 27 electron.
p  29  Z  Cu A  p  n  29  34  63
Charge  p  e  29  27  2 63
29Cu 2
Isotopes, atomic numbers and mass numbers
 Isotopic Masses
We cannot determine the mass of an individual atom just by adding up the
masses of its fundamental particles. When protons and neutrons combine
to form a nucleus, a very small portion of their original mass is
converted to energy and released, this so-called nuclear binding
energy. However, we cannot predict exactly how much energy will be.
How to determine atomic masses
• Determining the masses of individual atoms, then, is something that
must be done by experiment, in the following way. By international
agreement, one type of atom has been chosen and assigned a
specific mass. This standard is an atom of the isotope carbon-12, which
is assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units, that is, 12 u.
• The masses of other atoms relative to carbon-12 are determined with a
mass spectrometer.
atomic mass unit (u)  mass of C 12
 Measuring isotopic masses
In this device, a beam of gaseous ions passing through electric and
magnetic fields separates into components of differing masses. The
separated ions are focused on a measuring instrument, which records their
presence and amounts. Figure illustrates mass spectrometry and a typical
mass spectrum.
Measuring isotopic masses
Measuring atomic masses
 Atomic masses
In a table of atomic masses, the value listed for carbon is 12.0107, yet the
atomic mass standard is exactly 12. Why the difference? The atomic mass
standard is based on a sample of carbon containing only atoms of carbon-12,
whereas naturally occurring carbon contains some carbon-13 atoms as well. The
existence of these two isotopes causes the observed atomic mass to be
greater than 12. The atomic mass of an element is the average of the isotopic
masses, weighted according to the naturally occurring abundances of the
isotopes of the element.
Atomic masses
 The Periodic Table
A periodic table is a tabular display of the chemical elements, organized
on the basis of their atomic numbers, electron configurations, and recurring
chemical properties. Elements are presented in order of increasing atomic
number. The standard form of table comprises an 18 × 7 grid or main body
of elements, positioned above a smaller double row of elements.
Alkali Metals The Periodic table Noble Gases

Alkaline Earths Halogens Main Group

Transition Metals

Main Group Lanthanides and Actinides

The Concept of the Mole and the Avogadro Constant
The Concept of the Mole and the Avogadro Constant
 Molar Mass

• The molar mass, M, is the mass of one mole

of a substance. In other words, the molar
mass, M, is the mass of Avagadro’s number
of a substance.
M (g/mol 12C) = A (g/atom 12C) x NA (atoms 12C /mol 12C)

 12 g 12C 1  1 mol C 12
1u    
 1 mol 12
C 12  6.022  10 23 12
C atoms

1u 1.9926 1023 g
Example 2-9
Combining Several Factors in a Calculation—Molar Mass, the
Avogadro Constant, Percent Abundance.
Potassium-40 is one of the few naturally occurring radioactive
isotopes of elements of low atomic number. Its percent natural
abundance among K isotopes is 0.012%. How many 40K
atoms do you ingest by drinking one cup of whole milk
containing 371 mg of K?

Want atoms of 40K, need atoms of K,

Want atoms of K, need moles of K,
Want moles of K, need mass and M(K).
 Example 2-9

Convert mass of K(mg K) into moles of K (mol K)

mK(mg) x (1g/1000mg)  mK (g) x 1/MK (mol/g)  nK(mol)
nK = (371 mg K) x (10-3 g/mg) x (1 mol K) / (39.10 g K)
= 9.49 x 10-3 mol K
Convert moles of K into atoms of 40K
nK(mol) x NA  atoms K x 0.012%  atoms 40K
atoms 40K = (9.49 x 10-3 mol K) x (6.022 x 1023 atoms K/mol K)
x (1.2 x 10-4 40K/K)
= 6.9 x 1017 40K atoms