CHAPTER 16: REPRODUCTION The chance of successful reproduction is

lower than asexual reproduction because two

Recall in chapter 1 that reproduction is the process
parents (gametes) are always required.
that makes more of the same kind of organism.
Reproduction can either occur sexually or asexually. ● Slower process
In sexual reproduction, two separate parent cells are Sexual reproduction is a much slower process than
fused to create new offspring. In sexual asexual reproduction.
reproduction, a single parent cell is cloned to
Asexual reproduction
produce new offspring.
Asexual reprouction is the process resulting in the
Sexual vs asexual reproduction
productin of genetically identical offspring from a
Sexual reproduction single parent (in other words, cloning).
Sexual reproduction is the process involving the The main advantages of asexual reproduction are:
fusion of two gamertes (one from each parent) to
● Quicker than sexual reproduction
form a singular cell called zygote. Due to the mixing
● Only a single parent required (therefore
of genetic information, it results in the production
higher success rate)
of offspring that is genetically different from its
● Good genetic characteristics guaranteed to be
parents.
passed onto offspring
Gametes are sex cells that have half the normal ● No seed dispersal required (in plants) so
chromosome number (haploid cells). Therefore, offspring will grow in the same favourable
when the male and female gametes fuse together environment as parents
(called fertilisation), they form a new cell with the
The disadvantages are:
normal chromosomal number (diploid cell).
The advantages of sexual reproduction are: ● Lack of variation, and hence less adaptability
and survivability to a changing environment
● Variation among offspring or diseases
● Higher competition amongst plants for
Variation amongst a population of a species
nutrients and resources due to lack of seed
is important, because it allows them to be
dispersal (in plants)
more adaptable to a changing environment
and more resistant to diseases. As you can see, there is always a give and take with
everything. Sexual reproduction is beneficial
● Less competition (in plants)
because it generates variability which is an
Sexual reproduction in plants rely on the important tool when it comes to adaptability, but it
dispersal of seeds for fertilisation. This is is a slower, more difficult process requiring two
beneficial because it allows offspring to grow parents.
in a different environment from the parents,
Asexul reproduction is beneficial because it is a
thereby reducing competition for nutrients.
more simple and rapid process, but makes the
However, there are some disadvantages too: species more susceptible to environmental threats
due the lack of variation.
● Requires two parents
Sexual reproduction in plants The stamen is the male reproductive part. It is
composed of two structures:
Most plants reproduce sexually. This section will
cover the underlying mechanisms of sexual 1. Anther - Contains the pollen
reproduction in plants. 2. Filament - Supports the anther
Recall that any type of sexual reproduction requires The carpel is the female reproductive part of the
the fusion of two gametes. In plants the male plant. It is composed of three structures:
gamete is called pollen, and the female gamete is
1. Stigma - Sticky surface that catches pollen
called the ovule. Unlike humans, a plant flower has
2. Style - Links stigma to ovary
both the male part (stamen) and the female part
3. Ovary - Contains ovules which develop into
(carpel).
seeds after fertilisation
Sexual reproduction occurs when the pollen of one
Pollination
flower successfully reaches the ovule of either the
same flower or a different flower. Fertilisation Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther
occurs when the nucleus of a pollen fuses with the to a stigma.
nucleus of an ovule. The transfer of pollen grains
Self-pollination vs cross-pollination
from an anther to a stigma is called pollination.
Self-pollination is beneficial because it only requires
If pollination occurs within the same flower, or
one parent plant, therefore less reliant on
another flower of the same plant, this is called
pollinators. However, there is genetic variation in
self-pollination. On the other hand, if pollen is
offspring (since all genes are from the same plant)
transferred to a flower of a completely different
and as a result, causes the population to be less
flower, that is called cross-pollination.
adaptable to environmental changes or diseases.
Some flowers are insect-pollinated, meaning they
Cross-pollination on the other hand, is more reliant
rely on insects to distribute their pollen. Others are
on pollinators (since two parent plants are
wind-pollinated. The characteristics of these flowers
required), but gives rise to higher genetic variation
are different, and will be covered in more detail
and therefore grants greater survivability to
later in this chapter.
environmental changes and diseases.
Flower structure
Insect vs wind pollination
Insect-pollination relies on insects to carry and
transfer pollen. As insects (such as bees) move
within the flower, some pollen gets caught onto the
insect’s body, eventually transferring it to a stigma
for successful fertilisation. Wind-pollination relies
on the wind carrying the pollen instead.
The table below outlines some important structural
differences between an insect-pollinated flower and
a wind-pollinated flower.
 Germination
Germination is the development of a plant from a
seed after a period of dormancy. Germination only
occurs once the seed is under the right
environmental conditions such as:
1. Water - Required for the activation of
enzymes
2. Oxygen - Required for respiration
3. Temperature - Optimum temperature require
for enzymes to function
These factors can be investigated in a laboratory
Fertilisation setting.

When a pollen grain lands on the stigma of the Leave the tubes in et environmental conditions for a
correct species, a pollen tube will begin to grow. period of time. Tubes A, B and C are placed in an
incubator of 20°C. Tube D is placed in a fridge set at
It grows through the style, enters through a small 4°C. Compare the growth/germination of each of
gap in the ovary called a micropyle, and eventually the test tubes.
reaches the ovule.
The nucleus of the pollen passes along the pollen
tube and fuses with the nucleus of the ovule,
resulting in the formation of a zygote which marks
successful fertilisation.
The zygote eventually develops into a seed which
remains dormant until the conditions are right for
germination. The results will be as follows:
● A (no water ) = No germination
● B (control) = Germination
● C (No oxygen) = No germination
● D (Cold temperature) = No germination
Sexual reproduction in humans
In humans, sexual reproduction relies on the male
gamete (sperm), successfully fertilising the female
gamete (egg).
Fertilisation is the fusion between the nucleus of the
sperm and egg, forming a single cell called zygote.
The zygote multiplies itself to form a ball of cells
called an embryo, which implants itself into the
uterus lining, eventually developing into a fetus.
Male reproductive system Female reproductive system
The male reproductive system is composed of
various different parts, each with specific functions.

Part Function

Vagina The entry point of the penis

Part Function Cervix Ring of muscle separating the
vagina from the uterus
Penis Can become erect for insertion
into the vagina Uterus Location of fetal development
Testis Site of sperm production Ovary Production of egg cells
Scrotum Keeps the testes outside of the Oviduct / Site of fertilisation
body (where it is cooler) which is Fallopian
optimal for sperm production tubes Moves egg cells towards the
uterus via the beating of cilia
Epididymis Stores sperm lining the tube
Vas deferens Tube connecting testes to urethra
/ Sperm duct
Sperm cells and egg cells
Prostate Add nutrients and fluid to sperm
gland to make it into semen Both sperm cells and egg cells have structural
adaptation that allow them to carry out their
Urethra Tube through which urine or functions optimally. The specifics have been covered
semen passes out (never in chapter 2.
simultaneously)
>> See chapter 2: Specialised cells
The table below summarises some of the key therefore extremely important for pregnant women
differences between the two gametes: to take caution during pregnancy.

Sperm Egg The umbilical cord carries fetal blood to and from
the placenta.
Size Small Large
● The umbilical artery carries blood
Structure Segmented into No segmentation (containing waste products) from the fetus to
parts: head, neck, the placenta
middle, tail ● The umbilical vein carries blood (containing
Motility Motile (has Non-motile nutrients) from the placenta to the fetus
flagellum for The amniotic fluid (contained within the amniotic
swimming)
sac) offers a physical cushion to protect the fetus
Numbers Produced in large Produced in small from physical harm.
amounts amounts
Sexual hormones in humans
Puberty
Fetal development
Puberty marks the period in which a child
Upon fertilisation, a zygote is formed. The zygote transitions into adulthood. Hormonal changes
undergoes cell division to form an embryo (a ball of trigger the development of secondary sexual
cells) which implants into the uterus lining. The characteristics. In males it is triggered by
embryo continues to grow in complexity, slowly testosterone, and in females it is triggered by
developing into a fetus. oestrogen.
Menstrual cycle
The menstrual cycle is a monthly series of changes a
woman’s body goes through in preparation for
possible pregnancy.
There are four main hormones involved in the cycle:

Hormone Function

The placenta brings the fetal blood supply extremely Oestrogen Builds the uterus lining
close to the maternal blood without directly mixing
Progesterone Maintains the uterus lining
them. This allows essential nutrients in the
maternal blood to diffuse into the fetal blood. At the Follicle Causes a single follicle in the
same time, fetal waste products are eliminated by stimulating ovary to mature. A mature
diffusing out of the fetal blood and into the maternal hormone (FSH) follicle contains the egg
blood. surrounded by a bunch of other
cells
Unfortunately, some toxins (i.e. nicotine) or
pathogens (i.e. rubella) can actually cross the Luteinising Stimulates the release of an egg
hormone (LH) from the ovary into the oviduct
placenta from the maternal blood into the fetal
blood, compromising the health of the fetus. It is
The stages of the cycle can be summarised as Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a
follows: pathogen that causes an STI called acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
1. The uterus lining breaks down due to the lack
of progesterone (causing bleeding) HIV destroys the body’s immune system by
2. Oestrogen levels rise which starts re-building attacking lymphocytes in the bloodstream. A
the uterus lining decreased lymphocyte count leads to reduced
3. FSH causes a single follicle to mature antibodies which in turn, causes compromised
4. On day 14, oestrogen levels drop while LH immunity.
levels spike to stimulate ovulation
Methods of HIV transmission include:
5. The egg gets released into the oviduct,
leaving behind the remaining cells of the ● Unprotected sex
mature follicle ● Sharing needles
6. These remaining cells become the corpus ● Diffusion across the placenta from maternal
luteum to fetal blood
7. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone
Some methods of prevention of HIV transmission
which maintains the thick uterus lining in
may be:
preparation for implantation
8. If implantation does not occur, eventually the ● Protected sex (condoms)
corpus luteum degenerates, lowering the ● Abstinence of sexual activities
progesterone levels which leads to the uterus ● Sterilised needle usage
lining breakdown (stage 1) ● Bottled milk

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

STIs are infections that can be transmitted via body
fluids during sexual contact.