Comparing Emotional Intelligence Levels in Teachers of the Year in Elementary School,

Middle School, and High School and How Their Emotional Intelligence

Traits Are Exhibited in the Classroom

A Dissertation by

Michelle Barrios

Brandman University

Irvine, California

School of Education

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Education in Organizational Leadership

April 2016

Committee in charge:

Phil Pendley, Ed.D., Committee Chair

LaFaye Platter, Ed.D.

Marilyn Saucedo, Ed.D.

 ProQuest Number: 10108344

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Comparing Emotional Intelligence Levels in Teachers of the Year in Elementary School,

Middle School, and High School and How Their Emotional Intelligence

Traits Are Exhibited in the Classroom

Copyright © 2016

by Michelle Barrios

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people contributed to the successful completion of this dissertation to

whom I am ever so grateful. First and foremost, my family. My husband, Joe, who put

up with my late nights reading and writing, unavailability to have a social life at times,

and general overwhelmingly busy state of our lives as I was consumed by my doctorate

work. My children, Lauren and Samantha, who did their best to understand why their

mom is still going to school and locked in her room writing instead of hanging out. My

mom and dad, whose belief in me and constant encouragement made me hold myself to

higher expectations than I otherwise might have thought I was capable of.

I am also fortunate to have fantastic friends who understood why I could not

attend many social events or get together because I had major assignments due or was

working on my dissertation. Friends who helped me with anything I needed and

expected nothing in return, and celebrated the milestones in my journey with me as

though they were their own. Adrienne, Kim, Julie, Kasey- you guys are the BEST!

My cohort family was invaluable to me. We helped each other through the

difficult moments. Most especially Rick, Ambra, and Heidi, who met with me every

week. We pushed each other to do our best and provided much needed support to each

other.

Last, but far from least, my committee members. My chair, Dr. Pendley, whose

calm, encouraging manner instantly lowered my blood pressure when I was stressed out.

He was more than just my chair, but a mentor and friend as well, and there is no way I

could have, or would have wanted to, get through this dissertation without him. To Dr.

Saucedo, who was a mentor to me before she was on my committee, and whose

iv
unyielding faith in me gave me the confidence I lacked at times, I am eternally grateful.

Finally, Dr. Platter, whose interest in my topic and positive comments helped me believe

I am capable of the goals I had set for myself.

I dedicate this degree to all of the people in my life who support me, believe in

me, and make me a better person than I otherwise would be. I could not have done this

without all of you!!

v
 ABSTRACT

Comparing Emotional Intelligence Levels in Teachers of the Year in Elementary School,

Middle School, and High School and How Their Emotional Intelligence

Traits Are Exhibited in the Classroom

by Michelle Barrios

Purpose: The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to compare the self-perceptions

of emotional intelligence (EQ) in teachers of the year at the elementary, middle, and high

school levels and the ways in which teachers of the year describe the impacts of EQ traits

on classroom performance.

Methodology: The target population for this study was district teachers of the year from

Riverside County, California, for the years 2012, 2013, and 2014. Data were first

collected for the quantitative portion of the study using the Emotional Intelligence

Appraisal–Me Edition (online), which revealed teachers’ overall EQ scores as well as a

breakdown of their scores based on the four EQ traits of self-awareness, self-

management, social awareness, and relationship management. Questionnaires filled out

by the highest scoring appraisal participants explored how the EQ traits of the

participants were exhibited in their classroom performance.

Findings: Participants from elementary school, middle school, and high school rated

themselves fairly high in EQ based on mean scores for each group. When comparing the

three groups of teachers, there were no significant differences noted. There was no

highest EQ trait that stood out for any group of teachers, as scores varied and were fairly

evenly distributed among the traits. Finally, the questionnaires revealed the following

emotionally intelligent behaviors that are exhibited by teachers in their classrooms:

vi
understanding their own emotions, understanding the consequences of their actions,

reflectiveness, not letting emotion control their behavior, understanding others and

reacting appropriately to achieve goals, being aware of student emotions, being

supportive of students, building relationships/trust with others, recognizing needs of self,

recognizing needs of students, and setting clear expectations for students.

Conclusions: Even in this group of top performing teachers of the year, there is room for

growth in EQ. There was no general consensus on self-assessment of EQ among this

particular population. Finally, EQ traits contribute to a productive learning environment

and better student-teacher relationships.

Recommendations: District leaders and credentialing programs need to begin taking EQ

seriously and looking at it as a way to improve relationships among not only teachers and

students but all staff members as well.

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM ...........................................................................................1

Background ......................................................................................................................... 4
EQ vs. IQ ...................................................................................................................... 4
History of EQ ................................................................................................................ 5
EQ Can Be Learned ...................................................................................................... 6
Impact of EQ ................................................................................................................. 8
EQ in Education .......................................................................................................... 10
Statement of the Research Problem .................................................................................. 12
Purpose Statement ............................................................................................................. 13
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 13
Significance of the Problem .............................................................................................. 14
Definitions......................................................................................................................... 15
Theoretical Definitions ............................................................................................... 15
Operational Definitions ............................................................................................... 16
Delimitations ..................................................................................................................... 16
Organization of the Study ................................................................................................. 16

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...........................................................18

History of Emotional Intelligence ..................................................................................... 18
EQ vs. IQ .......................................................................................................................... 26
EQ and Brain Research ..................................................................................................... 27
EQ Can Be Learned .......................................................................................................... 30
EQ Studies ........................................................................................................................ 32
Impact on Personal Well-Being .................................................................................. 32
EQ in the Medical Fields ............................................................................................ 34
EQ in the Business World ........................................................................................... 40
Communication ......................................................................................................43
Leadership ..............................................................................................................46
EQ in Education .......................................................................................................... 49
Impacts of student EQ ............................................................................................51
Impact of teacher EQ on teachers ..........................................................................52
Impact of teacher EQ on students ..........................................................................55
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 57

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ...................................................................................58

Overview ........................................................................................................................... 58
Purpose Statement ............................................................................................................. 58
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 58
Research Design................................................................................................................ 59
Population ......................................................................................................................... 60
Sample............................................................................................................................... 61
Quantitative Sample Selection Process ....................................................................... 62
Qualitative Sample Selection Process ......................................................................... 63
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 64
Quantitative ................................................................................................................. 64

viii
 Quantitative Reliability and Validity .......................................................................... 65
Qualitative ................................................................................................................... 66
Qualitative Reliability ................................................................................................. 66
Qualitative Validity..................................................................................................... 67
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 67
Quantitative ................................................................................................................. 67
Qualitative ................................................................................................................... 67
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 68
Quantitative ................................................................................................................. 68
Qualitative ................................................................................................................... 68
Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 69
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 69

CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH, DATA COLLECTION, AND FINDINGS........................71

Purpose Statement ............................................................................................................. 71
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 71
Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 72
Population ......................................................................................................................... 74
Sample............................................................................................................................... 75
Demographic Data ............................................................................................................ 76
Data by Research Question ............................................................................................... 77
Research Question 1 ................................................................................................... 77
Research Question 2 ................................................................................................... 79
Overall descriptive statistics ..................................................................................80
Interpretation ..........................................................................................................80
Research Question 3 ................................................................................................... 82
Research Question 4 ................................................................................................... 83
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 91

CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND

RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................................................94
Purpose Statement ............................................................................................................. 94
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 94
Methods............................................................................................................................. 95
Population ......................................................................................................................... 96
Sample............................................................................................................................... 97
Major Findings .................................................................................................................. 98
Research Question 1 ................................................................................................... 98
Research Question 2 ................................................................................................... 99
Research Question 3 ................................................................................................. 100
Research Question 4 ................................................................................................. 101
Unexpected Findings ...................................................................................................... 102
Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 103
Implications for Action ................................................................................................... 105
Professional Development ........................................................................................ 105
Multirater EQ Assessments....................................................................................... 105
Teacher Credentialing Implications .......................................................................... 106

ix
 Hiring Practices ......................................................................................................... 106
Recommendations for Further Research ......................................................................... 106
Concluding Remarks and Reflections ............................................................................. 107

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................109

x
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Emotional Intelligence Appraisal Scores for Elementary School, Middle

School, and High School Teachers ..................................................................... 78

Table 2. Comparison of Minimum and Maximum EQ Scores for Elementary,

Middle, and High School Teachers .................................................................... 79

Table 3. Comparison of EQ Trait Scores and Overall EQ Scores for Elementary

School, Middle School, and High School Teachers ........................................... 80

Table 4. EQ Traits by Highest Rank for Elementary, Middle, and High School
Teachers .............................................................................................................. 82

Table 5. EQ Themes/Behaviors by Schooling Level ........................................................ 84

Table 6. Elementary School Teachers’ Quotes From Questionnaires .............................. 85

Table 7. Middle School Teachers’ Quotes From Questionnaires ..................................... 86

Table 8. High School Teachers’ Quotes From Questionnaires......................................... 86

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Mayer and Salovey’s branches of emotional intelligence ................................. 22

Figure 2. Bar-On’s five components of EI/EQ assessed by EQ-i ..................................... 25

Figure 3. Bradberry and Greaves’s emotional intelligence skills ..................................... 26

Figure 4. Understanding emotional intelligence and the brain ......................................... 29

Figure 5. Proposed research model of emotional intelligence dimensions and outcome

variables .............................................................................................................. 45

Figure 6. Proposed model relating emotional intelligence, transformational leadership,

and employee outcomes ..................................................................................... 48

xii
 CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM

Who does not want to be a better person? There are not many people who would

decline the opportunity to move ahead in their career, improve relationships with

coworkers or loved ones, become the leader they always dreamed of being, or simply feel

better about themselves. The answer to the age-old mystery of what causes one person to

be successful over another is really not that complicated. Emotional intelligence,

otherwise known as EI or EQ, seems to play a major role in both personal and

professional success (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009; Grenny, Patterson, Maxfield,

McMillan, & Switzler, 2013; Heifetz & Linsky, 2002; Patterson, Grenny, McMillan, &

Switzler, 2012; Pfeffer, 2010; White, Harvey, & Kemper, 2007). Bradberry and Greaves,

(2009) explained,

Your EQ is the foundation for a host of critical skills—it impacts most everything

you say and do each day. EQ is so critical to success that it accounts for 58

percent of performance in all types of jobs. It’s the single biggest predictor of

performance in the workplace and the strongest driver of leadership and personal

excellence. (pp. 20-21)

It is no wonder that as one reviews literature about how to become a better person,

leader, or improve him- or herself in any way, the suggestions made by experts in their

fields seem to always circle back to traits that are related to EQ. As Patterson et al.

(2012) pointed out in Crucial Conversations: Tools for Talking When the Stakes Are

High,

1
 Once you have created your upset emotions, you only have two options: You can

act on them or be acted on by them. That is, when it comes to strong emotions,

you either find a way to master them or fall hostage to them. (pp. 104-105)

This idea was further reinforced by Grenny et al. (2013) in Influencer: The New Science

of Leading Change, where they supported the idea that people have the ability to practice

and develop habits that can improve their interpersonal skills by learning how to

effectively deal with impulses and emotions. According to the authors, this increases a

person’s chance of success. They noted, “Develop greater proficiency at deliberate

practice as well as the ability to manage your emotions, and you significantly increase

your chances for turning vital behaviors into vital habits” (Grenny et al., 2013, p. 143). A

specific example of this behavior in practice was documented by researchers who found

that in a financial services company, “vital behavior for high customer loyalty was

candidly addressing emotionally risky issues with clients” (Grenny et al., 2013, p. 138).

Compared to the wealth managers who were reluctant to address the emotionally touchy

issue of their clients not sticking to their financial goals, “those who handled these

moments skillfully actually created deeper loyalty and won a larger portion of client

business” (Grenny et al., 2013, p. 138). Hence, this shows the idea in action: Being able

to handle emotions and emotionally charged situations appropriately and skillfully

promotes success.

An additional piece of literature that affirmed the importance of the role of EQ in

a person’s ability to experience success was Power: Why Some People Have It—and

Others Don’t (Pfeffer, 2010). Pfeffer (2010) contended that

2
 the inability of measures of intelligence to account for much variation in who gets

ahead has led to the idea of multiple intelligences and efforts to develop indicators

of constructs such as emotional intelligence that might be more useful in

accounting for various career success measures. (p. 56)

In his book, Pfeffer maintained that reflecting on one’s actions to develop self-awareness

is crucial to building power and success. He also stressed the EQ skill of being able to

empathize with others and explained how this ability to understand where others are

coming from has a great impact on one’s ability to lead and be productive and successful

(Pfeffer, 2010).

Furthermore, research on political intelligence has acknowledged the crucial role

of emotions and people skills in leader success. According to White et al. (2007),

“Internal political strategies are the stuff of good people management skills . . . managing

the internal environment can be fraught with controversy, emotional issues, and difficult

people” (p. 31). In order to deal effectively with such issues, certain EQ skills need to be

in place. White et al. stated, “Being self-aware, reflective, and self-managing make up

the foundation for political intelligence” (p. 127).

Take the skills mentioned above and it is clear how EQ plays a key role in the

effectiveness of teachers, who are leaders within their own classrooms as well as in

various other school settings. Not only do they have to navigate their way through

recognizing their students’ emotions and be able to respond appropriately to ensure the

best possible learning environment, but they also need to be able to recognize and control

their own emotions in order to effectively deal with challenging situations that inevitably

arise when dealing with multiple students and their parents.

3
 Background

EQ vs. IQ

The 21st-century workforce is fast paced, competitive, and ever changing. So

what does it take to get ahead and stay ahead in such an environment? For years it was

believed that those with higher levels of intelligence were the ones who were bound to

get ahead of the pack. The best and the brightest were assumed to be those who had the

highest IQs, and in many cases this was supported by research findings that demonstrated

that those with higher IQ levels had higher education levels and made more money

(Bergman, Corovic, Ferrer-Wreder, & Modig, 2014; Murray, 1998; Sorjonen,

Hemmingsson, Lundin, Falkstedt, & Melin, 2012).

In recent findings, an additional factor has come into play regarding the levels of

success experienced in the workplace as well as in personal relationships. EQ has been

shown to have a significant impact on a person’s ability to experience success in

relationships, as people with high levels of EQ demonstrate a stronger ability to self-

manage, have higher self-efficacy, and are more efficient (Anari, 2012; Birknerova,

2011; Bradberry, 2015c; Cherry, Fletcher, & O’Sullivan, 2013; Ergur, 2009; Goleman,

1998; Gurol, Ozercan, & Yalcin, 2010; Karimzadeh, Goodarzi, & Rezaei, 2012; Munroe,

2009; Nizielski, Hallum, Lopes, & Schutz, 2012; Perry & Ball, 2005; Vesley, Saklofske,

& Leschied, 2013; Yin, Lee, Zhang, & Jin, 2013). According to Daniel Goleman (2014),

who has been at the forefront of research on EQ, “When I calculated the ratio of technical

skills, IQ, and emotional intelligence as ingredients of excellent performance, emotional

intelligence proved to be twice as important as the others for jobs at all levels” (p. 25).

As further explained by Bradberry and Greaves (2009),

4
 When emotional intelligence was first discovered, it served as the missing link in

a peculiar finding: people with the highest levels of intelligence (IQ) outperform

those with average IQs just 20 percent of the time, while people with average IQs

outperform those with high IQs 70 percent of the time. This anomaly threw a

massive wrench into what many people had always assumed was the source of

success—IQ. Scientists realized there must be another variable that explained

success above and beyond one’s IQ, and years of research and countless studies

pointed to emotional intelligence (EQ) as the critical factor. (pp. 7-8)

History of EQ

EQ was first acknowledged in the early 1900s by E. L. Thorndike, who referred to

it as “social intelligence,” which he defined “as the skill of understanding and managing

others” (“Emotional Intelligence,” 2014, para. 1). In 1983, Howard Gardner introduced

the theory of multiple intelligences, in which both the interpersonal and intrapersonal

intelligences mirrored the concepts of EQ, wherein one understands the motivations of

oneself and the motivations of others (Teele, 2000). Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer

produced a model of EQ in 1990 that continued to build on previous research. Their

model was divided into four branches or areas: “accuracy in (a) perceiving emotions,

(b) using emotions to facilitate thought, (c) understanding emotions, and (d) managing

emotions in a way that enhances personal growth and social relations” (Mayer, Salovey,

Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001, p. 235). An additional model was introduced by Goleman in

1998 that described “a group of five skills that enable the best leaders to maximize their

own and their followers’ performance” (p. 27). The EQ skills outlined in Goleman’s

5
(1998) model included self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social

skill.

As the topic of EQ became more popular and additional research was conducted,

varying definitions surfaced, yet they had basic similarities. As defined by Earnshaw

(2015),

Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognise your emotions, understand what

they’re telling you, and realize how your emotions affect people around you.

Emotional intelligence also involves your perception of others: when you

understand how they feel, this allows you to manage relationships more

effectively. (“Emotional Intelligence,” para. 2-3)

In some of the more recent research, EQ was reported as being divided into two

categories and four basic quadrants. Within the category of personal competence are the

quadrants of self-awareness and self-management, and within the category of social

competence are the quadrants of social awareness and relationship management

(Bradberry & Greaves, 2009).

EQ Can Be Learned

Although the concept of EQ is considered thought provoking, what makes it

especially relevant and powerful is the research supporting the fact that unlike IQ, EQ

skills can be learned (Birknerova, 2011; Bradberry & Greaves, 2009; Cakir, 2014; Cherry

et al., 2013; Ergur, 2009; Forrest, 2015; Goleman, 2014; Gurol et al., 2010; Karimzadeh

et al., 2012; Munroe, 2009; Nizielski et al., 2012; Vesley et al., 2013; Yin et al., 2013).

According to Goleman (2014), scientific inquiry has shown that there is both a genetic

component and a nurture-aided component to EQ, and although it is hard to say how

6
much each of these aspects plays a role, based on research, there is no doubt that EQ can

be learned.

Karimzadeh et al. conducted research in Iran in 2012 in which they took a group

of 68 primary-grade teachers and divided them into a control group and an experimental

group. The experimental group was provided with 10 sessions of EQ and social-

emotional skills training, each lasting 2 hours. Although independent t tests showed no

significant differences between groups for EQ and mental health components before

training, there were significant differences reported between groups after the training

occurred. Karimzadeh et al. (2012) found, “Multivariate analysis of variance

(MANOVA), shown [sic] that training had significant effect in experimental group—

higher score in EI components” (p. 60). By receiving direct instruction in EQ skills, the

experimental group was able to increase their EQ scores, demonstrating that EQ can be

learned.

An additional study related to the possibility of learning EQ skills was conducted

on Asian medical students. Researchers Abe et al. (2013) found that after attending a

half-day workshop about mental health and well-being that provided students with

emotion-driven communication exercises, students’ postworkshop EQ scores showed a

significant increase, as did scores 1 year after the workshop, compared to pretest EQ

scores. Such results are promising because of the implications that EQ skills are

teachable.

As stated by Bradberry and Greaves (2009), in order to improve EQ, “You’ll have

to practice the strategies repeatedly before they’ll become your own. It can require

7
tremendous effort to get a new behavior going, but once you train your brain it becomes a

habit” (p. 52).

Impact of EQ

As the value of EQ becomes more recognized, research is being conducted across

multiple settings on the impact of EQ. For example, research conducted at the University

of Liverpool in the United Kingdom on 200 medical students explored the relationships

between attachment, EQ, and communication of first-year medical students and found a

significant positive correlation between EQ and the objective structured clinical

examination (OSCE), and the researchers discovered that “EI significantly predicted 7%

of the variance in OSCE scores” (Cherry et al., 2013, p. 317). Based on these results, the

researchers concluded that the development of EQ may be valuable in training students in

clinical communication (Cherry et al., 2013).

Further studies within the field of medicine and healthcare have yielded similar

results, showing a positive correlation between EQ and better practitioner-patient

relationships (Faguy, 2012; Hammerly, Harmon, & Schwaitzberg, 2014; McQueen, 2004;

Tirgari, Fooladvandi, Rasouli, Tofighi, & Jamali, 2015). Such studies have encouraged

continued research about EQ and its implications in the field of medicine.

Besides the field of medicine, the impacts of EQ are also being studied in the field

of business. As explained by Dong and Smith (2014), “EI is predicted to reduce turnover

intention by helping employees to detect, understand, and regulate unpleasant

experiences stemming from DJE (developmental job experience)” (p. 1057). Additional

research in the field of business has shown links between EQ and desirable behaviors in

the corporate setting, such as improved teamwork, improved communication skills, and

8
dealing with intercultural issues (Nikolic, Vukonjanski, Nedelijkovic, Hadzic, & Terek,

2014; Sigmar, Hynes, & Hill, 2012).

Specifically within the field of business, although evident in other fields as well, a

close examination of the relationship between leadership abilities and EQ has taken

place. As stated by Goleman (2014), “The numbers are beginning to tell us a persuasive

story about the link between a company’s success and the emotional intelligence of its

leaders” (pp. 25-26). In fact, literature shows several positive links between great leaders

and EQ (Castro, Gomes, & De Sousa, 2012; Sadri, 2012; Walter, Cole, & Humphrey,

2011; Webb, 2014; Yadav, 2014).

An example of the impact of EQ in leaders can be found in the research

conducted by Sadri (2012), who concluded that leaders with high EQ were more likely to

be transformational leaders who were able to collaborate well with others. Additional

research coincided with the findings that emotional understanding is an essential part of

transformational leadership and went even further to show a positive correlation between

supervisors’ EQ and employees’ creativity (Castro et al., 2012). A study conducted by

Webb (2014) showed that a leader’s EQ influences workers’ commitment to the leader

more so than to the organization but that there was increased employee satisfaction with

both the leader and the organization when the leader had a high level of EQ. Clearly, EQ

is recognized as a desirable and even mandatory trait among leaders. Yadav (2014)

stated, “The ability of an organization to perform depends on the relationships of the

people involved, which ultimately relates to the degree of emotional intelligence of its

employees and leaders. Emotional intelligence is a prerequisite for effective leadership

across borders” (p. 51).

9
EQ in Education

As in medicine, business, and leadership, EQ and its impact within the field of

education has been examined closely over the past 15 years. This makes sense because

education is all about serving people, and EQ has everything to do with how to deal with

the people one is serving. The relationships that need nurtured among the stakeholders

within a school organization are many considering the overlapping roles within a school

environment: administration, teachers, staff, students, parents, and community members,

to name a few. Aside from attending to each of these roles and the relationships that

come with them is the seemingly obvious aspect of leadership involved within a school

setting that may also be impacted by the EQ of an organization’s members. The explicit

role of an administrator as a leader may be the primary leadership role one considers in a

school setting, but teachers take on leadership roles as they lead their classes on a daily

basis, as well as taking on other leadership responsibilities, such as those of a grade-level

leader or committee leader.

The research conducted on EQ within the field of education has taken place in

many parts of the world and examined EQ from many different angles. For example,

studies conducted in Turkey and Canada both indicated that there is a positive connection

between EQ and teacher self-efficacy (Gurol et al., 2010; Vesley et al., 2013). In

Slovakia, Birknerova (2011) conducted a study with 569 participants that examined the

EQ of teachers, headmasters, and students, finding that the teachers had higher levels of

EQ than the students, which helped explain the greater self-control exhibited by teachers

in comparison to students. Birknerova went on to explain that teachers with higher EQ

better understand their students’ needs and the needs of others and “develop cooperative,

10
constructive, and mutually satisfying relationships” (p. 245). A study by Ergur (2009) in

Turkey expanded even more on the qualities of an emotionally intelligent teacher, stating

that teachers with high EQ put

a great deal of energy into creating a positive emotional climate; recognizing and

working with the feelings of oneself and of the learners; using listening skills with

groups as well as with individuals; dealing with learners’ expectations; and

having a well-developed self-awareness. (p. 1024)

More recent studies have taken this idea even further, finding a positive correlation

between teachers’ EQ and their psychological well-being (Karimzadeh et al., 2012; Yin

et al., 2013). Mental well-being of students has been pulled into the mix as well, with a

study in Iran asserting that mental and emotional health should be taught to students at all

grade levels (Karimzadeh et al., 2012). Based on this research, social-emotional learning

programs for students yielded “an increase in academic success, improved quality

relationships between teachers and students, and a decrease in problem behavior”

(Karimzadeh et al., 2012, p. 63).

Moreover, a study in Iran of 84 high school English teachers contended that there

is a significant positive correlation between EQ and job satisfaction, as well as between

EQ and organizational commitment (Anari, 2012). The researcher endorsed the ideas

that “organizations need to select teachers who have high emotional intelligence because

this may have [a] positive impact on the extent to which they can succeed in retaining”

teachers and that “teachers who have high emotional intelligence are likely to be able to

balance work with organization demands in order to minimize work conflicts” (Anari,

2012, p. 265). In a study of 300 Syrian teachers, the researchers asserted that being able

11
to identify one’s own emotions “helps teachers to monitor their emotional state

effectively, contributing to self-regulation and effective allocation of attentional

resources, and the ability to regulate emotions facilitates the expression and

communication of emotions in ways that positively influence encounters with students”

(Nizielski et al., 2012, p. 325).

Finally, a study in the United States focused on the leadership aspect of EQ in

education. This study involved 35 elementary school principals and determined that

“overall emotional intelligence has a significant effect on principals’ instructional

leadership behaviors” (Munroe, 2009, p. 95).

The impact of EQ throughout multiple job markets and industries is becoming

more evident as further research is being conducted. Particularly within the field of

education, where communication between multiple stakeholders and a clear

understanding of how to meet others’ needs is essential, additional research is needed to

better understand the role of EQ at various grade levels and how that impacts classroom

instruction and behavior.

Statement of the Research Problem

EQ is considered by many to be a more important indicator of success than IQ,

and unlike IQ, EQ can be improved with training (Birknerova, 2011; Cherry et al., 2013;

Ergur, 2009; Goleman, 2014; Gurol et al., 2010; Karimzadeh et al., 2012; Munroe, 2009;

Vesley et al., 2013; Yin et al., 2013). People with high levels of EQ are more aware of

their own emotions as well as the emotions of others, allowing them to respond

appropriately and better meet others’ needs. EQ skills have been shown to be essential

for successful leaders, healthcare providers, students, and teachers. As described by

12
Goleman (2014), “The higher the rank of a person considered to be a star performer, the

more emotional intelligence capabilities showed up as the reason for his or her

effectiveness” (p. 25).

Within the field of education, EQ holds particular importance. Teachers lead their

classrooms and are actively involved with multiple students, parents, and other staff

members on a daily basis. A teacher’s EQ has an impact on each of these relationships.

Teachers with higher EQ have been shown to provide better learning environments for

their students and have higher levels of student achievement, as well as a stronger sense

of self-efficacy (Ergur, 2009; Gurol et al., 2010; Justice & Espinoza, 2007; Karimzadeh

et al., 2012; Munroe, 2009; Nizielski et al., 2012; Vesley et al., 2013; Yin et al., 2013).

The problem is that there has been no research conducted to look at and compare

the EQ of teachers at the elementary, middle, and high school levels or to examine what

EQ traits look like at each of these levels. Gathering such information would allow for a

better understanding of how EQ may vary by grade level taught and how it is used in

elementary school, middle school, and high school settings.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to compare the self-perceptions of

emotional intelligence (EQ) in teachers of the year at the elementary, middle, and high

school levels and the ways in which teachers of the year describe the impacts of EQ traits

on classroom performance.

Research Questions

The research questions for this study guided the quantitative and qualitative

portions of the research and were as follows:

13
1. How do teachers of the year from elementary, middle, and high school levels rate

themselves in terms of EQ using the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal scale?

2. Do statistically significant differences exist between the EQ self-ratings of elementary,

middle, and high school teachers of the year?

3. How do the highest ratings of EQ traits by elementary, middle, and high school

teachers of the year, respectively, compare to one another?

4. How do teachers of the year from elementary, middle, and high school levels describe

the ways in which EQ traits impact classroom performance?

Significance of the Problem

Literature clearly supports that EQ plays a crucial role in success across a wide

variety of fields and impacts a person’s ability to maintain positive, productive

relationships (Cherry et al., 2013; Ergur, 2009; Fall, Kelly, MacDonald, Primm, &

Holmes, 2013; Goleman, 2014; Hammerly et al., 2014; Perry & Ball, 2005; Sadri, 2012).

The field of education, in particular, involves relationships between many stakeholders:

teachers, administrators, parents, staff members, and the community, to name a few.

Although some research regarding EQ has been conducted within the field of education,

there is a lot more that needs to be explored on this topic.

The significance of this study is that it fills a gap in the current literature by

providing information about how EQ in teachers varies by education level taught

(elementary, middle, and high school). Additionally, it sheds light on what these traits

actually look like in the classroom. To date, there has been relatively little research

conducted within the United States on EQ in the field of education, and none could be

located comparing EQ by schooling level taught. Having a better understanding of EQ at

14
each schooling level could inform school districts to improve hiring practices and teacher

training offerings.

Definitions

Theoretical Definitions

Emotional intelligence (EQ). As defined by Earnshaw (2015),

The ability to recognise your emotions, understand what they’re telling you, and

realize how your emotions affect people around you. Emotional intelligence also

involves your perception of others: when you understand how they feel, this

allows you to manage relationships more effectively. (“Emotional Intelligence,”

para. 2-3)

IQ. “A number used to express the apparent relative intelligence of a person”

(“IQ,” n.d., “Full Definition,” para. 1).

Relationship management. “Your ability to use your awareness of your own

emotions and those of others to manage interactions successfully” (Bradberry & Greaves,

2009, p. 44).

Self-awareness. “Your ability to accurately perceive your own emotions in the

moment and understand your tendencies across situations” (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009,

p. 24).

Self-management. “Your ability to use your awareness of your emotions to stay

flexible and direct your behavior positively” (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009, p. 32).

Social awareness. “Your ability to accurately pick up on emotions in other

people and understand what is really going on with them” (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009,

p. 38).

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Operational Definitions

For the purpose of this study, the definitions of commonly used terms are listed

below as a reference tool:

Emotion. A strong feeling (such as love, anger, joy, hate, or fear).

Emotional intelligence (EQ) traits. Self-awareness, self-management, social

awareness, and relationship management, and what constitutes each of these skills.

Empathize. Be understanding of.

Interpersonal skills. Skills needed to interact in social situations.

Learning environment. A combination of the social and physical qualities that

create the classroom experience.

Self-efficacy. A person’s belief about his or her ability and capacity to

accomplish a task or deal with the challenges of life.

Student achievement. A student doing well academically, obtaining life skills,

and giving back to his or her community.

Transformational leader. A leader who identifies needed change, creates a

vision to guide the change, and executes the change with the commitment of the group.

Delimitations

This study was delimited to district-level teachers of the year from Riverside

County, in the state of California, at the elementary school, middle school, and high

school levels during 2012, 2013, and 2014. The study took place during 2015.

Organization of the Study

The remainder of the study is organized into four chapters, references, and

appendices. Chapter II contains a review of the literature involving EQ. Chapter III

16
describes the methodology and research design of the study. Selection of the population

and sample as well as the data-gathering and analysis techniques are also detailed in this

chapter. Chapter IV presents the findings of the study and analyzes those findings.

Chapter V provides a summary of the research, conclusions drawn, and recommendations

for action and further research on the topic.

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 CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The review of the literature explores the research to date on emotional intelligence

(EQ), focusing on themes that were revealed as research was conducted. Topics covered

in the literature review include the history of EQ, EQ versus IQ, EQ and brain research,

whether EQ can be learned, the impact of EQ on personal well-being, the role of EQ in

the medical fields, the role of EQ in the business world, and the role of EQ in education.

History of Emotional Intelligence

Although the concept of EQ has sparked much interest in recent years, it is

actually thought to have been first taken into consideration in the early 1920s. It was at

this time that Thorndike began to speak of a model of intelligence that acknowledged

social intelligence in addition to cognitive aspects of intelligence (Cherniss, 2000; Landy,

2005; Pyryt & Romney, 2002; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). According to Thorndike,

intelligence could be divided into three types: abstract, mechanical, and social (Pyryt &

Romney, 2002). He considered social intelligence to be “the ability to perceive one’s

own and others’ internal states, motives, and behaviors, and to act toward them optimally

on the basis of that information” (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p. 187). Based on his

theories, it seems that Thorndike recognized that intelligence was a combination of

various factors rather than merely cognitive abilities.

Interest in and research on social intelligence continued to grow after Thorndike’s

proposal. In the 1940s, David Wechsler spoke of the influence of both intellective and

nonintellective factors on one’s intelligence and the impact that both types of factors have

on a person’s ability to act intelligently (Bar-On, 2006; Cherniss, 2000). In the 1960s,

Guilford introduced the structure-of-intellect model, which included social intelligence

18
within its scope of abilities (O’Sullivan & Guilford, 1975). Part of this model included a

behavioral component that took into consideration emotions and feelings and how well

people are able to understand and interpret them.

Although researchers such as Thorndike and Guilford brought forth the notion of

social intelligence, it was not until Gardner (1987) introduced his theory of multiple

intelligences that people really started to pay attention to and recognize that intelligence

is about more than just cognitive abilities, realizing it is also about the importance of

interactions with others, and those interactions impact people’s daily lives. Gardner’s

theory included seven different intelligences: logical mathematical, linguistic, musical,

spatial, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Each type of intelligence

represents an area that one excels at, as exemplified below:

 Logical mathematical intelligence is indicated by strengths in math and logic, as

would be seen in mathematicians and scientists.

 Linguistic intelligence is associated with an ability to use language fluently, good

memory, and good reading and listening skills.

 Musical intelligence is indicated by a gift for understanding rhythm and tone, as seen

in great musicians.

 Spatial intelligence is characterized by the ability to form a mental representation of

the world, as engineers, artists, painters, sculptors, and surgeons do.

 Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is associated with the ability to use one’s whole body

or parts of it to communicate ideas or solve problems, as dancers, athletes, surgeons,

mimes, and craftspeople do.

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 Interpersonal intelligence is characterized by the ability to understand other people and

how to best deal with them. These skills are typically seen in salesmen, politicians,

religious leaders, and teachers.

 Intrapersonal intelligence is indicated by the ability to understand oneself and

awareness of the other intelligences.

Gardner based these intelligences on what he had observed in his own experiences

working with children and brain-damaged adults, as well as the research of others,

wherein he noted that the ability to excel in one area did not indicate the ability to excel

in other cognitive areas. He stated, “You will find the children are very strong in music

or in language, very strong in drawing or in dance. One strength simply does not relate to

how they are going to be in other cognitive areas” (Gardner, 1987, p. 23). He therefore

concluded that intellect cannot be viewed as an all-or-nothing construct and that based on

the values of a culture, a standard IQ test would not be able to identify many people who

would be considered highly gifted or intelligent based on their abilities. Gardner’s (1987)

thoughts about this were well-stated:

I thought about other ones, too, the kinds of roles which are valued across

different societies: dancers, choreographers, athletes, politicians, chiefs,

psychoanalysts, sorcerers, shamen, hunters, fishermen, and so on. In different

societies, these kinds of things are valued, and if you had tests for young kids, you

know as well as I do that intelligence tests would not necessarily pick up kids who

had these particular talents. So that was the intuition behind my enterprise.

(p. 25)

20
It was this reasoning that paved the way for the acceptance of the idea that intelligence is

represented by far more than just cognitive abilities. Furthermore, the interpersonal and

intrapersonal intelligences closely resemble the ideas behind social intelligence that

Thorndike had discussed and EQ today.

Just a few years after Gardner came out with the theory of multiple intelligences,

Salovey and Mayer presented a framework for EQ, and they are often credited with being

the first to actually use the term. Salovey and Mayer (1990) originally defined EQ as a

“subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’

feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide

one’s thinking and actions” (p. 189). After conducting further research, Salovey and

Mayer concluded that their first definition of EQ lacked important components, such as

the role of feelings, and they revised their definition as follows:

Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and

express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate

thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the

ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth. (Mayer

& Salovey, 1997, p. 10)

Mayer and Salovey (1997) explained EQ based on psychological processes and

the abilities that match those processes. In Figure 1, the branches in Mayer and

Salovey’s representation of EQ are in order based on how basic the psychological

processes involved in the branches are, starting with the more basic processes at the

bottom. Therefore, “Perception, Appraisal, and Expression of Emotion” involves the

21
most basic processes in Figure 1, and “Reflective Regulation of Emotions to Promote

Emotional and Intellectual Growth” involves the most integrated processes.

Figure 1. Mayer and Salovey’s branches of emotional intelligence. From “What Is Emotional
Intelligence?” by J. D. Mayer and P. Salovey, 1997, p. 11, in P. Salovey and D. J. Sluyter (Eds.),
Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence (New York, NY: Basic Books).

During the same time period that Mayer and Salovey were studying EQ, Goleman

came into the picture with his concept of EQ, which held many similarities to Mayer and

Salovey’s concept. Goleman’s (1998) concept was based on his studies, primarily in

work performance and leadership, where he had found that EQ played a significant role

in the ability of people to be successful at work and the ability of people to lead

successfully. In fact, based on his findings, IQ accounted for only about 20% of career

22
success, leaving the other 80% up to factors including but not limited to EQ (Goleman,

2006). As part of Goleman’s (2014) model of EQ, he identified five components:

 Self-awareness: knowing one’s strengths, weaknesses, drives, values, and

impact on others

 Self-regulation: controlling or redirecting disruptive impulses and moods

 Motivation: relishing achievement for its own sake

 Empathy: understanding other people’s emotional makeup

 Social skill: building rapport with others to move them in desired directions

(p. 27)

Goleman stressed the importance of each of these skills and the fact that with feedback

from others and practice, each of these skills can actually improve, therefore increasing a

person’s EQ.

An additional model of EQ that was presented in the late 1990s was the Bar-On

model. As explained by Bar-On (2006), “According to this model, emotional-social

intelligence is a cross section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills,

and facilitators that determine how effectively we understand and express ourselves,

understand others and relate with them, and cope with daily demands” (p. 14). This

model was based on five components, which are also the components assessed in the

Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), developed by Bar-On. The theoretical foundation

for the EQ-i was based on the Bar-On model, and in turn the development of the model

itself was influenced by the EQ-i (Bar-On, 2006). See Figure 2 for the five components

represented in the Bar-On model that are assessed by the EQ-i—intrapersonal,

23
interpersonal, stress management, adaptability, and general mood—and the competencies

and skills that are associated with each component.

More recently, as research has expanded and people have begun to acknowledge

the impacts of EQ on success in work and personal relationships, newer, more “user-

friendly” models have surfaced that are intended for use and understanding by the general

public. This is the case with findings and information published by Dr. Travis Bradberry

and Dr. Jean Greaves (2009). In their book, Emotional Intelligence 2.0, they explained

that people possess three qualities that make them who they are: IQ, EQ, and personality.

Bradberry and Greaves went on to explain that IQ (the ability to learn) is fixed from

birth, and personality (a person’s style) stays the same over a person’s lifetime, but EQ is

flexible.

According to Bradberry and Greaves (2009), “Emotional intelligence is your

ability to recognize and understand emotions in yourself and others, and your ability to

use this awareness to manage your behavior and relationships” (p. 17). They went on to

assert that EQ comprises four skills that fall into two categories. The category of

personal competence includes the skills of self-awareness and self-management; the

category of social competence includes the skills of social awareness and relationship

management (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009). Figure 3 provides a visual representation and

further explanation.

24
25

Figure 2. Bar-On’s five components of EI/EQ assessed by EQ-i. From “The Bar-On Model of Emotional-Social Intelligence (ESI),” by R. Bar-
On, 2006, Psicothema, 18, p. 23.
Figure 3. Bradberry and Greaves’s emotional intelligence skills. From Emotional Intelligence
2.0, by T. Bradberry and J. Greaves, 2009, p. 24 (San Diego, CA: Talent Smart).

Whether it is called social intelligence, interpersonal and intrapersonal

intelligence, or EQ, the idea that a person’s abilities have to do with more than just

cognitive competency has taken a strong hold over the last century. Of particular interest

to many is the relationship between IQ and EQ.

EQ vs. IQ

One of the most commonly used definitions of intelligence was stated by

Wechsler as “the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to

think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment” (as cited in Salovey &

Mayer, 1990, p. 186). Some researchers maintained that dealing effectively with one’s

environment requires not just cognitive intelligence but a level of social intelligence as

well. For many years, scientists were divided on their opinions of whether EQ could

actually be considered a type of intelligence because unlike cognitive abilities, or IQ, it

was unclear whether EQ could be measured. However, with the creation of tests to

26
measure EQ, such as the EQ-i, and the thorough testing of such measures for reliability

and validity, it has become clear that EQ can be measured accurately. In fact, when

tested for validity, the EQ-i demonstrated very little overlap with cognitive ability tests.

Based on the findings, it was determined that “emotional-social intelligence and cognitive

intelligence are not strongly related and are most likely separate constructs” (Bar-On,

2006, p. 17). Such findings validated the notion that in addition to IQ, EQ is also a type

of intelligence.

One’s IQ is a measure of his or her cognitive abilities. IQ accounts for one’s

ability to solve problems, think critically, think logically, and have a firm grasp of such

constructs as language and mathematics. Additionally, much research has supported the

idea that IQ is fixed after young adulthood, meaning that it stays relatively stable over a

person’s lifetime (Kaufman, 2011; Melville, 2002; Telis, 2011). On the other hand, EQ

accounts for a person’s ability to understand him- or herself and others. EQ allows

people to build relationships and effectively manage themselves. Unlike IQ, EQ can be

learned and is therefore flexible. Both intelligences, IQ and EQ, play a role in a person’s

ability to navigate the world around him or her. Furthermore, studies have demonstrated

that emotion can actually impact people’s cognitive abilities, which is supported by brain

research (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009; Goleman, 2006).

EQ and Brain Research

Everyone has been in situations in which they reacted without thinking, for

example when they were scared or upset, and it is at times like these that emotions have

overridden people’s cognitive abilities. It is through brain research that this phenomenon

can be explained and EQ can be better understood.

27
 Research has shown that different parts of the brain are responsible for different

types of intelligence. Even in the early 1900s, Thorndike believed that “some people had

more neural connections or a more elaborated neural network than others” and that “those

with more connections were more intelligent than those with fewer connections” (Landy,

2005, p. 414). As studies continued, it was acknowledged that “discrete neural systems

can be interactive and still serve discrete functions. Thus, although prefrontal cortical

areas subserve the cognitive functions measured by IQ tests, subcortical are more crucial

for emotional and social functions such as empathy” (Cherniss, Extein, Goleman, &

Weissberg, 2006, p. 242). Additionally, EQ has been linked with areas of the brain

(various parts of the gyrus) that are known to be involved in social and emotional

processing, such as facial expressions and ways of responding appropriately in

interpersonal communications (Pan et al., 2014; Takeuchi et al., 2013).

So one might wonder, if areas of the brain that are responsible for cognitive

ability are separate from areas of the brain that are responsible for social and emotional

responses, how do emotions seem to take over logical thinking in certain situations? The

answer lies in the structure of the brain and how parts of the brain communicate. The

brain sends messages from cell to cell by means of electric signals. In order for these

signals to reach the part of the brain that is responsible for logical thought and decision

making, they have to pass through the part of the brain that produces emotions

(Bradberry & Greaves, 2009). Therefore, emotions influence people’s responses. See

Figure 4 for further explanation.

28
Figure 4. Understanding emotional intelligence and the brain. From Emotional Intelligence 2.0,
by T. Bradberry and J. Greaves, 2009, p. 7 (San Diego, CA: Talent Smart).

Additionally, the lower part of the brain, or amygdala, which usually controls

people’s emotions, is responsible for detecting threats and helping people respond

appropriately. Normally people’s upper brain, or prefrontal cortex, which is in charge of

thinking, has the first say in how they respond to stimuli. However, when people are in

danger or feel threatened, the situation is often reversed, and their emotions hijack the

thinking part of their brain, causing them to respond in ways that may later make them

feel embarrassed or regretful as they overreact to certain situations (Stewart, 2015).

29
 Understanding how EQ is part of brain function helps people to understand how

emotions influence their thought process. It is because of the understanding of the role of

the brain in EQ that one can also justify how EQ can be learned.

EQ Can Be Learned

Although no one is claiming it would be easy, there is substantial evidence that

EQ skills can be learned and can improve with age (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009; Cherry

et al., 2013; Goleman, 2014; Hammerly et al., 2014; Karimzadeh et al., 2012; Stewart,

2015; Vesley et al., 2013; Zakrzewski, 2015). Many researchers have pointed out the

role that nurturing plays in the development of appropriate emotional responses. As

Mayer and Salovey (1997) asserted, “Emotional skills begin in the home with good

parent-child interaction. Parents help children identify and label their emotions, to

respect their feelings, and to begin to connect them to social situations” (p. 19). This

statement is confirmed as one takes a closer look at children and young adults and the

type of homes they were raised in. Youth who were raised in homes where there was an

absence of emotional-cognitive learning often lack the emotional skills required to

interact successfully with others or recognize and handle their emotions appropriately.

Similarly, the teaching of EQ can occur through the school setting as values are

integrated or specifically taught within the curriculum, as well as by religious affiliations.

An example of this teaching of EQ was demonstrated in a study conducted by

Karimzadeh et al. (2012) in which 34 teachers were given 2 hours of social and emotional

intelligence training per week over a 10-week time period and were compared to a group

of 34 peers who received no training. The group of teachers who received the EQ

training showed significant improvement in EQ scores over those who did not receive the

30
training. The scores were based on interpersonal skills, intrapersonal skills, stress

management skills, general mood, adjustment skill, and overall EQ skill. Even when

scores were reassessed 4 months later, the results held true, indicating that EQ skills can

be learned (Karimzadeh et al., 2012).

Additional studies involving EQ and its ability to be learned have been conducted

within the medical field as well. Hammerly et al. (2014) described a 360-degree survey

tool that was designed specifically for use within the medical field that has proven to be

effective in determining the strengths and weaknesses of doctors and healthcare

personnel. When used correctly to provide both positive and corrective feedback, and

with coaching, this tool has helped to produce significant improvement in EQ among

doctors and other healthcare professionals (Hammerly et al., 2014).

Studies such as the ones by Karimzadeh et al. (2012) and Hammerly et al. (2014)

are further supported by the brain research discussed previously. Goleman (2014)

explained, “Emotional intelligence is born largely in the neurotransmitters of the brain’s

limbic system, which governs feelings, impulses and drives. Research indicates that the

limbic system learns best through motivation, extended practice, and feedback” (p. 29).

When teaching EQ, success is determined by these factors, so it is imperative if one

wants to learn to be more emotionally intelligent that he or she has the motivation to do

so, gets the feedback he or she needs to know what to improve in, and is given

opportunities to practice the skills he or she is trying to make better. It is not about

attending a training session or reading an article or book; rather, it is about reflecting on

one’s actions, being mindful, and consistently practicing and soliciting feedback so that

habits can be changed.

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 EQ Studies

Over the last several decades, as more light has been shed on the mysterious

“missing link” to success, EQ, studies have been conducted across multiple fields to

determine its impact. These studies have yielded results that demonstrate that EQ is a

strong force in achievement throughout the fields studied.

Impact on Personal Well-Being

Being able to maintain relationships with others, taking care of oneself, and

managing stress are all important factors that determine a person’s well-being, and it is

no surprise that those with higher levels of EQ have an easier time with these tasks.

People who have higher levels of EQ are better listeners, ask appropriate questions in

interactions with others, create trust in relationships with their genuine personalities, have

an open mind, are not attention seeking, are positive, are consistent in how they deal with

others, and understand how to balance work and play (Bradberry, 2015a).

One of the key factors relating to personal well-being and EQ is self-control.

People with self-control are better able to manage their emotions, keep it together during

stressful or demanding times, and maintain a positive attitude. As Goleman (1998)

explained,

The skill is, in a sense, largely invisible—self-control manifests largely in the

absence of more obvious emotional frameworks. Signs include being unfazed

under stress or handling a hostile person without lashing out in return. Another

mundane example is time management: Keeping ourselves on a daily schedule

demands self-control, if only to resist seemingly urgent but actually trivial

demands, or the lure of time-wasting pleasures or distractions. (p. 83)

32
Aside from the obvious benefits of self-control stated by Goleman, the underlying

impacts of this self-control on a person’s health are immense. People who are able to

demonstrate self-control are less likely to have learned helplessness, which therefore

makes their chances of developing heart disease and hypertension lower than someone

who is not as self-controlled. Additionally, people who have higher EQ tend to manage

their stress better, which in turn impacts their immune system favorably, making them

less likely to get sick (Goleman, 1998).

Benefits on personal well-being were further exemplified in a study by Cazan and

Nastasa (2015), in which 91 undergraduate students were tested for EQ levels, burnout,

and life satisfaction levels. The study results showed that the students with higher EQ

also had higher life satisfaction ratings and were less likely to be dealing with burnout.

The researchers concluded that students who had high EQ dealt with stress more

effectively, improving their personal well-being (Cazan & Nastasa, 2015).

An additional study that supported the positive effects of EQ on well-being

examined the relationship between EQ and criminal behavior (Sharma, Prakash, Sengar,

Chaudhury, & Singh, 2015). This study consisted of 202 participants, half of whom were

convicted criminals and the other half of whom were matched normal controls. A

general health questionnaire and the Mangal Emotional Intelligence Inventory were

administered to subjects. Results indicated that

the offender group obtained significantly lower scores in comparison to the

normal control group on all the subscales of EI such as intrapersonal awareness

(own emotions), interpersonal awareness (others emotions), intrapersonal

33
 management (own emotions), interpersonal management (others emotions), and

aggregate emotional quotient. (Sharma et al., 2015, p. 56)

These lower levels of EQ shown in criminals versus the normal group indicated that EQ

had an impact on the ability of these men to make good decisions and manage emotions

effectively, thus resulting in their imprisonment—not an indication of personal well-

being.

A final case study that exemplified the impact of EQ on personal well-being

examined the role of mindfulness and perceived stress in relation to EQ (Bao, Xue, &

Kong, 2015). The researchers noted the positive correlations that had been found in

previous studies between mindfulness and well-being, including both physical and mental

wellness. As the researchers expected, mindfulness (as a result of high EQ) was

negatively correlated with stress. In other words, participants with high EQ were able to

manage their emotions better, therefore handling stress better (Bao et al., 2015). The

obvious effects of EQ on personal well-being are many, with EQ playing a crucial role in

how well stress is handled, therefore influencing relationships and life satisfaction.

EQ in the Medical Fields

As the possibilities of EQ in the workplace have proven to be considered more

and more useful within different settings, the medical industry has taken notice of this

fact and is beginning to consider how EQ fits in with the medical professions’ ideals. It

is no secret that emotions are highly involved in healthcare. Whether in interactions

between staff working together on a team, between patients and staff, or between families

of patients and staff, when someone is ill or injured and time and treatment can be critical

34
in getting the desired results, the facets of EQ are likely to play a major role in how

things are handled.

Multiple studies have been conducted to examine the impact of EQ among

nursing teams and on individual nurse performance, nearly all of which have indicated

some level of correlation between EQ and effective nursing practices (Kooker, Shoultz,

& Codier, 2007; Holbery, 2015; Quoidbach & Hansenne, 2009; Snowden et al., 2015).

One particular study that exemplified the role of EQ in nursing practice was conducted by

Kooker et al. (2007). The aim of this study was to identify how to improve patient

outcomes and nurse retention by analyzing stories about nursing practice, as told by the

nurses, through the lens of EQ. According to Kooker et al., “The use of stories adds the

context that is often missing in purely empiric research studies. Stories allow the voices

of participants to be heard, contributing to personal and broader social change” (p. 32).

The purposive sample comprised 16 different nurses, who provided 16 written stories

about lived experiences in nursing. A point was made to include nurses with diverse

backgrounds, practice areas, and experiences. The fact that stories were used for this

study made it unique and provided insights and perspectives that may not otherwise have

been uncovered. The authors stated,

The stories themselves varied widely in a number of ways. For example, the

variation in the degree of specificity may have been a reflection on the writing

style of the individual nurse or the complexity of the incidents being described, or

both. Some stories were about an individual or family, and some stories were

about populations within a community. One story focused on health care in a

35
 developing country at the level of health care delivery and policy formation.

(Kooker et al., 2007, p. 32)

Kooker et al. (2007) analyzed the stories individually, color-coding evidence of

the four domains of EQ based on Goleman’s most recent framework for EQ (self-

awareness, social awareness, self-management, and social management). After this

initial coding was completed, the researchers went back and examined the actual

competencies exhibited within each domain. The results of these analyses were that there

was evidence of all of the domains and competencies in the 16 stories, indicating that EQ

played a role in how the nurses were able to appropriately respond to meet patient needs

and practice their skills effectively. Additionally, there was evidence that supported how

EQ may help in nurse retention. For example, within the self-awareness domain, nurses

“consistently assessed their strengths and limitations and had a sense of their self-worth”

(Kooker et al., 2007, p. 33), which would not only assist with patient care but with

retention as well, since the nurses felt valued. Within the domain of social awareness,

“nurses demonstrated empathy, recognized patient/client needs, and understood system

factors, which are competencies . . . that contributed to patient/client outcomes” (Kooker

et al., 2007, p. 33). Self-control, initiative, adaptability, and conscientiousness resulted in

better patient/client outcomes and improved retention, and these were demonstrated as

part of the self-management domain. Finally, consistent with the attributes of the

social/relationship management domain, “the nurses nurtured relationships, used personal

influence, and acted as change agents” (Kooker et al., 2007, p. 34), which not only

improved the quality of patient care but helped in retention as well.

36
 The ultimate findings of this study indicated that “elements of professional

nursing practice such as autonomy, accountability, mentoring, collegiality, integrity,

knowledge, activism, and the professional practice environment, were all identified in the

excerpts of the stories, which also demonstrated the competencies of emotional

intelligence” (Kooker et al., 2007, p. 34). Such findings reinforce the notion that

improved patient/client relations as well as the ability to retain nurses could be impacted

by applying an EQ framework to settings in which nurses practice, enhancing

professionalism.

Additional studies in nursing related to EQ and team development have also

provided evidence that strong EQ levels of members improve team cohesiveness and

performance (Holbery, 2015; Quoidbach & Hansenne, 2009). This improvement in team

effectiveness translates into better patient outcomes and care. Because of such results, it

has been suggested that EQ training be incorporated into nursing education programs.

When one considers medicine, perhaps the first thing that comes to mind is

doctors. It seems as though the EQ of doctors should play a significant role in how well

they can perform their job, including being able to work with and communicate with

other staff members, patients, and their patients’ families. Several studies have looked at

the role of EQ in doctors and doctor candidates and how their EQ impacts what they do

as part of their daily responsibilities. As stated by Rosenstein and Stark (2015),

In today’s complex health care environment it is more important than ever to

improve collaboration, communication, coordination, and care relationships

between all members of the health care delivery team in an effort to achieve best

practice outcomes of care. . . . This is particularly true for physicians who have

37
 the primary responsibility for overall patient care and patient disposition.

Communication with other physicians, communication with nursing, case

management, discharge planning, and other clinical support services,

communication with administration, and communication with the patients and

their family is crucial for overall success. (p. 1)

Recognizing the truth in such a statement, multiple studies have been conducted to

investigate the relationship of these traits and how they correlate with EQ in doctors.

These studies have shown correlations between EQ and desirable traits in physicians,

leading to the conclusion that training and coaching in EQ in order to help doctors

improve their practices would be warranted (Hammerly et al., 2014; McKinley et al.,

2015; Rosenstein & Stark, 2015). Additionally, it has been recognized in the literature

that the six core competencies set forth by the Accreditation Council for Graduate

Medical Education (patient care, medical knowledge, practice-based learning and

improvement, interpersonal and communication skills, professionalism, and systems-

based practice) contain competencies that are closely tied to EQ (Hammerly et al., 2014;

Lin, Kannappan, & Lau, 2013), therefore justifying the need for EQ to be part of the

screening process for doctoral candidates and part of physician training.

One such study of particular interest was conducted by Hammerly et al. (2014)

and looked at the utilization of 360-degree feedback to improve EQ in physicians. This

study acknowledged the input of multiple other studies as well as insight from institutions

that use the 360-degree feedback for physicians to determine the multiple benefits of

using such an assessment. As the researchers explained,

38
 The process of using 360-degree feedback enhances the individual’s awareness of

others’ perceptions (social awareness) and provides important information that

enables the person to self-improve. Enhanced social awareness informs self-

awareness, which in turn makes it possible to improve self-management and

relationship management. Thus, 360-degree feedback can play a key role in

improving EI. (Hammerly et al., 2014, p. 356)

In fact, the study recognized that two hospitals in Washington State that had been using

this assessment along with appropriate support and coaching had seen a reduction in the

amount of the disruptive behaviors that the assessment tool was originally administered

for, therefore improving relationships between doctors and patients as well as between

doctors and staff.

Although the 360-degree assessment was originally employed only as a way to

address problematic behavior, the value of using the tool proactively is being explored

with promising results. Rather than waiting until there is a problem, by administering the

assessment as a routine way to reinforce positive behaviors and provide useful feedback,

it is less threatening to the physicians involved (Hammerly et al., 2014). Best practices

for administering the survey include stating the purpose of the survey, allowing for

transparency in the reviewer selection process, using the tool for professional

development, and providing coaching and goal setting based on the feedback gathered.

When these guidelines are followed, improvements can be noted in leadership, teamwork,

communication skills, interpersonal skills, and professionalism (Hammerly et al., 2014).

Another strong point in favor of using 360-degree feedback in the medical setting

is that it improves the business end of things as well. Since higher physician EQ is linked

39
with positive patient outcomes, this influences how well patients recover and follow their

prescribed regimens (Hammerly et al., 2014). Patients who trust and listen to their

doctors therefore have fewer complications, incurring fewer expenses. The same idea

holds true with litigation that is taken due to disruptive physician behavior. Physicians

who have higher EQ communicate and deal appropriately with patients and their families

and are therefore far less likely to end up in litigation, which costs the medical facility a

lot more money than an initial investment in EQ training ever would (Hammerly et al.,

2014).

EQ in the Business World

The impact of EQ in the world of business has been studied thoroughly over the

last several decades, as companies are realizing that the global climate has changed, and

in order to be competitive, they need to not only have a great product or service but also

the right people in place to promote their products and work together to come up with

innovative solutions to today’s problems. Goleman (1998) found,

In a national survey of what employers are looking for in entry-level workers,

specific technical skills are now less important than the underlying ability to learn

on the job. After that, employers listed:

 Listening and oral communication

 Adaptability and creative responses to setbacks and obstacles

 Personal management, confidence, motivation to work toward goals, a sense

of wanting to develop one’s career and take pride in accomplishments

 Group and interpersonal effectiveness, cooperativeness and teamwork, skills

at negotiating disagreements

40
  Effectiveness in the organization, wanting to make a contribution, leadership

potential

Of seven desired traits, just one was academic: competence in reading, writing,

and math. A study of what corporations are seeking in the MBAs they hire yields

a similar list. The three most desired capabilities are communication skills,

interpersonal skills, and initiative. (pp. 12-13)

Clearly, organizations in the business world are recognizing that EQ has a distinct and

important role in their success that is entirely separate from IQ and are searching for and

developing employees who are able to demonstrate the qualities that are part of EQ.

With recent years’ scandals that have occurred within the world of business

finances, trust and ethical issues have been pushed to the forefront of people’s minds

when making decisions about who to invest resources with. This, too, has impacted the

need for EQ traits to be visible within a company’s personnel and code of conduct.

Multiple studies and research have shown a connection between high EQ and ethical,

trustworthy, or empathetic behavior that builds trusting relationships (Angelidis &

Ibrahim, 2012; Bradberry, 2015c; Goleman, 1998; Sundheim, 2014). As stated by

Angelidis and Ibrahim (2012),

Ethical conduct is essential for the proper functioning of society in general and

business in particular. . . . While businesses have always been responsible for

maximizing shareholders’ long-term value, they are increasingly expected to

recognize the importance of their responsibilities toward society to faithfully

adhere to certain ethical standards. (p. 115)

41
This ability to recognize one’s responsibility to more than just oneself and to be aware of

the impact of one’s decisions on others is a key component of both self- and social

awareness, which are integral pieces of EQ.

Of course, when thinking about business, one subject that inevitably comes up is

profit. The bottom line and driving force behind decisions for most companies is how

much money they are bringing in. Not surprisingly, studies have indicated that

employees with higher levels of EQ are top performers, and top performers produce

desired results and better business outcomes (Borg & Johnston, 2013; Bradberry, 2015b;

Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2014; Lassk & Shepherd, 2013). These results have to do

with many different aspects of EQ. Financial and employee performance can be directly

linked to a leader’s mood, to exceptional awareness and ability to respond appropriately

to customers’ needs and empathize with how they feel, to advanced salesperson

interpersonal skills, and even to the preventative maintenance and avoidance of disruptive

behaviors, which ultimately cost companies money as they repair damages done. The

fact that employees with high EQ also show higher levels of job satisfaction and

engagement, which both tie into higher levels of job performance, also plays a role in this

element. According to Clercq, Bouckenooghe, Raja, and Matsyborska (2014),

Work engagement functions as an important conduit through which employee-

supervisor goal congruence reduces counterproductive behaviors, and the extent

to which such potential is realized is greater among employees with higher EI.

The counterpart is that employees with less developed emotional skills are less

prone to respond positively to goal congruence, and their work engagement in

42
 turn plays a less crucial role in encouraging their avoidance of deviant behaviors.

(pp. 706-707)

The bottom line is that employees who are equipped with more EQ skills are more

engaged in their work and have goals that are aligned with those of the company,

allowing them to reach their fullest potential and performance levels, which ultimately

will lead to more positive business outcomes and increased productivity.

Communication. In the world of business, one important topic of focus directly

related to EQ is communication. This makes complete sense when looking at Goleman’s

(1998) definition of communication and what people who practice it do:

Communication: Listening Openly and Sending Convincing Messages

People with this competence

 Are effective in give and take, registering emotional cues in attuning their

message

 Deal with difficult situations straightforwardly

 Listen well, seek mutual understanding, and welcome sharing of information

fully

 Foster open communication and stay receptive to bad news as well as good

(p. 174)

Each of the skills that effective communicators use is essential to building trusting

relationships, working collaboratively, understanding and responding to customer needs,

and working with bosses, peers, and subordinates in the workplace. Study after study has

demonstrated the correlation between higher EQ and superior communication and

interpersonal skills in both business education and within organizations (Bielaszka-

43
DuVernay, 2014; Bradberry & Greaves, 2009; Fall et al., 2013; Goleman, 1998; Maini,

Singh, & Kaur, 2012; Myers & Tucker, 2005; Sigmar et al., 2012; Sundheim, 2014).

These interpersonal skills impact the organizations in which these higher EQ employees

work in a multitude of ways.

For example, Maini et al. (2012) conducted a study that examined the relationship

between EQ dimensions as predictors of organizational citizenship behavior. The sample

consisted of 250 superior-subordinate dyads working in power plants in India. The study

demonstrated the impact of dimensions of EQ on behaviors exhibited by employees that

were not necessarily contract obligations but rather prosocial behaviors that contributed

to the well-being of the organization and were often demonstrated through the

employees’ communication and interactions with others (Maini et al., 2012). See Figure

5 for details.

The results of Maini et al.’s (2012) study indicated that

EI dimensions had a statistically significant relationship with organizational

citizenship behavior (OCB) dimensions and in-role behavior (IRB). Not only was

a positive relationship shared among predictor and criterion variables, but also it

shared a substantial 32 percent (square of Rc) of the variance among canonical

variates. (p. 196)

Such results emphasize the importance of EQ in influencing employee behavior so that it

has a positive impact on the organization by means of molding employees who stand by

the organization and have stronger performance that benefits the organization.

44
Figure 5. Proposed research model of emotional intelligence dimensions and outcome variables.
From “The Relationship Among Emotional Intelligence and Outcome Variables: A Study of
Indian Employees,” by J. J. Maini, B. Singh, and P. Kaur, 2012, Vision, 16(3), p. 190.

An additional way that EQ has an effect on organizations through communication

is by the demonstration of compassion toward others. As noted by R. Schwartz (2014),

“People who experience compassion feel more committed to the organization and have

more positive emotions at work; when people receive bad news that is delivered

compassionately, they remain more supportive of the organization” (p. 8). Being able to

demonstrate compassion requires that EQ skills are used to notice when others need to be

treated compassionately, to listen to others’ concerns and respond appropriately, and to

demonstrate concern for others. Being able to display appropriate emotion in interactions

with others has a powerful impact on organizations, and using EQ to decide when and

45
how to communicate with others, especially in a culturally diverse business economy,

makes a big difference in the atmosphere of an organization. Sundheim (2014) stated,

We hide emotions to look strong, and keep things at arm’s length. But in reality,

doing so diminishes our control and weakens our capacity to lead because it

hamstrings us. We end up not saying what we mean or meaning what we say.

We beat around the bush. And that never connects, compels, or communicates

powerfully. (p. 9)

Having higher EQ allows business personnel within all levels of an organization to

effectively say what needs to be said in a manner that allows others to hear what they are

saying and be receptive to the information, therefore building trust and improving the

culture.

Leadership. Directly related to communication within the business world is

leadership. After all, is it not the primary job of leaders to communicate effectively to

guide the organization and its employees? The impact of EQ on leadership within

organizations has been looked at from many angles with clear results: The higher the EQ

of the leader, the better off the organization is, with expanded levels of leader and

employee performance and higher employee satisfaction (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009;

Colfax, Perez, & Rivera, 2010; Goffee & Jones, 2014; Goleman, 1998, 2014; Lam &

O’Higgins, 2012). EQ in leaders is proving to be a crucial factor in both smaller

organizational settings and in larger, more global settings. As explained by Colfax et al.

(2010),

Imperative among these challenges facing today’s global business leaders has to

be the differences in cultural environments and among their subordinates. The

46
 global business leader deals with these changing dynamics on a regular and

ongoing basis. The direction or strategy of a global business operation, too, is lost

without consideration of the diverse human elements that will be part of the

global business operation. Even the best conceived and most comprehensive of

plans can be hindered by the lack of awareness that people and relationships

matter. Thus, global business leaders must be comfortable with cultural

differences, be sensitive to localized needs, be at ease with ambiguity and

uncertainty in the daily workplace, be ready to bridge the chasms between home

and local office operations, and have a good sense of self. (pp. 93-94)

The “human elements” Colfax et al. spoke of are the EQ traits that make leaders with

high EQ stand out above the rest. They define excellence in leadership and are the

factors that push organizations and employees to the next level of productivity.

Even the U.S. military has looked into the impact of emotional factors when

comparing its leaders. In a study conducted by the U.S. Navy, average commanders were

compared to superior commanders based on squadron performance, and it was

determined that commanders who ran the most efficient, safe, and prepared squadrons

were not stereotypical taskmasters (as were many of the average commanders) but were

rather purposeful, take-charge-when-needed kind of leaders who took the time to get to

know their squadrons and built relationships with them (Goleman, 1998). The highly

rated commanders were more emotionally demonstrative, friendly, cooperative, trustful,

and likeable, demonstrating qualities of high EQ (Goleman, 1998).

An additional study, conducted by Lam and O’Higgins (2012), involving

leadership and EQ examined the relationship of leadership style (transformational

47
leadership in particular, which has been shown to be positively linked to organizational

success), EQ, and employee outcomes. See Figure 6 for the authors’ proposed model.

Figure 6. Proposed model relating emotional intelligence, transformational leadership, and

employee outcomes. From “Enhancing Employee Outcomes: The Interrelated Influences of
Managers’ Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Style,” by C. S. Lam and E. R. O’Higgins,
2012, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 33(2), p. 154.

Congruent with many other studies, Lam and O’Higgins’s (2012) study found a

positive relationship between EQ and transformational leadership. EQ was related to job

satisfaction but not employee performance or organizational commitment. Furthermore,

the study showed that transformational leadership style mediated the relationship between

EQ and job satisfaction and that employees’ performance and commitment to the

organization were directly affected by transformational leadership regardless of EQ.

According to the authors,

The study revealed that managers’ emotional intelligence could be a characteristic

that directly influences the development and maintenance of transformational

48
 leadership. It is believed that emotional intelligence not only builds and nourishes

transformational leadership, but also transfers to leaders’ thoughts and

behaviours. Therefore, emotionally intelligent managers who easily understand

and manage the emotions of themselves and others employ a transformational

leadership style that ultimately enhances employees’ job satisfaction. (Lam &

O’Higgins, 2012, p. 164)

Therefore, EQ plays a mediating role through transformational leadership in job

satisfaction.

Summed up perfectly by Tony Schwartz (2014), “An effective modern leader

requires a blend of intellectual qualities—the ability to think analytically, strategically,

and creatively—and emotional ones, including self-awareness, empathy, and humility. In

short, great leadership begins with being a whole human being” (p. 16).

EQ in Education

As in other areas, EQ has been fairly recently recognized as important within the

field of education. Goleman et al. (2014) found, “High levels of emotional intelligence,

our research showed, create climates in which information sharing, trust, healthy risk-

taking, and learning flourish” (p. 35). Are these not all desired attributes within a school

environment and classroom setting? When one considers what is involved in teaching

and education, the potential impact of EQ should come as no surprise at all. Education is

about relationships, and how one deals with relationships is all about EQ. The multitude

of roles that teachers and administrators play on a daily basis as they run their schools,

grade-level teams, classrooms, parent meetings, student centers, and peer interactions,

49
and constantly communicate with everyone around them require the efficient use of EQ

to navigate these interactions successfully.

Leadership abilities and being able to apply EQ skills to further such abilities are

an integral part of the field of education, and school administration is only the tip of this

iceberg. Although school administrators may formally represent the school leadership,

teachers take on leadership roles on a daily basis in their own classrooms as well as in

other capacities as they lead their grade levels and serve on various committees within the

school setting. All of these leadership roles, whether performed by administrators or

teachers themselves, yield better results when EQ is applied. Great leaders are able to

take their positive emotions and amplify those emotions to the group, creating positive

energy and buy-in when needed, which is crucial to pulling a staff together in the right

direction or getting students excited and engaged about learning a new topic. Because

emotionally intelligent leaders are aware of their moods and how they affect the people

around them, they are able to manage their moods to project the climate they are trying to

achieve while at the same time remaining genuine, which inspires cooperation within the

groups they are working in and builds trust. They make an effort to make personal

connections with others and encourage openness and communication between

stakeholders, which is essential within a school setting at all levels (Goleman, 1998;

Goleman et al., 2014). As explained by Goleman et al. (2014),

That’s why emotional intelligence matters so much for a leader. An emotionally

intelligent leader can monitor his or her moods through self-awareness, change

them for the better through self-management, understand their impact through

50
 empathy, and act in ways that boost others’ moods through relationship

management. (p. 40)

Although there is ample literature on leadership and EQ, literature on leadership

specific to education is less abundant. The literature that exists supports the notion that

teachers and administrators with higher levels of EQ do exhibit traits that make them

better leaders and have a positive impact on their organizations (Coco, 2011; Curry,

2009; Munroe, 2009; Penrose, Perry, & Ball, 2007; Sadri, 2012; Strickland, 2013);

however, much of it is not specific to the organization as a whole but rather to isolated

components such as team building or school climate.

Impacts of student EQ. Research on the EQ of students has focused on social-

emotional learning and the impact that it has on students. The research that exists

supports the fact that students who receive instruction in social and emotional learning or

moral character training have improved EQ that results in better or desirable behavior

from those students (Fuentes, 2012; Goleman, 2006; Kishore, 2015; Pappas, 2015;

Zakrzewski, 2015). For example, an article by Pappas (2015) pointed out the many

benefits of student EQ on eLearning. He claimed that “addressing your learners’

emotions can be particularly valuable since an emotionally safe eLearning environment

boosts self-confidence and motivation, encourages taking risks, and enhances creative

expression, all being critical factors of an effective eLearning experience” (Pappas, 2015,

para. 1).

An additional piece of research that demonstrated the positive impact of teaching

students EQ skills was that of Alfredo Fuentes (2012). In his dissertation, he pointed out

that students who received instruction in social and emotional learning (SEL) were more

51
successful on their tests and that SEL had a positive impact on students with and without

initial behavior problems; was effective in and out of the direct school setting; was

effective for K-12 students from racially diverse backgrounds; and improved students’

social-emotional skills, attitudes about themselves and others, positive behaviors, and

attitude toward school (Fuentes, 2012).

When it came to education and students’ EQ, Goleman (2006) was well-spoken in

explaining that schools

have a central role in cultivating character by inculcating self-discipline and

empathy, which in turn enable true commitment to civic and moral values. In

doing so it is not enough to lecture children about values: they need to practice

them, which happens as children build the essential emotional and social skills.

In this sense, emotional literacy goes hand in hand with education for character,

for moral development, and for citizenship. (pp. 285-286)

Impact of teacher EQ on teachers. It is no secret that based on the research,

teacher EQ plays a big role in what goes on in the classroom and how teachers feel about

themselves and what they do on a daily basis. In fact, teachers with higher EQ

experience more job satisfaction (Anari, 2012; Penrose et al., 2007; Vesley et al., 2013;

Yin et al., 2013), have higher levels of job commitment (Anari, 2012; Penrose et al.,

2007; Webb, 2014), do a better job self-managing (Anari, 2012; Birknerova, 2011; Ergur,

2009; Karimzadeh et al., 2012; Nizielski et al., 2012; Vesley et al., 2013; Yin et al.,

2013), and demonstrate higher efficiency and self-efficacy (Gurol et al., 2010;

Karimzadeh et al., 2012; Munroe, 2009; Penrose et al., 2007; Yin et al., 2013). Because

teachers with higher EQ are able to manage their emotions better, they also tend to

52
experience lower levels of job burnout and handle job-related stress more effectively

(Colomeischi, 2015). Being emotionally intelligent seems to be a real plus if education is

one’s career of choice, and by taking a closer look at the research, it is clear why this is

the case.

Studies have indicated that teachers use their emotions and their EQ in the

classroom in a plethora of ways. As Hargreaves (1998) noted,

Teaching involves immense amounts of emotional labor. Not just “acting out”

feelings superficially like pretending to be disappointed or surprised, but also

consciously working oneself up into a state of actually experiencing the necessary

feelings that are required to perform one’s job well—be these feelings of anger or

enthusiasm, coolness or concern. (p. 840)

Knowing how and when to “act” certain ways requires EQ. Teachers need to use the

skill of self-awareness on a daily basis to realize how they are feeling and how their

emotions impact their classrooms. After all, studies have clearly demonstrated that the

mood of a leader—and teachers are leaders in their own classrooms—is highly

contagious and spreads, setting the tone for the moment or the day. By being aware of

and able to manage his or her mood, a teacher is able to effectively control the mood of

the classroom.

In addition to self-awareness, teachers need to also practice the skill of social

awareness, understanding how their students are feeling so that they can respond to them

in a manner that meets their needs and provides a safe learning environment. Since this

is a key component of EQ, it makes sense that teachers with higher levels of EQ are able

to do this more easily and therefore have an easier time managing their classrooms

53
effectively. This explains why teachers with higher EQ have been shown to have a

higher sense of self-efficacy, feeling as though they are able to accomplish what they set

out to do each day in their classrooms. As an Australian study stated, “Emotional

intelligence makes a strong unique contribution to explaining personal teaching efficacy.

. . . Length of teaching experience and current status also make significant unique

contributions” (Penrose et al., 2007, p. 115). So, although EQ is not the only factor that

contributes to teacher performance and efficacy, its role is significant.

How teachers use their emotions while teaching and use their EQ to maneuver

through these emotions also influences the level of motivation teachers feel toward their

profession. Based on the study O’Connor (2008) conducted with secondary teachers in

Australia, she noted that “caring for and caring about students was an important part of

all the participants’ work and frequently acted as both a motivation to continue teaching

and ‘terribly exhausting’ (Laura) professional demand” (p. 125). These same ideas were

supported in a study conducted in Canada by Hargreaves (2000), in which she noted that

“elementary teachers in our study came across as not only more emotionally positive in

the classroom but as more emotionally negative as well. Their classrooms were more

emotionally intense in both respects” (p. 818). She went on to explain that the

elementary teachers valued the relationships with their students and the psychic rewards

that came with those positive emotions, yet they also were more hurt and experienced

strong negative emotions when students were disrespectful or acted out in hurtful ways.

Interestingly, and somewhat different from the secondary teachers in the Australian

study, the secondary teachers in Hargreaves’s study perceived their relationships with

54
students as lacking emotional intensity compared to the elementary teachers. Hargreaves

stated,

Secondary school teachers feel they do not know or are not known by their

students in any deep sense—that secondary school classrooms are not places

where teachers develop shared emotional goals with students or have close

emotional bonds or connections with them. (p. 820)

Impact of teacher EQ on students. Just as teacher EQ makes a big difference in

how teachers feel about their classrooms, it also makes a difference for the students.

Studies have shown that teachers who have higher levels of EQ provide better learning

environments for their students and induce higher levels of achievement (Ergur, 2009;

Gurol et al., 2010; Hargreaves, 2000; Justice & Espinoza, 2007; Karimzadeh et al., 2012;

Nizielski et al., 2012; Penrose et al., 2007; Vesley et al., 2013).

Ergur (2009) explained that teachers who use EQ in the classroom to make

connections with their students build trust, which ultimately has a multitude of positive

impacts, including better student conduct, a more positive attitude toward learning, a

more enthusiastic response to material being taught, a more positive view of the teacher,

and willingness to take risks and be creative. Additionally, the article pointed out that

teachers who practice the EQ skill of self-awareness are more aware of their own

prejudices and can then be more sensitive to how they approach students of different

ages, genders, religions, or backgrounds (Ergur, 2009). The teachers’ dealing

appropriately with their own prejudices also affects the students by influencing their

thoughts and attitudes about the same topics.

55
 Somewhat overlapping with the ideas in Ergur’s study were the thoughts

expressed by Nizielski et al. (2012), who found that higher teacher EQ was positively

correlated with desirable student behavior. According to the authors,

The ability to appraise one’s own emotions helps teachers to monitor their own

emotional state effectively, contributing to self-regulation and effective allocation

of attentional resources, and the ability to regulate emotions facilitates the

expression and communication of emotions in ways that positively influence

encounters with students. (Nizielski et al., 2012, p. 325)

Basically, teachers who have higher levels of EQ have fewer student conduct issues

because the students’ needs are being met more effectively.

Teachers using EQ to be more aware of what their students’ needs were and the

positive impact that it had on students was once again cited in the research conducted by

Hargreaves (1998), who found,

Teachers drew on a broad repertoire of strategies to try and reach their students,

get them motivated, help them understand. The methods they used were

determined, in many ways, by what they felt their students needed emotionally as

well as intellectually. Teachers talked about changing their teaching so it meshed

with what their students wanted, using support strategies that raised the comfort

level of students with learning difficulties, “trying to involve the kids as much as

possible—find out their interests”, using portfolios to discover what children

found “fun” . . . so that the classroom could “be a safe place where people can be

free to express their ideas”, creating an atmosphere where students could be

comfortable interrupting or asking questions. (p. 847)

56
The ideas expressed clearly show the benefits of teacher EQ and how that has a hugely

positive influence on what takes place in the classroom. Without practicing being

mindful of how students are feeling, what their needs are, and how to meet those needs,

teachers would not put the above-listed strategies into place, and the level of motivation

and learning of the students would most certainly plummet.

Summary

Findings from the literature review indicated that although EQ has been studied in

various aspects of the field of education, these studies have been isolated to specific

topics of interest or areas outside of the United States. There have been almost no studies

that compare the EQ levels of successful teachers at the various levels of schooling—

elementary school, middle school, and high school—or compare what EQ looks like at

each of those levels. This finding is particularly true when evaluating teachers and

schools in the United States.

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 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY

Overview

This chapter reviews the methodology used to conduct this study, which

examined the emotional intelligence (EQ) of district teachers of the year at the

elementary, middle, and high school levels, and how they compare to each other.

Additionally, this study explored how these EQ traits impact classroom performance. A

review of the purpose statement and research questions is included. Rationale for the

choice of research design, population, sample, instrumentation, data collection, and data

analysis are explained. Methodological limitations are addressed, along with the ethical

procedures implemented to ensure human subjects were protected. A summary of

material presented concludes this chapter. Approval was obtained from the Brandman

University Institutional Review Board (BUIRB) before this mixed-methods study was

conducted.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to compare the self-perceptions of

emotional intelligence (EQ) in teachers of the year at the elementary, middle, and high

school levels and the ways in which teachers of the year describe the impacts of EQ traits

on classroom performance.

Research Questions

As stated by Roberts (2010), “Your research questions/hypotheses guide the study

and usually provide the structure for presenting the results of the research” (p. 136). The

research questions for this study guided the quantitative and qualitative portions of the

research and were as follows:

58
1. How do teachers of the year from elementary, middle, and high school levels rate

themselves in terms of EQ using the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal scale?

2. Do statistically significant differences exist between the EQ self-ratings of elementary,

middle, and high school teachers of the year?

3. How do the EQ traits rated most highly by elementary, middle, and high school

teachers of the year, respectively, compare to one another?

4. How do teachers of the year from elementary, middle, and high school levels describe

the ways in which EQ traits impact classroom performance?

Research Design

The research design that was used to conduct this study was a mixed-methods

design. According to McMillan and Schumacher (2010),

Often the best approach to answering research questions is to use both

quantitative and qualitative methods in the same study or when using solely a

quantitative or qualitative method would be insufficient to provide complete

answers that meet the goal or purpose of the study. (p. 395)

To analyze and compare the EQ levels of teachers at the elementary, middle, and high

school levels, a quantitative approach was used. Patton (2002) noted, “The advantage of

a quantitative approach is that it’s possible to measure the reactions of a great many

people to a limited set of questions, thus facilitating comparison and statistical

aggregation of the data” (p. 14).

To gather information about how the EQ traits from the quantitative data were

reflected in the classroom, qualitative methods were used. The detailed information

about what EQ traits look like at the elementary school, middle school, and high school

59
levels allowed for a more in-depth comparison of what EQ actually looks like at each

level of schooling and differences between EQ at each level. According to Patton (2002),

“Qualitative methods typically produce a wealth of detailed information about a much

smaller number of people and cases” (p. 14). This study employed a sequential

explanatory design, in which “qualitative data are used to elucidate, elaborate on, or

explain quantitative findings” (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010, p. 405). The qualitative

portion of this design was a phenomenological study in which interviews were conducted

to allow for better understanding of the phenomenon of EQ traits as exhibited by teachers

in their classrooms. A phenomenological study “requires methodologically, carefully,

and thoroughly capturing and describing how people experience some phenomenon—

how they perceive it, describe it, feel about it, judge it, remember it, make sense of it, and

talk about it with others” (Patton, 2002, p. 104).

Population

As defined by McMillan and Schumacher (2010), “A population is a group of

elements or cases, whether individuals, objects, or events, that conform to specific criteria

and to which we intend to generalize the results of the research” (p. 129). The study’s

population was teachers of the year from elementary school, middle school, and high

school levels in all California counties.

A target population for a study is the entire set of individuals chosen from the

overall population for which the study data are to be used to make inferences. The target

population defines the population to which the findings of a survey are meant to be

generalized. This definition determines the eligibility of the participants of the study

(Cox, 2008). The target population for this study was teachers of the year from

60
elementary school, middle school, and high school levels in Riverside County, California,

for the years 2012, 2013, and 2014. All of the teachers in the target population were first

nominated as teacher of the year at their school site based on district criteria, which

typically mimic the state criteria. These criteria include having taught for at least 5 years;

demonstrating personal growth through education and professional development;

showing commitment by being involved in educational development activities and

helping peers; having the personal attributes of being an effective communicator, a

leader, and a creative problem solver; and demonstrating professional skills such as

teaching state standards, using appropriate techniques and tools to enhance learning,

assessing and communicating student progress, creating an effective learning

environment through good classroom management, modeling equal treatment of all

students, helping students develop socially and emotionally, and meeting other

professional responsibilities. Once selected at their school site, the teachers go on to

compete at the district level for elementary, middle, or high school teacher of the year.

The 23 school districts in Riverside County had 117 teachers of the year for 2012, 2013,

and 2014 combined.

Sample

McMillan and Schumacher (2010) noted, “In quantitative studies, the group of

subjects or participants from whom the data are collected is referred to as the sample”

(p. 129). Although the definition of the sample itself is basically the same in qualitative

and quantitative research, it should be recognized that choosing a sample in qualitative

research may require the researcher “to make subjective judgements regarding the

61
individuals to select based on the likelihood that they will be able to provide the needed

information” (Patten, 2012, p. 149).

The sample comprised Inland Empire district teachers of the year from Riverside

County from 2012, 2013, and 2014. At the time of the study, there were 117 present and

former teachers of the year from Riverside County for the years 2012, 2013, and 2014.

Convenience and stratified random sampling were used to choose participants for the

quantitative portion of the research. In this case, focusing on district teachers of the year

from Riverside County in the Inland Empire provided a convenient way to locate likely

high-functioning teachers to participate in an EQ assessment. According to McMillan

and Schumacher (2010),

Convenience samples are widely used in both quantitative and qualitative studies

because this may be the best the researcher can accomplish due to practical

constraints, efficiency, and accessibility. Also, the primary purpose of the

research may not be to generalize but to better understand the relationships that

may exist. (p. 137)

Quantitative Sample Selection Process

Participants for the study were chosen using stratified random sampling. The 117

district teacher-of-the-year winners for 2012, 2013, and 2014 for the 23 school districts in

Riverside County, obtained from the Riverside County Department of Education

(RCDE), were divided into three strata based on the level of schooling they taught:

elementary school, middle school, or high school. Of the 117 teachers, 55 (47%) were

elementary school teachers, 29 (25%) were middle school teachers, and 33 (28%) were

high school teachers. A sample size of 30 teachers was selected using proportionate

62
stratification; therefore, 47% of the sample consisted of elementary school teachers, 25%

of the sample consisted of middle school teachers, and 28% of the sample consisted of

high school teachers, or 14 teachers, eight teachers, and eight teachers, respectively. The

teachers to represent the number needed in each stratum were chosen through random

sampling by pulling names out of a container. These teachers were contacted by e-mail

and/or phone and asked to participate in the quantitative portion of the study. As stated

in an article from Laerd Dissertation (2012),

Relative to the simple random sample, the selection of units using a stratified

procedure can be viewed as superior because it improves the potential for the

units to be more evenly spread over a population. Furthermore, where the

samples are the same size, a stratified random sample can provide greater

precision than a simple random sample. (“Advantages,” para. 4)

All potential participants were assured that all data and responses would be kept

confidential. Hard data were stored in a locked file cabinet and electronic data in a

password-protected electronic file to which the researcher had sole access. All data were

destroyed following the completion of the defense of the study.

Qualitative Sample Selection Process

Purposive sampling was used for the qualitative portion of the study, as only

particular district teacher-of-the-year winners who participated in the EQ assessment

were asked to participate in interviews. In this case, three teachers from each level of

schooling (elementary, middle, and high school) with the highest EQ scores were asked

to participate in interviews. Patten (2012) stated, “When researchers use this method,

63
they purposively select individuals who they believe will be good sources of information”

(p. 51).

All potential participants were assured that all data and responses would be kept

confidential. Hard data were stored in a locked file cabinet and electronic data in a

password-protected electronic file to which the researcher had sole access. All data were

destroyed following the completion of the defense of the study.

Instrumentation

Quantitative

For the quantitative portion of the study, the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal–

Me Edition (online) was used. This instrument consisted of 28 questions “designed to

measure the sufficient behavioral outcome needed to adequately assess a particular skill”

(TalentSmart, Inc., 2013, p. 6). A 6-point frequency scale was used to measure the

behaviors associated with each skill. The scale was as follows: 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 =

sometimes, 4 = usually, 5 = almost always, and 6 = always.

An overall EQ score was provided that was further broken down into two

categories, personal competence and social competence, each of which was given an

independent score. Personal competence was then separated into self-awareness and self-

management, which were each scored independently. Social competence was separated

into social awareness and relationship management, which were each scored

independently as well. Therefore, by using the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal as the

instrument to measure EQ, the researcher was able to look at specific areas of EQ as well

as the overall EQ scores of the teachers participating in the study.

64
 Using the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal–Me Edition, possible scores for the

participants ranged from 1 to 100 in each area scored. The following was the breakdown

for assessing the levels of EQ based on the scores:

 90-100 = a strength to capitalize on;

 80-89 = a strength to build on;

 70-79 = with a little improvement, this could be a strength;

 60-69 = something that needs work; and

 59 and below = a concern that should be addressed.

Quantitative Reliability and Validity

Reliability and validity for the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal have been

established. Based on the theoretical foundations of EQ, including Goleman’s model of

EQ, which had the four main skills of self-awareness, self-management, social

awareness, and relationship management, the authors designed and began testing the

Emotional Intelligence Appraisal in 2001. A pool of items was developed for each of the

four subscales, and then items were reworked to cover only what focused on the elements

of the skills being tested. Unnecessary items were eliminated (TalentSmart, Inc., 2013).

In one representative study, 273 individuals provided multirater feedback ratings

for 36 senior leaders in three organizations, and the leaders also provided self-ratings.

For self-scores, the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal–Me Edition explained 13.2% of the

variance in job performance (TalentSmart, Inc., 2013). In another representative study,

512,439 individuals took the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal–Me Edition. The scores

were highly related to job performance, with self-ratings explaining almost 20% of the

variance in performance (TalentSmart, Inc., 2013). In addition to the studies, “statistical

65
analyses were conducted to assess the underlying factor structure of the Emotional

Intelligence Appraisal. Cronbach alpha values for the four scales of the Emotional

Intelligence Appraisal–Me Edition ranged from .87–.98” (TalentSmart, Inc., 2013, p. 13).

Qualitative

The qualitative phenomenological portion of the research employed the researcher

as the instrument. Data were collected through interviews with three teachers from

elementary schools, three from middle schools, and three from high schools. The data

obtained from the quantitative portion of the study determined who was asked to

participate in the interviews. According to Turner (2010), “Interviews provide in-depth

information pertaining to participants’ experiences and viewpoints of a particular topic”

(p. 754), and Patton (2002) stated that interviews “begin with the assumption that the

perspective of others is meaningful, knowable, and able to be made explicit” (p. 341). In

this case, the interviews provided in-depth information about what EQ traits look like in

the actual classroom setting based on the experiences of the teachers interviewed.

Qualitative Reliability

Prior to conducting the interviews, the researcher conducted a field test of the

interview instrument to ensure reliability. A teacher from each level who was not one of

the final interview participants was interviewed and asked to give feedback on the

questions. Comments were recorded, and adjustments to the questions were made

according to the feedback received. In addition, a colleague of the researcher observed

the researcher as she conducted the interviews and gave feedback regarding any bias the

researcher showed in the conducting of the interviews. Adjustments were made

according to the feedback received.

66
Qualitative Validity

Two experts in the field of EQ reviewed the interview instrument to assess the

validity of the items included. Recommendations and suggestions were taken, and the

instrument was adjusted accordingly to ensure content validity.

Data Collection

Prior to the collection of any data for this study, approval to conduct the study

was obtained from the BUIRB, and informed consent was obtained from each participant.

The research design of this study was a mixed-methods sequential explanatory design;

therefore, first, quantitative data were collected, followed by qualitative data. All data

collected were stored either in a locked file cabinet or a password-protected electronic

file, both of which were accessible to the researcher only.

Quantitative

Once the sample participants were identified, agreed to participate, and provided

informed consent, an online link was sent to each participant via e-mail that allowed him

or her access to the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal online. As the participants

completed the assessment, scores were accessed online and documented for the

participants in each stratum (elementary school, middle school, and high school).

Reminder e-mails and phone calls were conducted as needed until all scores were

obtained.

Qualitative

Once all quantitative data were collected and analyzed, the three teachers in each

stratum with the highest EQ total scores were invited to participate in an interview with

the researcher by means of e-mail or phone call. If any one of the top three scorers in

67
each category refused to participate, the next highest scorer on each list was asked until

there were three participants interviewed for each level of schooling. An interview time

and location were determined by the researcher and each participant.

Data Analysis

Quantitative

The quantitative data collected by means of the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal

were analyzed for statistically significant differences between the ratings of elementary,

middle, and high school teachers using a simple analysis of variance (ANOVA). In this

case, an ANOVA was appropriate because “more than two groups were being tested and

these groups were compared on their average performance” (Salkind, 2014, p. 233).

Qualitative

The qualitative data obtained through interviews with the researcher were

analyzed by identifying and coding common thoughts and themes expressed by interview

participants. Taking detailed field notes facilitated this process. According to Saldana

(2013), “A code in qualitative inquiry is most often a word or short phrase that

symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute

for a portion of language-based or visual data” (p. 3). In this case, the researcher

identified words or phrases that were indicative of EQ traits being exhibited by the

teachers in their classrooms, as indicated in the research questions. Data were coded and

organized according to themes to identify the perceptions of those interviewed. Interrater

reliability was established by having an additional expert in EQ review the interview

transcripts and identify words or phrases that he/she felt were indicative of the EQ traits

68
being exhibited by the teachers, and the expert’s organization of the data was compared

to that of the researcher to ensure agreement.

Limitations

Every research study has limitations. As defined by Roberts (2010), “Limitations

are particular features of your study that you know may negatively affect the results of

your ability to generalize. Limitations are usually areas over which you have no control”

(p. 162). One possible limitation of this study could be a relatively low sample size.

There are only so many district teachers of the year, and depending on how many of the

teachers who are asked are willing to participate, this could be a potential issue. If the

sample size is small, generalization will be more difficult. Another possible limitation in

this study is the fact that the quantitative data collected using the Emotional Intelligence

Appraisal were self-reported perceptions of EQ skills given by the participants, which

may have been biased. Finally, interview data have potential limitations in that the

“quality of the information obtained during an interview is largely dependent on the

interviewer” (Patton, 2002, p. 341).

Summary

Based on the literature reviewed, EQ plays a crucial role in job performance,

especially where relationships are involved, such as in the field of education. This

mixed-methods study was designed to add to the literature available and provide insight

as to how EQ varies among teachers at the elementary school, middle school, and high

school levels. In addition, it provided data on how EQ traits are exhibited by high-

functioning teachers at the elementary school, middle school, and high school levels.

Having these data will be useful in informing school districts to guide their hiring

69
practices and to guide decisions about professional development opportunities that might

benefit their teachers.

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 CHAPTER IV: RESEARCH, DATA COLLECTION, AND FINDINGS

This chapter describes the methodology used to conduct this research study, the

quantitative data obtained from the Riverside County district teachers of the year using

the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal–Me Edition (online), the qualitative data collected

from interviews with some of the teachers of the year who completed the Emotional

Intelligence Appraisal–Me Edition, and the data findings. The chapter starts with a

review of the purpose statement, research questions, population and sample, and

methodology. The chapter then goes on to review and analyze the data collected. Data

collected for the quantitative portion of the study were used to answer Research

Questions 1 through 3 and are presented in both narrative and table format. Research

Question 4 was addressed by the data collected in the qualitative interviews, which are

presented in narrative form, reporting how the teachers of the year felt their emotional

intelligence (EQ) traits were exhibited in their classroom performance.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to compare the self-perceptions of

emotional intelligence (EQ) in teachers of the year at the elementary, middle, and high

school levels and the ways in which teachers of the year describe the impacts of EQ traits

on classroom performance.

Research Questions

The research questions for this study guided the quantitative and qualitative

portions of the research and were as follows:

1. How do teachers of the year from elementary, middle, and high school levels rate

themselves in terms of EQ using the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal scale?

71
2. Do statistically significant differences exist between the EQ self-ratings of elementary,

middle, and high school teachers of the year?

3. How do the highest ratings of EQ traits by elementary, middle, and high school

teachers of the year, respectively, compare to one another?

4. How do teachers of the year from elementary, middle, and high school levels describe

the ways in which EQ traits impact classroom performance?

Methodology

This mixed-methods study utilized the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal–Me

Edition (online), which uses a 6-point frequency scale, to measure the EQ skills of self-

awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management in teachers

and produce quantitative data. Qualitative data were then gathered by the researcher

through open-ended questions that were e-mailed to the highest scoring participants in the

quantitative portion of the study. Data were strengthened through triangulation.

An initial invitation to participate in this study was sent to a combined total of 83

out of the 117 teachers who met the requirements of the study as discussed in Chapter III.

Not all 117 were invited due to the inability to locate individuals who were no longer at

the school sites on the list provided by the Riverside County Department of Education.

Of those 83 teachers invited to participate, 25 responded. Of those 25 who responded, 23

were willing to participate in the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal, and those results are

reported in this chapter.

Nine of the 23 teachers who participated in the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal,

the three from each level of schooling with the highest overall EQ scores, were contacted

and asked to participate in follow-up questionnaires via e-mail, with the possibility of

72
additional questioning via phone contact if needed, to explain and give examples of how

they felt they exhibited their EQ traits in their classrooms. Of the nine contacted, six

teachers, two from each level of schooling, responded to the questions. The data

gathered from these questions are reported in this chapter.

Before the interview questionnaires were sent out to participants, a field test was

completed by the researcher to test the instrument with teachers at each level (elementary

school, middle school, and high school) with a colleague observing to give feedback

about the questions as well as the interview procedure and techniques. After the field test

was completed, the researcher sent out the following definitions of EQ traits to

participants:

 Self-awareness: “Self-awareness is your ability to accurately perceive your own

emotions in the moment and understand your tendencies across situations. Self-

awareness includes staying on top of your typical reactions to specific events,

challenges, and people” (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009, p. 24).

 Self-management: “Self-management is your ability to use your awareness of your

emotions to stay flexible and direct your behavior positively. This means managing

your emotional reactions to situations and people” (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009,

p. 32).

 Social awareness: “Social awareness is your ability to accurately pick up on emotions

in other people and understand what is really going on with them. This often means

perceiving what other people are thinking and feeling even if you do not feel the same

way” (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009, p. 38).

73
 Relationship management: “Relationship management is your ability to use your

awareness of your own emotions and those of others to manage interactions

successfully” (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009, p. 44).

Along with these definitions, the researcher sent the following questions to participants:

1. How is the emotional intelligence trait of self-awareness exhibited by you in your

classroom? Provide an example if possible.

2. How is the emotional intelligence trait of self-management exhibited by you in your

classroom? Provide an example if possible.

3. How is the emotional intelligence trait of social awareness exhibited by you in your

classroom? Provide an example if possible.

4. How is the emotional intelligence trait of relationship management exhibited by you in

your classroom? Provide an example if possible.

The data obtained were then coded by the researcher to look for emerging themes that

represented EQ traits being exhibited in the classroom.

Population

As defined by McMillan and Schumacher (2010), “A population is a group of

elements or cases, whether individuals, objects, or events, that conform to specific criteria

and to which we intend to generalize the results of the research” (p. 129). The study’s

population was teachers of the year from elementary school, middle school, and high

school levels in all California counties.

A target population for a study is the entire set of individuals chosen from the

overall population for which the study data are to be used to make inferences. The target

population defines the population to which the findings of a survey are meant to be

74
generalized. This definition determines the eligibility of the participants of the study

(Cox, 2008). The target population for this study was teachers of the year from

elementary school, middle school, and high school levels in Riverside County, California,

for the years 2012, 2013, and 2014. All of the teachers in the target population were first

nominated as teacher of the year at their school site based on district criteria, which

typically mimic the state criteria. These criteria include having taught for at least 5 years;

demonstrating personal growth through education and professional development;

showing commitment by being involved in educational development activities and

helping peers; having the personal attributes of being an effective communicator, a

leader, and a creative problem solver; and demonstrating professional skills such as

teaching state standards, using appropriate techniques and tools to enhance learning,

assessing and communicating student progress, creating an effective learning

environment through good classroom management, modeling equal treatment of all

students, helping students develop socially and emotionally, and meeting other

professional responsibilities. Once selected at their school site, the teachers go on to

compete at the district level for elementary, middle, or high school teacher of the year.

The 23 school districts in Riverside County had 117 teachers of the year for 2012, 2013,

and 2014 combined.

Sample

McMillan and Schumacher (2010) noted, “In quantitative studies, the group of

subjects or participants from whom the data are collected is referred to as the sample”

(p. 129). Although the definition of the sample itself is basically the same in qualitative

and quantitative research, it should be recognized that choosing a sample in qualitative

75
research may require the researcher “to make subjective judgements regarding the

individuals to select based on the likelihood that they will be able to provide the needed

information” (Patten, 2012, p. 149).

The sample comprised Inland Empire district teachers of the year from Riverside

County from 2012, 2013, and 2014. At the time of the study, there were 117 present and

former teachers of the year from Riverside County for the years 2012, 2013, and 2014.

Convenience sampling was used to choose participants for the quantitative portion of the

research. In this case, focusing on district teachers of the year from Riverside County in

the Inland Empire provided a convenient way to locate likely high-functioning teachers to

participate in an EQ assessment. According to McMillan and Schumacher (2010),

Convenience samples are widely used in both quantitative and qualitative studies

because this may be the best the researcher can accomplish due to practical

constraints, efficiency, and accessibility. Also, the primary purpose of the

research may not be to generalize but to better understand the relationships that

may exist. (p. 137)

Demographic Data

Twenty-three teachers who met the eligibility requirements for the study

completed the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal–Me Edition. The criterion that needed to

be met to participate in this study was having been a Riverside County district-level

teacher of the year winner in 2012, 2013, or 2014. Of the 23 participants, 10 were

elementary school teachers, eight were middle school teachers, and five were high school

teachers. Fifteen of the participants were female and eight were male.

76
 For the qualitative portion of the study, two teachers from each level of schooling

participated in a follow-up questionnaire to answer Research Question 4 and provide

insight as to what the different EQ traits look like in the classroom at the elementary

school, middle school, and high school levels. Of the six teachers who participated in the

questionnaires, four were female and two were male.

Data by Research Question

Research Question 1

How do teachers of the year from elementary, middle, and high school levels rate

themselves in terms of EQ using the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal scale?

The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal–Me Edition consisted of 28 questions that

provided scores for each of the EQ traits of self-awareness, self-management, social

awareness, and relationship management, as well as an overall EQ score. Possible scores

in each category ranged from a low score of 1 to a high score of 100 and were assessed

based on the following scale:

 90-100 = a strength to capitalize on;

 80-89 = a strength to build on;

 70-79 = with a little improvement, this could be a strength;

 60-69 = something that needs work; and

 59 and below = a concern that should be addressed.

Table 1 presents the mean scores by grade-level band.

77
Table 1. Emotional Intelligence Appraisal Scores for Elementary School, Middle School, and
High School Teachers
Emotional Intelligence Appraisal Scores for Elementary School, Middle School, and High School
Teachers

Elementary Middle High

Trait M SD M SD M SD
Self-awareness 82.4 8.91 82.8 10.42 85.8 9.07
Self-management 77.8 6.61 84.8 9.41 86.2 5.93
Social awareness 84.3 10.07 86.4 7.65 83.0 14.11
Relationship management 83.0 5.89 82.8 8.58 82.2 10.55
Overall EQ score 81.7 6.50 84.3 7.92 84.4 9.32

Elementary school teachers who participated in the Emotional Intelligence

Appraisal had a mean overall EQ score of 81.7 points. The highest ranked trait for

elementary school teachers was social awareness, with a mean score of 84.3 points, and

the lowest ranked trait was self-management, with a mean of 77.8 points. Elementary

school teachers’ combined ratings produced a mean of 82.4 points for self-awareness and

83.0 points for relationship management. With the exception of self-management, all of

the elementary teachers’ self-ratings produced means that fell in the middle of the 80-89

point range and were therefore considered strengths that could be built on. Self-

management, however, was in a different band (70-79), indicating that with improvement

it could become a strength.

Middle school teachers who participated in the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal

had a mean overall EQ score of 84.3 points. Social awareness was their highest ranked

trait, with a mean of 86.4 points. Relationship management and self-awareness were tied

for the lowest ranked trait for middle school teachers, each with a mean of 82.8 points.

Self-management for middle school teachers produced a mean score of 84.8 points. The

78
middle school teachers’ mean scores for overall EQ and all four EQ traits fell into the

same category (80-89), indicating they were all strengths that could be built on.

High school teachers’ self-ratings produced an overall EQ mean score of 84.4

points. Their highest ranked EQ trait was self-management, with a mean score of 86.2

points. Their lowest ranked trait was relationship management, with a mean score of

82.2 points. High school teachers had a mean score of 85.8 points for self-awareness and

a mean score of 83.0 points for social awareness. All of the high school teachers’ mean

scores fell into the same band (80-89), indicating that the EQ traits were all strengths that

could be improved on.

Research Question 2

Do statistically significant differences exist between the EQ self-ratings of

elementary, middle, and high school teachers of the year?

As previously stated, 23 participants from the pool of former teachers of the year

in Riverside County, California, participated in the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal–Me

Edition. Ten elementary, eight middle school, and five high school participants made up

the total pool of 23 participants. Tables 2 and 3 show the data collected from the

appraisal used to determine the answer to Research Question 2.

Table 2. Comparison of Minimum and Maximum EQ Scores for Elementary, Middle, and High
School Teachers
Comparison of Minimum and Maximum EQ Scores for Elementary, Middle, and High School
Teachers

Trait Minimum Maximum M SD

Self-awareness 69 100 83.3 9.16
Self-management 67 99 82.0 8.20
Social awareness 64 100 84.7 9.90
Relationship management 69 97 82.7 7.61
Overall EQ score 69 98 83.2 7.40

79
Table 3. Comparison of EQ Trait Scores and Overall EQ Scores for Elementary School, Middle
School, and High School Teachers
Comparison of EQ Trait Scores and Overall EQ Scores for Elementary School, Middle School,
and High School Teachers

Elementary Middle High

(n = 10) (n = 8) (n = 5)
Trait M M M F p
Self-awareness 82.4 82.8 83.3 0.23 .80
Self-management 77.7 84.8 86.2 2.82 .08
Social awareness 84.3 86.4 83.0 0.18 .84
Relationship management 83.0 82.8 82.2 0.02 .90
Overall EQ score 81.7 84.3 84.4 0.33 .72

Overall descriptive statistics. Minimum scores for the overall combined groups

were close to one another, with self-awareness at 69, self-management at 67, social

awareness at 64, and relationship management at 69. Maximum scores were also close to

one another, with self-awareness at 100, self-management at 99, social awareness at 100,

and relationship management at 97.

Mean scores for the groups were close to one another for each of the areas, with

self-awareness at 83.26, self-management at 82.04, social awareness at 84.74, and

relationship management at 82.74. The standard deviation for each area was relatively

high, with self-awareness at 9.156, self-management at 8.199, social awareness at 9.900,

and relationship management at 7.611.

Interpretation. The closeness of the mean scores indicates that the groups, as a

whole, were consistent in the responses to each of the four areas. However, the large

spread between minimum and maximum scores and the relatively large standard

deviation for each area means that the individuals within the groups had a large variance

in responses and were not in close alignment with one another in their responses.

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 Based on the p values, there were no significant differences between the EQ self-

ratings of elementary school, middle school, and high school teachers. For self-

awareness, elementary teachers had a mean score of 82.4 points, middle school teachers

had a mean score of 82.8 points, and high school teachers had a mean score of 83.3

points, yielding a p value of .80, which was nowhere near significant.

One area, self-management, came close to approaching significance with a p

value of .08. For this trait, elementary school teachers had a mean score of 77.7 points,

middle school teachers had a mean score of 84.8 points, and high school teachers had a

mean score of 86.2 points. The lower maximum scores may be the reason for this

difference. Given that this scale approached statistical significance, post-hoc analyses

were conducted to further identify the difference between groups. A Bonferroni test was

conducted. This showed that the difference approaching significance was between the

scores of the elementary and high school teachers, which had a mean difference of 8.4

points.

For the EQ trait of social awareness, elementary school teachers had a mean score

of 84.3 points, middle school teachers had a mean score of 86.4 points, and high school

teachers had a mean score of 83.0 points. These data yielded a p value of .84, which was

insignificant.

For the final EQ trait of relationship management, elementary school teachers had

a mean score of 83.0 points, middle school teachers had a mean score of 82.8 points, and

high school teachers had a mean score of 82.2 points. These scores produced a p value of

.90, which again was insignificant.

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Research Question 3

How do the highest ratings of EQ traits by elementary, middle, and high school

teachers of the year, respectively, compare to one another?

Twenty-three participants from the pool of former teachers of the year in

Riverside County, California, participated in the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal–Me

Edition. Ten elementary, eight middle school, and five high school participants made up

the total pool of 23 participants. Data obtained regarding the highest ranked EQ traits for

each level of schooling were used to answer Research Question 3 and are shown in Table

4.

Table 4. EQ Traits by Highest Rank for Elementary, Middle, and High School Teachers

EQ Traits by Highest Rank for Elementary, Middle, and High School Teachers

School level
Trait Elementary Middle High
Self-awareness 3 1 1
Self-management 2 2 1
Social awareness 3 1 1
Relationship management 2 3 0

The teachers in elementary school, middle school, and high school varied in terms

of the highest ranked EQ domain, and their scores were fairly evenly distributed. Three

teachers (one from the middle school level and two from the high school level) had to be

removed from the sample for this analysis because they did not have one highest EQ trait

score due to the fact that they had high scores that were the same for two different traits.

For self-awareness, three elementary school teachers (30%), one middle school

teacher (14%), and one high school teacher (33%) ranked this as their highest trait. The

trait of self-management was ranked highest by two elementary school teachers (20%),

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two middle school teachers (29%), and one high school teacher (33%). Social awareness

was ranked highest by three elementary school teachers (30%), one middle school teacher

(14%), and one high school teacher (33%). Relationship management was ranked highest

by two elementary school teachers (20%), three middle school teachers (43%), and zero

high school teachers (0%). One must keep in mind when interpreting these data how the

small sample sizes, especially with the high school teachers, who lost two participants,

impacted the percentages (i.e., one high school teacher represented 33% of the group).

Research Question 4

How do teachers of the year from elementary, middle, and high school levels

describe the ways in which EQ traits impact classroom performance?

Six teachers with the highest Emotional Intelligence Appraisal scores participated

in follow-up questionnaires to explore how their EQ traits were exhibited in their

classroom performance. The questionnaires were completed by two elementary school

teachers, two middle school teachers, and two high school teachers. Before sending out

the questionnaires, a field test was conducted with one teacher from each level of

schooling who was not a participant in the actual study. The researcher asked for

feedback from the field-test participants to be sure the questions were clearly stated,

unbiased, and did not need any other revisions. Once the field test was completed, the

questionnaires were sent to the participants of the study.

Informed consent was received from participants via e-mail. The questionnaires

were coded for major themes and patterns relating to the four EQ traits of self-awareness,

self-management, social awareness, and relationship management. Participants provided

responses to the following questions:

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1. How is the emotional intelligence trait of self-awareness exhibited by you in your

classroom? Provide an example if possible.

2. How is the emotional intelligence trait of self-management exhibited by you in your

classroom? Provide an example if possible.

3. How is the emotional intelligence trait of social awareness exhibited by you in your

classroom? Provide an example if possible.

4. How is the emotional intelligence trait of relationship management exhibited by you in

your classroom? Provide an example if possible.

Table 5 summarizes the themes/behaviors that were identified as a result of the

questionnaire responses.

Table 5. EQ Themes/Behaviors by Schooling Level

EQ Themes/Behaviors by Schooling Level

Elementary Middle school High school

Theme school teachers teachers teachers
Understands own emotions 6 11 5
Understands consequences of actions 3 3 1
Reflective 3 0 1
Not letting emotion control behavior 3 8 6
Understanding others and reacting 10 3 5
appropriately to achieve goals
Aware of student emotions 4 4 2
Supportive of students 2 7 1
Builds relationships/trust with others 2 7 4
Recognizes needs of self 3 5 3
Recognizes needs of students 6 9 2
Sets clear expectations for students 4 1 1

The behavior that came up the most for elementary school, middle school, and

high school teachers combined was understanding their own emotions. Teachers who

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participated in the questionnaire clearly felt that having an understanding of their own

emotions impacted how they dealt with situations that arose in the classroom. References

made in the questionnaires to this behavior were nearly all under the two traits that relate

to personal competence, self-awareness and self-management (only two of the 22

references were not in one of these categories). The middle school teachers in particular

made reference to this behavior the most, with 11 references between the two middle

school teachers’ questionnaires, six references in the elementary school teachers’

questionnaires, and five references in the high school teachers’ questionnaires. One

middle school teacher’s comment in response to the question about self-awareness

exemplified how this behavior impacted classroom performance: “There will be

situations that will occur (test me) and I try not to react based on my feelings.” Tables 6,

7, and 8 provide examples of quotes from the questionnaires from teachers at each level

of schooling.

Table 6. Elementary School Teachers’ Quotes From Questionnaires

Elementary School Teachers’ Quotes From Questionnaires

EQ trait Example quotation

Self-awareness “One example is that I typically preferred a very quiet and
orderly classroom. I realized that I tended to tense up and feel
frustrated when my students were chatty.”
Self-management “I have learned to be okay with some chatter because I look at it
as a chance for my students to practice their language and
speaking and listening standards.”
Social awareness “Our shining scholar was quiet, not smiling, and not really
paying attention. Students had noticed but didn’t ask why in
their morning groups. As soon as I saw her I asked what was
wrong. She had a terrible headache and ended up going home.”
Relationship management “I recognize when they don’t want to do something but do it
anyway for the good of the class. They know the balance of a
give and take relationship with me and their classmates.”

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Table 7. Middle School Teachers’ Quotes From Questionnaires

Middle School Teachers’ Quotes From Questionnaires

EQ trait Example quotation

Self-awareness “There will be situations that will occur (test me) and I try to
remember not to react based on my feelings.”
Self-management “Being honest and kind are very important to me. Recognizing
that self-management requires flexibility and understanding is a
strength that I have developed over the 22 years I have been in the
classroom. Also, knowing the same strategy doesn’t work for all
students and recognizing the individuality of each student plays a
leading role in my self-management.”
Social awareness “But as I’ve worked with my students over the school year, I have
learned some of their social patterns and behaviors. When
students are not acting the same/their usual self, I try to approach
them and just check to see how they are doing.”
Relationship management “I work at getting to know my students, what they enjoy, what
they fear, what makes them happy. I make connections with my
students during class and outside of class. . . . I let them know that
I love them.”

Table 8. High School Teachers’ Quotes From Questionnaires

High School Teachers’ Quotes From Questionnaires

EQ trait Example quotation

Self-awareness “I am able to distance myself from an issue or conflict and remain
rational and have a thorough understanding of the consequences of
my actions and more importantly what action is needed to remedy
or improve a situation.”
Self-management “I now choose to ‘act’ instead of ‘react’ to situations in the
classroom.”
Social awareness “This comes down to building relationships with people. When
you understand their motivations, background, interests it
becomes easier to understand where they are coming from in
certain situations.”
Relationship management “I do not want a student who is ‘negative’ to control me to
respond in a negative fashion. Therefore, I reach inside myself
always to respond in a compassionate fashion.”

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 Another behavior that came up in the questionnaires was understanding the

consequences of one’s actions. Although the teachers from all three levels of schooling

made reference to this behavior, elementary and high school teachers referenced it under

the personal competency traits of self-awareness and self-management, whereas the

middle school teachers referenced it under the social competency traits of social

awareness and relationship management. So, it seems that the elementary and high

school teachers viewed the behavior of understanding the consequences of their actions

as more of a part of the social interactions that took place in their classrooms, whereas

middle school teachers viewed this behavior through the lens of their personal feelings

and responses to things. The following quote from an elementary teacher exemplifies

how this behavior could really cross over and impact classroom performance based on

self-management and relationship management traits:

Being honest and kind are very important to me. Recognizing that self-

management requires flexibility and understanding is a strength that I have

developed over the 22 years I have been in the classroom. Also, knowing the

same strategy doesn’t work for all students and recognizing the individuality of

each student plays a leading role in my self-management.

Being reflective was another behavior that was evident in the responses of

elementary and high school teachers but not in the responses of middle school teachers.

Both high school and elementary teachers brought this behavior up in relation to either

self-awareness or self-management on their questionnaires, indicating its relevance as

part of personal competency.

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 Another behavior that was one of the most prevalent (17 references in the six total

questionnaires) was that of not letting emotion control one’s behavior. This behavior was

brought up three times in elementary teachers’ questionnaires, eight times in middle

school teachers’ questionnaires, and six times in high school teachers’ questionnaires. It

was also a recognized behavior in all four traits, being tied to both personal competency

and social competency in EQ. Teachers obviously recognized the value of staying in

control of their emotions in order to not respond inappropriately to students. A good

example of how this impacted what happened in the classroom was stated by a high

school teacher who shared, “I am able to distance myself from an issue or conflict and

remain rational and have a thorough understanding of the consequences of my actions

and more importantly what action is needed to remedy or improve a situation.”

The second most referenced behavior in the questionnaires, understanding others

and reacting appropriately to achieve goals, was evident 18 times within the six

questionnaires and was found in responses related to all four EQ traits. Elementary

school teachers’ questionnaires had the majority of references to this behavior, with 10

total. Middle school teachers showed evidence of this behavior three times in their

responses, and high school teachers showed evidence of this behavior five times in their

responses. Using their EQ helped the teachers understand how others felt and therefore

what they needed to do to get those people to respond in a way they wanted them to in

order to meet an objective, as noted in the participant responses. One of the middle

school teachers summed it up well when she explained,

So you see, my relationship management is based on love; the students know they

are loved. Due to this relationship, I really don’t have any classroom

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 management problems. When I see a student looks down, I have a private

conversation with them. They appreciate it. Having ongoing positive

communication with parents also contributes towards my successful relationship

management.

Being aware of student emotions was alluded to 10 times in the total

questionnaire responses: four times by elementary school teachers, four times by middle

school teachers, and two times by high school teachers. Nine of the 10 references to this

behavior were under the social competencies of social awareness and relationship

management, indicating that the participants realized that being attuned to how their

students were feeling emotionally had an impact on their performance in the classroom.

An example of how this looked in the classroom was explained by a middle school

teacher who stated,

As I’ve worked with my students over the school year, I have learned some of

their social patterns and behaviors. When students are not acting the same/their

usual self, I try to approach them and just check to see how they are doing.

Being supportive of students was referenced 10 times throughout the

questionnaires and in responses relating to all four EQ traits. Middle school teachers

referenced this behavior the most (seven times), with elementary school teachers bringing

it up twice and high school teachers only once. An example of how this behavior looked

in the classroom was provided by a middle school teacher who explained, “I work at

getting to know my students, what they enjoy, what they fear, what makes them happy. I

make connections with my students during class and outside of class. . . . I let them know

that I love them.”

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 The fourth most referenced behavior by teachers in the questionnaires was

building relationships/trust with others. Middle school teachers referenced this trait the

most (seven times). Elementary teachers brought it up twice, and high school teachers

brought it up four times. A key component in relationships, it made sense that the

majority of references to this behavior were found in the responses related to the social

competencies of social awareness and relationship management. An example of how this

impacted classroom performance was provided by an elementary school teacher who

stated, “I recognize when they [students] don’t want to do something but do it anyway for

the good of the class. They know the balance of a give and take relationship with me and

their classmates.”

In the questionnaire responses, recognizing the needs of self was a frequently

implied behavior, being acknowledged 11 times throughout the six questionnaires and

across all levels of schooling. Ten of the 11 references were made under the questions

relating to self-awareness or self-management, referring to being personally competent in

EQ. Being aware of one’s own needs can impact how a teacher responds to his or her

students and therefore can impact the teacher’s classroom performance. As an

elementary teacher explained, “One example is that I typically preferred a very quiet and

orderly classroom. I realized that I tended to tense up and feel frustrated when my

students were chatty.”

The second most referenced behavior (along with not letting emotion control

behavior) was recognizing needs of students. This behavior was evident 17 times

throughout the participant responses: six times in elementary school teachers’ responses,

nine times in middle school teachers’ responses, and two times in high school teachers’

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responses. It was acknowledged in responses to all four questions and therefore all four

traits. A high school teacher explained how this may impact classroom performance:

“This comes down to building relationships with people. When you understand their

motivations, background, interests it becomes easier to understand where they are coming

from in certain situations.”

A final behavior that was referenced in the responses of participants was setting

clear expectations for students. This behavior was primarily brought up by the

elementary school teachers (four of the six times). The references to this behavior were

dispersed across all four EQ traits that were examined in the questionnaire.

In summary, the behaviors that teachers reported in the questionnaire responses as

impacting their classroom performance were understanding their own emotions,

understanding the consequences of their actions, reflectiveness, not letting emotion

control their behavior, understanding others and reacting appropriately to achieve goals,

being aware of student emotions, being supportive of students, building relationships/

trust with others, recognizing needs of self, recognizing needs of students, and setting

clear expectations for students.

Summary

This chapter reviewed the data collected and the findings related to the four

research questions that guided this study. In summary, elementary school, middle school,

and high school teacher groups all averaged self-rated overall EQ scores that indicated

levels of EQ in the range of 80 to 89 points, which means the traits were strengths to be

built on. This was also the case when EQ was separated into the four traits examined:

self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management. The

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self-ratings of the 23 participants as a group all produced mean scores between 80 and 89,

again indicating that all of these traits were strengths to be built on. This was not the

case, however, when scores were examined on the individual level, with scores ranging

from 64 to 100 points.

There were no significant differences between the mean scores of elementary,

middle, and high school teachers. One trait, self-management, came close to approaching

significance with a p value of .08. A post-hoc analysis was conducted to explore the

difference between these groups, which revealed that the difference approaching

significance was between the scores of the elementary and high school teachers, which

had a mean difference of 8.4 points.

The teachers in elementary school, middle school, and high school varied in the

highest ranked EQ domain, and their scores were fairly evenly distributed. Additionally,

three teachers had to be removed from the sample for this comparison due to the fact that

they had more than one highest score.

The concluding piece of this chapter identified the behaviors related to the four

EQ traits of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship

management as they were exhibited in the classroom and impacted teacher performance.

This was done through the use of open-ended questionnaires that were completed by two

of the highest scoring elementary school, middle school, and high school teachers on the

Emotional Intelligence Appraisal. Behaviors identified in the teacher responses included

understanding their own emotions, understanding the consequences of their actions,

reflectiveness, not letting emotion control their behavior, understanding others and

reacting appropriately to achieve goals, being aware of student emotions, being

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supportive of students, building relationships/trust with others, recognizing needs of self,

recognizing needs of students, and setting clear expectations for students. Teacher

examples helped to illustrate how EQ looks in the classroom and impacts classroom

performance.

The following chapter, Chapter V, discusses the data in more detail. The chapter

also reveals unexpected findings, conclusions, implications for action, and

recommendations for further research. Chapter V ends with concluding remarks and

reflections.

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 CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

Chapter V provides an overview of the research study, restating the purpose

statement, research questions, methods, population, and sample. The chapter then goes

on to discuss the major findings, unexpected findings, conclusions drawn from the

findings, implications for action, recommendations for further research, and concluding

remarks and reflections.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this mixed-methods study was to compare the self-perceptions of

emotional intelligence (EQ) in teachers of the year at the elementary, middle, and high

school levels and the ways in which teachers of the year describe the impacts of EQ traits

on classroom performance.

Research Questions

1. How do teachers of the year from elementary, middle, and high school levels rate

themselves in terms of EQ using the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal scale?

2. Do statistically significant differences exist between the EQ self-ratings of elementary,

middle, and high school teachers of the year?

3. How do the highest ratings of EQ traits by elementary, middle, and high school

teachers of the year, respectively, compare to one another?

4. How do teachers of the year from elementary, middle, and high school levels describe

the ways in which EQ traits impact classroom performance?

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 Methods

This mixed-methods study utilized the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal–Me

Edition (online), which uses a 6-point frequency scale, to measure the EQ skills of self-

awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management in teachers

and produce quantitative data. Qualitative data were then gathered by the researcher

through open-ended questions that were e-mailed to the highest scoring participants in the

quantitative portion of the study. Data were strengthened through triangulation.

An initial invitation to participate in this study was sent to a combined total of 83

out of the 117 teachers who met the requirements of the study as discussed in Chapter III.

Not all 117 were invited due to the inability to locate individuals who were no longer at

the school sites on the list provided by the Riverside County Department of Education.

Of those 83 teachers invited to participate, 25 responded. Of those 25 who responded, 23

were willing to participate in the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal, and those results were

reported in Chapter IV.

Nine of the 23 teachers who participated in the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal,

the three from each level of schooling with the highest overall EQ scores, were contacted

and asked to participate in follow-up questionnaires via e-mail, with the possibility of

additional questioning via phone contact if needed, to explain and give examples of how

they felt they exhibited their EQ traits in their classrooms. Of the nine contacted, six

teachers, two from each level of schooling, responded to the questions. The data

gathered from these questions were reported in Chapter IV.

Before the interview questionnaires were sent out to participants, a field test was

completed by the researcher to test the instrument with teachers at each level (elementary

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school, middle school, and high school) with a colleague observing to give feedback

about the questions as well as the interview procedure and techniques. After the field test

was completed, the researcher sent out the actual questionnaires to participants.

Population

As defined by McMillan and Schumacher (2010), “A population is a group of

elements or cases, whether individuals, objects, or events, that conform to specific criteria

and to which we intend to generalize the results of the research” (p. 129). The study’s

population was teachers of the year from elementary school, middle school, and high

school levels in all California counties.

A target population for a study is the entire set of individuals chosen from the

overall population for which the study data are to be used to make inferences. The target

population defines the population to which the findings of a survey are meant to be

generalized. This definition determines the eligibility of the participants of the study

(Cox, 2008). The target population for this study was teachers of the year from

elementary school, middle school, and high school levels in Riverside County, California,

for the years 2012, 2013, and 2014. All of the teachers in the target population were first

nominated as teacher of the year at their school site based on district criteria, which

typically mimic the state criteria. These criteria include having taught for at least 5 years;

demonstrating personal growth through education and professional development;

showing commitment by being involved in educational development activities and

helping peers; having the personal attributes of being an effective communicator, a

leader, and a creative problem solver; and demonstrating professional skills such as

teaching state standards, using appropriate techniques and tools to enhance learning,

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assessing and communicating student progress, creating an effective learning

environment through good classroom management, modeling equal treatment of all

students, helping students develop socially and emotionally, and meeting other

professional responsibilities. Once selected at their school site, the teachers go on to

compete at the district level for elementary, middle, or high school teacher of the year.

The 23 school districts in Riverside County had 117 teachers of the year for 2012, 2013,

and 2014 combined.

Sample

McMillan and Schumacher (2010) noted, “In quantitative studies, the group of

subjects or participants from whom the data are collected is referred to as the sample”

(p. 129). Although the definition of the sample itself is basically the same in qualitative

and quantitative research, it should be recognized that choosing a sample in qualitative

research may require the researcher “to make subjective judgements regarding the

individuals to select based on the likelihood that they will be able to provide the needed

information” (Patten, 2012, p. 149).

The sample comprised Inland Empire district teachers of the year from Riverside

County from 2012, 2013, and 2014. At the time of the study, there were 117 present and

former teachers of the year from Riverside County for the years 2012, 2013, and 2014.

Convenience sampling was used to choose participants for the quantitative portion of the

research. In this case, focusing on district teachers of the year from Riverside County in

the Inland Empire provided a convenient way to locate likely high-functioning teachers to

participate in an EQ assessment. According to McMillan and Schumacher (2010),

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 Convenience samples are widely used in both quantitative and qualitative studies

because this may be the best the researcher can accomplish due to practical

constraints, efficiency, and accessibility. Also, the primary purpose of the

research may not be to generalize but to better understand the relationships that

may exist. (p. 137)

Major Findings

The major findings of this study can be found in this section, organized by

research question.

Research Question 1

How do teachers of the year from elementary, middle, and high school levels rate

themselves in terms of EQ using the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal scale?

The teachers of the year who participated in this study took the Emotional

Intelligence Appraisal–Me Edition (online), which provided the researcher with five

scores that were used to answer the research questions in this study: an overall EQ score,

a score for self-awareness, a score for self-management, a score for social awareness, and

a score for relationship management. The teachers of the year who participated in this

study contributed to the mean scores that showed elementary school teachers’, middle

school teachers’, and high school teachers’ overall EQ scores (81.7 points, 84.3 points,

and 84.4 points, respectively) as well as their mean scores by EQ trait. From the

elementary school level to the high school level, self-awareness mean scores were 82.4

points, 82.8 points, and 85.8 points. Self-management mean scores were 77.8 points,

84.8 points, and 86.2 points, respectively. Social awareness mean scores were 84.3

points, 86.4 points, and 83.0 points, respectively. Finally, relationship management mean

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scores were 83.0 points, 82.8 points, and 82.2 points, respectively. The means were all in

the range of 80-89 points, indicating that these traits were all strengths that could be built

on. The one exception to this was the elementary teachers’ self-management score,

which had a mean of 77.8 points, indicating that this trait, with a little improvement,

could become a strength. Although the mean scores for elementary school teachers,

middle school teachers, and high school teachers as a group were fairly similar, it should

be noted that individual scores did not reflect this same pattern, with minimum individual

scores starting at 64 points and maximum individual scores of up to 100 points.

Research Question 2

Do statistically significant differences exist between the EQ self-ratings of

elementary, middle, and high school teachers of the year?

To answer this research question, the participant scores from the Emotional

Intelligence Appraisal–Me Edition (online) were used. An analysis of variance

(ANOVA) was completed to test for significant differences between the scores of

elementary school, middle school, and high school teachers. Based on the p values, no

significant differences were found between the scores of elementary school, middle

school, and high school teachers.

One area, self-management, came close to approaching significance with a p

value of .08. For this trait, elementary school teachers had a mean score of 77.7 points,

middle school teachers had a mean score of 84.8 points, and high school teachers had a

mean score of 86.2 points. The lower maximum scores may be the reason for this

difference. Given that this scale approached statistical significance, post-hoc analyses

were conducted to further identify the difference between groups. A Bonferroni test was

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conducted. This showed that the difference approaching significance was between the

scores of the elementary and high school teachers, which had a mean difference of 8.4

points.

Minimum scores for the overall combined groups were close to one another, with

self-awareness at 69, self-management at 67, social awareness at 64, and relationship

management at 69. Maximum scores were also close to one another, with self-awareness

at 100, self-management at 99, social awareness at 100, and relationship management at

97. Mean scores for the groups were close to one another for each of the areas, with self-

awareness at 83.26, self-management at 82.04, social awareness at 84.74, and

relationship management at 82.74. The standard deviation for each area was relatively

high, with self-awareness at 9.156, self-management at 8.199, social awareness at 9.900,

and relationship management at 7.611.

The fact that the mean scores were so close indicated that the groups as a whole

were consistent in their responses to each of the four areas. However, the large spread

between the minimum and maximum scores and the fairly large standard deviation for

each area indicated that the individuals within the groups had a large variance in

responses and were not in close alignment with one another in their responses.

Research Question 3

How do the highest ratings of EQ traits by elementary, middle, and high school

teachers of the year, respectively, compare to one another?

Twenty-three participants from the pool of former teachers of the year in

Riverside County, California, participated in the Emotional Intelligence Appraisal–Me

Edition. Ten elementary, eight middle school, and five high school participants made up

100
the total pool of 23 participants. Data obtained regarding the highest ranked EQ traits for

each level of schooling were used to answer Research Question 3.

The teachers in elementary school, middle school, and high school varied in terms

of the highest ranked EQ domain, and their scores were fairly evenly distributed. Three

teachers (one from the middle school level and two from the high school level) had to be

removed from the sample for this analysis because they did not have one highest EQ trait

score due to the fact that they had high scores that were the same for two different traits.

For self-awareness, three elementary school teachers, one middle school teacher,

and one high school teacher ranked this as their highest trait. The trait of self-

management was ranked highest by two elementary school teachers, two middle school

teachers, and one high school teacher. Social awareness was ranked highest by three

elementary school teachers, one middle school teacher, and one high school teacher.

Relationship management was ranked highest by two elementary school teachers, three

middle school teachers, and zero high school teachers. Ultimately, there was no

particular area that stood out as being ranked much higher than another given the small

sample size and the spread of scores.

Research Question 4

How do teachers of the year from elementary, middle, and high school levels

describe the ways in which EQ traits impact classroom performance?

Once consent was obtained, open-ended questionnaires were completed by six of

the original Emotional Intelligence Appraisal participants: two of the highest scoring

individuals from the elementary school level, two of the highest scoring from the middle

school level, and two of the highest scoring from the high school level. These

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questionnaires were coded to look for common behaviors and themes. The

questionnaires were also examined for specific examples of how emotionally intelligent

behavior is exhibited in the classroom.

Behaviors identified in the teacher responses included understanding their own

emotions, understanding the consequences of their actions, reflectiveness, not letting

emotion control their behavior, understanding others and reacting appropriately to

achieve goals, being aware of student emotions, being supportive of students, building

relationships/trust with others, recognizing needs of self, recognizing needs of students,

and setting clear expectations for students. Teacher examples helped to illustrate how EQ

looks in the classroom and impacts classroom performance.

Unexpected Findings

Three unexpected findings came out of the research conducted. They were the

variance in individual scores; the fact that there was no significant difference between the

scores of elementary, middle, and high school teachers; and the similarities in the

examples provided by teachers in their questionnaire responses of how EQ traits look in

their classrooms.

First of all, the researcher was surprised at the variance in individual scores. All

of the teachers who participated in the study were acknowledged as high-performing

teachers, and although the group means were relatively high and consistent, the

individual scores across the board were all over the place, ranging from 64 points to 100

points. That is a huge difference!

Another surprise to the researcher was the fact that no one group of teachers stood

out from another as far as having higher EQ overall scores or trait scores. It was

102
interesting that all of the means ended up being so close to one another for every single

group of teachers and every single trait. One would think there would have been at least

some area with a significant difference.

The final unexpected finding was the similarity of many of the behaviors and

examples that came up in the questionnaires. One might think that because elementary

school, middle school, and high school are so different from one another and the

students’ attitudes change over time, kinds of emotionally intelligent behavior exhibited

by the teachers might be quite different for each level, but that really was not prevalent in

the responses.

Conclusions

This study investigated the EQ of elementary school, middle school, and high

school teachers, how they compare to one another, and how their EQ traits impact

classroom performance. The results of the study indicated that as a whole, the Riverside

County district-level teachers of the year who participated in the study had fairly high

levels of EQ, with mean scores ranging from 81.7 points to 84.4 points on a 100-point

scale. When comparing the three different groups of teachers, there were no significant

differences noted. The questionnaires provided examples of how EQ traits are exhibited

in the classroom and demonstrated the positive impact of emotionally intelligent

behaviors on classroom performance. This study produced four main conclusions, three

of which are supported by the literature:

1. Even in this group of top performing teachers of the year, there is room for growth in

EQ. The highest score possible for overall EQ or any given trait on the Emotional

Intelligence Appraisal is 100 points, and the 90-100 point range is the highest. The

103
 mean scores for the three groups were all in the 80-89 point range, which indicates a

strength that can be built on. The mean scores had room for improvement themselves,

but even more relevant is the fact that many teachers had scores for overall EQ of

specific traits that were in the 60-69 point range or 70-79 point range, indicating the

need for improvement. One could hypothesize that if teachers of the year, who are

already considered the cream of the crop, have a need for improvement and would

benefit from growth in EQ, the general population of teachers may need even more

improvement in this area. Literature on EQ clearly supports that with training, EQ can

be learned and improved (Birknerova, 2011; Bradberry & Greaves, 2009; Cakir, 2014;

Cherry et al., 2013; Ergur, 2009; Forrest, 2015; Goleman, 2014; Gurol et al., 2010;

Karimzadeh et al., 2012; Munroe, 2009; Nizielski et al., 2012; Vesley et al., 2013; Yin

et al., 2013).

2. A second conclusion is that, based on the variance in scores and the large standard

deviation of the scores among all three groups, there was no general consensus on self-

assessment of EQ among this particular population. This leads one to conclude that if

this variance is present among teachers considered to be at the top of their profession,

the same sort of inconsistency might be present in the general population of teachers.

3. Based on the behaviors and actual classroom situation examples that were described in

the questionnaires completed by participants at each schooling level, EQ traits

contribute to a productive learning environment and better student-teacher

relationships. Teachers who are aware of their own emotional state and are able to use

that awareness to react appropriately in classroom situations foster a healthier learning

environment. Likewise, teachers who are aware of their students’ emotional states and

104
 are able to manipulate instructions and classroom activities around them are better

able to meet student needs. Goleman et al. (2014) found, “High levels of emotional

intelligence, our research showed, create climates in which information sharing, trust,

healthy risk-taking, and learning flourish” (p. 35).

4. Based on the examples provided in the qualitative portion of this study as well as in

the literature review, it is obvious that using emotional intelligence traits in the

classroom is beneficial to both teachers and students. Despite this fact, little is being

done to improve teacher EQ in the field of education, indicating that education is

behind other fields when it comes to implementing EQ training to improve

performance.

Implications for Action

Professional Development

Based on the conclusions drawn from this study, it is recommended that

professional development in EQ be established by school districts in order to assess and

coach their teachers in EQ. This would be valuable to all teachers, and might be

especially useful to address mid-career decline in teachers. Teachers would need to be

assessed to find out their areas in need of improvement and then be given strategies to

practice in order to improve in those areas (such as what is given after taking the

Emotional Intelligence Appraisal). Preferably, coaches would be provided to follow up

with teachers and provide support as needed. It needs to be recognized that improving

EQ requires not just a 1-day workshop but rather a series of strategies that must be put

into place and practiced over time in order to see improvement.

Multirater EQ Assessments

105
 In addition to the self-ratings that most tests use to assess EQ, there are also

multirater tests that allow for other people to rate a person’s EQ to add to a more

complete picture of that person’s EQ. This type of assessment is another possibility for

use by school districts as a professional development tool, and it may be especially useful

for teachers who are on program improvement plans and whose self-assessment may not

provide them with a complete enough picture of their perceived strengths and

weaknesses.

Teacher Credentialing Implications

In addition to school districts, teacher credentialing programs may want to

consider incorporating training in EQ as part of teacher preparation programs. The

benefits of having high EQ as a classroom teacher are proven, so why would these

programs not want their teacher candidates working on improving their EQ?

Hiring Practices

One final suggestion for implementation would be for school districts to use EQ

assessments as part of their hiring practices. Since teachers with high EQ are more likely

to create safer learning environments that improve learning outcomes, it only makes

sense that school districts should take teachers’ EQ into consideration when hiring them.

Recommendations for Further Research

Based on this study, there are some recommendations for further research on EQ

in teachers. One recommendation would be to replicate the study but on a much larger

scale, including multiple counties rather than just one. A larger scale study would yield

more participants, making the study more reliable. It was difficult to obtain participants

106
for this study, and the small sample size likely impacted the results. Perhaps in a larger

scale study, significant differences would be found between the three groups of teachers.

Another recommendation for further research would be to conduct a similar study

but include all teachers in the sample rather than just teachers of the year. This could

provide valuable information about the general population of teachers as a whole and

what their EQ levels look like. This information could then be used to advise districts as

to what professional development they may need to look into and if it needs to look

different at each of the schooling levels.

Additionally, a recommendation for further research would be to conduct a

similar study on EQ in teachers using the multirater version of the test so that each

participant’s score is based on more than only his or her self-rating. This may provide a

more thorough picture of each person’s EQ. It would be interesting to conduct that study

on the same group of teachers from this study to see what the score differences are when

multiple raters are involved.

Conducting studies to examine the relationship between the physical and

emotional health of teachers, the physical and emotional health of leaders, and the

physical and emotional health of students would be recommended studies as well. Such

studies might provide valuable information to support the implementation of EQ training

in our schools for both teachers and students.

Concluding Remarks and Reflections

Teachers have an important job, and their actions impact dozens of people every

day. EQ has proven to be a valuable trait in the teaching profession. Teachers who have

higher levels of EQ are better able to deal with the situations that come up every day in

107
their classrooms and create a learning environment that is safe, positive, and promotes

student success.

EQ deserves more attention than it is currently getting in the field of education.

Although its positive impacts are being discovered through the limited but ever-growing

amount of research being conducted within the field of education, little is being done

with the results. District leaders and credentialing programs need to begin taking EQ

seriously and looking at it as a way to improve relationships among not only teachers and

students but all staff members as well.

As I reflect on the entire process of completing this study, I realize the importance

of asking questions and seeking out the answers. I recognize the power of one voice and

that it may be that one voice that catches the right person’s attention and creates a larger

discussion that needs to be had in order for change to occur.

108
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