7.
Modern Periodic Table
1. Classification Basis Before Atomic Structure: Before the discovery of atomic structure,
elements were classified based on their physical and chemical properties, such as metals,
nonmetals, and metalloids.
2. Scientists Involved in Classification: Early classifications were made by Johann Dobereiner
and John Newlands in the nineteenth century.
3. Mendeleev's Periodic Law: Mendeleev’s periodic law states that “The physical and chemical
properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses.”
4. Total Elements Discovered: Currently, 118 elements are known and named.
5. Structure of Modern Periodic Table: The modern periodic table consists of 7 horizontal rows
(periods) and 18 vertical columns (groups).
7.1 Introduction
In the early 1800s, around 30 elements were known and were classified as metals, nonmetals,
or metalloids based on physical properties. Classification attempts based on atomic mass were
later made by Dobereiner with his triads and Newlands with his octaves.
In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev organized the 63 known elements by increasing atomic mass,
observing a periodic pattern in their properties. Mendeleev's table organized elements into
groups with similar properties. He left gaps in his table, predicting undiscovered elements'
properties. The table was later modified by Henry Moseley, who established atomic number
(number of protons, Z) as the fundamental property of elements. This led to the modern periodic
law: "The physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic
numbers."
7.2 Structure of the Modern Periodic Table
The modern periodic table, a revision of Mendeleev's original version, arranges elements by
increasing atomic number in a grid of horizontal rows (periods) and vertical columns (groups). It
has 7 periods and 18 groups, as per the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) recommendations. Each period number corresponds to the principal quantum number (
n) of the valence shell of elements in that period.
The table contains 118 boxes for elements, divided into s-block, p-block, d-block, and f-block
groups based on electron configurations:
- s-block: Groups 1-2
- p-block: Groups 13-18
- d-block: Groups 3-12 (transition metals)
- f-block: Two series at the bottom (lanthanides and actinides)
7.3 Periodic Table and Electronic Configuration
With the advancement of atomic structure theory, the electronic configurations of atoms began
to correlate with periodic table structure. Elements' properties are now associated with electron
configurations, especially with valence electrons. This correlation led to the periodicity in
electronic configurations across the table.
7.3.1 Electronic Configuration in Periods
Periods are numbered 1 to 7, where each period starts with the filling of an "s" subshell and
ends with a filled octet (or duplet for the first period).
As atomic number increases along a period, an additional electron fills the outermost shell,
achieving stability by completing the shell by the period's end.
The first period (1s) has only two elements (H and He), while the second and third periods have
eight elements each, filling 2s2p and 3s3p subshells, respectively.
The fourth period introduces the 3d subshell, leading to 18 elements by including 4s, 3d, and 4p
subshells.
7.3.2 Electronic Configuration in Groups
Down a group, a new shell is added, resulting in elements having a similar outer electron
configuration within the group. Groups 1, 2, and 13-18 follow this trend closely.
Groups 4 to 12 (transition metals) show variations due to the addition of "d" and "f" subshells
starting from the fourth and sixth periods, respectively, altering configurations down these
groups.
1. Blocks in the Periodic Table:
s-block: Groups 1 and 2. Elements are reactive metals, lose 1 or 2 electrons easily (e.g., Na⁺,
Mg²⁺).
p-block: Groups 13-18. Ends with noble gases in Group 18, and includes metals, nonmetals,
and metalloids.
d-block: Transition metals, Groups 3-12. Known for variable oxidation states, colored ions, and
metallic properties.
f-block: Lanthanides and actinides, located at the table's bottom. Known as inner transition
metals.
2. General Electronic Configuration for Blocks:
s-block: ns¹ or ns²
p-block: ns² np¹ to ns² np⁶
d-block: (n-1)d¹ to (n-1)d¹⁰ ns¹ or ns²
f-block: (n-2)f¹ to (n-2)f¹⁴ (lanthanides and actinides)
3. How to find Group and Period Identification:
Identify Group:
s-block: Group number = number of s-electrons.
p-block: Group number = 12 + number of p-electrons.
d-block: Groups 3-12.
f-block: Lanthanides and actinides, no fixed group number.
Identify Period:
- The highest principal quantum number (n) in the configuration determines the period.
4. Remembering Reactivity Trends:
s-block: Reactivity increases down the group (e.g., Li < Na < K).
p-block: Reactivity varies; noble gases (Group 18) are least reactive. Halogens (Group 17)
gain one electron to form stable anions.
d-block: Less reactive than s-block, and reactivity decreases across the block.
f-block: Similar reactivity within each series (lanthanides are more reactive than actinides).
5. Characteristics of Elements by Block:
s-block: Soft metals, good conductors, high reactivity.
p-block: Diverse properties; includes nonmetals, metalloids, and metals.
d-block: Transition metals with unique properties like forming colored compounds.
f-block: Inner transition metals, high melting points, typically radioactive (especially actinides).
6. Periodic Trends:
Atomic Radius: Decreases across a period, increases down a group.
Ionization Energy: Increases across a period, decreases down a group.
Electronegativity: Increases across a period (left to right), decreases down a group.
1. Ionization Enthalpy Trends
Down a Group: "Down, it’s easy to lose" Ionization enthalpy decreases as you go down a
group because electrons are farther from the nucleus and shielded by inner shells.
Across a Period: "Across, it’s tough to toss"
Ionization enthalpy increases across a period because nuclear charge increases, pulling
electrons closer.
Exceptions in Periods:
Boron vs. Beryllium (Be > B): Beryllium’s 2s electrons are harder to remove than Boron’s 2p.
Oxygen vs. Nitrogen (N > O): Nitrogen’s half-filled 2p subshell makes it stable, while
Oxygen’s pairing causes repulsion, making removal easier.
2. Electron Gain Enthalpy Trends
Down a Group: "Down, gain is a pain" Electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative down
a group, as added electrons are farther from the nucleus and experience more shielding.
Across a Period: "Across, it’s gain we toss"
Electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative across a period due to increasing nuclear
charge and smaller atomic size.
Group 17 (Halogens): Remember that halogens (e.g., F, Cl) have the most negative electron
gain enthalpies, as they achieve a stable configuration upon gaining an electron.
Noble Gases (Group 18): They resist gaining electrons, as they already have a full outer shell.
3. Electronegativity Trends
- Across a Period: "More charge, more pull"
Electronegativity increases as you move across a period due to increasing nuclear charge.
Down a Group: "Down, pull’s down" Electronegativity decreases as you go down a group
because of the larger atomic size and greater shielding effect.
Highest Electronegativity (Fluorine): Remember "Fluorine is Fabulous with Four (4.0)" on
the Pauling scale.
4. Valency Trends in Main Group Elements
Valency Equals Group Number: For Groups 1, 2, 13-18, the valency typically corresponds to
the group number or 8 minus the number of valence electrons.
Hydride and Oxide Formulas:
Refer to textbook
Ionization Energy: Decreases down, increases across; harder to remove from left to right.
Electron Gain: Less negative down, more negative across; easy to add electrons to smaller
atoms.
Electronegativity: Decreases down, increases across; stronger pull across periods.
