Both refers to a Recent past ➡️➡️➡️➡️continuous until now

Present perfect
● Action completed
● It centers in the result of an action
● Part of a permanent situation

VS

Present perfect continuous

● Action incomplete
● It centers in the duration of an action
● Part of a temporary situation

+ Subj + have/ has + been + ing

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both happen after a point in the past; “the past of the past”. *PP/PPC ← ←
← *
PAST

Past perfect
● the action is completed
● emphasize the result
● Permanent or just 1 ocasión

Pat perfect continuous

● emphasize in the duration of an accion
● repetitive action (several times)
● Temporary situation, hours (etc)

sub + had + been + ing + c

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So and such

So is used with adj, adverbs, and quantifiers plus a noun. (each one separately)

Ex: So + adj So beautiful

So + adv So beautifully
So + quan + noun So much beauty
(quantif. much, many, few, little)

Such + a/an + adjective + noun Ex: Such an arrogant son of a bitch …

* we can use a that to explain or drop it in exclamation (both) // “such and such” refer a thing
Gerunds // ing-
4 forms

1) preposition + gerund
ex: afraid of, angry about, bad at, clever at, crazy about, disappointed about, excited
about, famous for, fed up with, glad about, happy about, interested in, proud of, sick
of, give up, good at, sorry about, tired of, worried about….. etc.
2) as subject: goes at the beginning of the sentence
ex: Learning is important
3) as object of a sentence
ex: I really enjoy swimming

Gerund vs infinitive

remember + gerund have a memory

remember + to inf something that you need to do

forget + gerund forget a memory

forget + to inf forget something that you need to do

try + gerund an experiment

try + to inf difficult to do, maybe you didn't succeed

stop + gerund stop doing something maybe forever

stop +to inf stop something to do other

regret + gerund you are sorry

regret +to inf formal way to inform or telling a piece of news

Exist a list but these have a change in meaning

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Tag questions are short questions following a statement, they are used to check information.

aux verb / modal + pronoun ?

the aux agrees with the pronoun. except in the negative form of I am.
we give an answer to the statement, not the tag.

types
1. + statement, - tag
2. - statement, + tag
3. + statement, + tag

Special cases
Let's ---- Shall we?
Imperatives ---- Will you?
I am ---- aren't I
nothing / something----- pronoun is it
nobody / everybody / no one / someone / everyone ------ pronoun is they
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echo tags is a response, in tag form, to a statement said by someone else.

Affirmative statement
ex: He is resigning

you can say or respond with

1. is He?
2. He is?
3. is He, isn’t He?
4. He is, is He?

Negative statement
ex: He isnt resigning

you can say or respond with

1. isn’t he?
2. he isn’t?
3. he isn’t, is he?

echo tags vs tag questions

sim
● they need a aux and a pronoun

diff:
●
echo are responses, tag are part of the statement
●
echo have word order of a direct question, statement, or both and tag question have
only order of a direct question.
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phrase without a subj and predicate, is a meaningful group of words

clause: meaningful group of words with a subj and predicate (can be dependent or
independent)

sentence: form by 1 or more clauses, it contains a full idea with subj and predicate.
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Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses that gives an answer to adverbial question (how
when, where)
Adverbial clause of time are dependent clauses that answer the question “when”, it always
starts with a dependent conjunction (time word)

Time word ex:

● after
 ● when
● once
● as soon as
● before
● while
● as
● until *
● since
● whenever
● every time (simple tense)
● as long as *
● by the time (past perfect tense)

*always go in the middle, you cannot start with them

Structure
1. main clause + adv clause
2. adv clause + , + main clause

*both main and dep need a subj and a verb

* the main contains the main verb
*the adv clause or dep contains the time word

careful, do not confuse time words with prepositional phrases.

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modals of possibility
must (certainty)
might
may (formal)
could (past ability)
can’t (impossibility)

1. present/future -> sub + modal + inf

2. past -> sub + modal + have + participle
3. now-> sub + modal + be + gerund
4. uncertain answers
● any verb -> yes/no + sub + modal + (not do) / ((not) have (done))
● be → yes/no + sub + modal + (not) + be / have been
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wish
wish something to someone (noun)
hope something to happen (verb)

sub + wish (es) + (that) + past simple → things are impossible or unlikely
 sub + wish (es) + (that) + sub + could + inf → focus on the ability / to be
different

sub + wish (es) + that + sub + would + inf → complain, we want to

change it

sub + wish (es) + that + sub + had + participle → past, have already
happened
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Conditionals
Zero → its a fact
● if + simple present , simple present
First → might happen in the future
● if + simple present , sub + will + inf
Second → might not happen in the future
● if + simple past , sub + would + inf
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Passive voice
Used when the agent/ doer is unknown or unimportant, and to emphasize the object of the
verb, used in formal writing.

Sub + aux to be + participle

If we want to say who or what did the action (the agent) we use “by” at the end of the
sentence. If we want to refer to the instrument that is being used to perform the action we
can add “with” to the sentence.

is, am, are

is am are bein
have / has been
had been
was / were
was / were being
will be
is, am, are going to be
modal be

*You need a transitive verb because they need/have an obj to make sence.
*The object is affected by a verb, the object does not perform the action.
*You can't make passive voice with intransitive verbs → feelings, be,
become, etc.
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Reported Speech
Used to say what other people said. We have to consider 4 important points.
1. The verb usually changes from present to past, or past to past perfect. same with
continuous form, it goes backwards.
 2. Pronouns change from 1st to 2 person (she, he, it, you, they)
3. Adverbs of time can also change, it depends when the message was said
and when we report. Ex: today → yesterday, the day before / tomorrow →
the next day /
last night→ the night before
4. modal verbs also can change to past form. Ex: will to would, can to could, must to
had to, shall to should, may to might.

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Indirect questions
They can be used to be polite in a conversation, they are inside a statement. Exists two
types
1. Reported questions
It's used in reported speech and they go with these introductory phrases on the main
clause.
● subj + asked
● subj + wanted to know
● …. would like to know
● …. wondered
● …. was asked
*if you are doing a yes/no question you are going to use an dependent if clause (whether).
* If we want to do a question-word question we will use why/when/where/what/how.
*you have to be careful with pronouns and time shifts of the sentence.

2. embedded questions
Is a question that is inside another question or statement. They use the form of an
introductory question phrase such as:

● Could/can you tell me?

● Do you know?
● Do you have any idea?
 ● Would it be possible?
● Is there any chance?
● Would you mind telling me?
● Who knows?
Or they can use an Introductory Statement phrase and they will never end with a
question mark (?) at the end of the sentence.
● I was wondering/ I wonder
● I´d like to know
● Please tell me
● I asked
● I want to know
● The question is

* After these introductory phrases they use a normal subject-verb-object pattern instead of a
typical inverted question pattern.
EX:
Do you know where Paula is?
I’d like to know where paula is.
* We use embedded questions to sound more polite, to give or want more information or to
change to reported speech.
*Don't use contractions at the end of the question.
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Relative clauses (dependent)
There exist two types of relative clauses
1. Defining relative clause
*Useful to give essential info about the object of the sentence.
*If we delete it is probable that people don't understand what you are referring to.
* who - which can be drop or replaced by that
*don't use commas
*don't use whom

ex:Where is the apple that I told you to not to eat?

This is the cat which I adopted.
That’s the woman who stole my coat.

2. Non-defining relative clause

We use it commonly when we want to link 2 clauses into 1 sentence. It presents
extra info about the object
who - which can’t be drop (any pronoun)
use commas
use whom but not that
if we delete the relative clause it will make sense.

Ex: My dog, which is called Pancake, is a vegetarian.

My sister, who lives in New York, is pregnant.

Pronouns that are used in relative clauses

 where → place
whose → possessive, belongs to people
whom → a quien receives the action of
the verb

Ex: The beach where we fell in love

The bakery whose owner died has now reopened.
The lady to whom you spoke, is 100 years old. (not used much nowadays)
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Adjective clauses (type of relative clause, dependent)

Used to give extra or essential info, combine 2 sent into 1.Its function is to describe nouns
just as an adjective itself does.

*The adj clause goes after the noun its modifying

*we have to replace the repeated noun with a relative pronoun
(that's the beginning of the clause)

Pronouns
who
whom
which → describe things → add extra info → non defining relative clause
that → describe things → add essential info → defining relative clause
whose
when → time
where
why

*with the rest of pronouns it will depend on the meaning to decide whether to use as defining
or non defining.

*the adjective clause will follow these patterns

1. pronoun + sub + verb
2. pronoun as sub + verb

ex: Pizza, which most people love, is not very healthy.

Fruit that is grown organically is expensive.
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Reduced adjective clauses of time to a modifying phrase

we can shorten an adj clause of time if the subject of both clauses is the same.
steps to follow:
 1. keep the adverb / pronoun on the adjective clause
2. remove the subject of the adjective clause
3. change the verb into gerund

ex: I got bored when I waited for the doctor

I got bored when waiting for the doctor
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negative questions
Useed when we search for agreement or to show emotions such as surprise,
disappointment.
*they begin with doesn’t / don’t or isn't / aren't (aux)
*can also begin with a - form of a modal such as wont /can't or shouldn't / wouldn't

(wh-question word) + aux / modal + sub + verb + c + ?

ex: Why don't you like music?

Don't you want to go?
Shouldn't you call your parents?

*you will respond as any other question*