100 04 00 00 MENTAL MATHS
(01) Convert between volumes and masses of fuel using range of units.
Rule of thumb jet fuel calculation- to convert pounds to US gallons, take the total fuel load in pounds, take off the last zero, and add half
of the remaining amount.
Examples:
- you need to add 2500 lbs of fuel. Take off the last zero (250), and add half of 250 (125) to 250, or 375 gal. (375 x 6.7 = 2512 lbs.)
- you need to convert 2500 lbs of fuel to kg: Divide by 2 and subtract 10%:
2500/2 = 1250; 1250 10% = 125. 1250 - 125 = 1125. Not exact, but good enough for most quick calculations. (Exact: 2500 lb = 1.133,981
kg).
- you need to convert 2500 kg of fuel to lb: Multiply by 2 and add 10%:
2500 x 2 = 5000; 5000 10% = 500. 5000 + 500 = 5500 lb. Not exact, but good enough for most quick calculations. (Exact: 2500 kg =
5.511, 5 lb).
(02) Estimate time, distance and speed.
Time- Speed- Distance Calculations
For time-speed-distance calculations there are always four variables; distance, time, true airspeed, and wind. We always
know at least three of these. If we can convert speed into miles per minute it is much easier to do these problems. Remember that 60KTS is
1 nautical mile/ min., 120KTS is 2 miles/ min., etc. Jet pilots love the 8 miles a minute and that would be? 480KTS. Remember that
(GS) x (Time) = (Distance)
The speed variable in the equation is groundspeed GS), so you have to add a tailwind and subtract a headwind to get groundspeed.
(TAS ± Wind= GS).
Here’s the way an example works: If you know groundspeed, or can figure it out from TAS and winds, convert this to miles per minute.
EXAMPLE: 240KTS/ 60= 4 miles per minute. Multiply miles per minute by number of minutes to get distance traveled. 7 ½ minutes gives
30NM traveled. Try this one:
Your are at 16000 feet and your groundspeed is 180KTS. You are cleared to descend to 7000 feet and plan a 500 ft./min.
descent. How far will you travel in the descent?
Here’s how to solve the problem:
a) 180KTS is 3 miles per minute. I need to descend 9000 feet at 500 feet/ min. 9 x 2 = 18 minutes
b) To find the distance traveled, multiply (3NM/ min.) x (18 min.) = 54NM
This also works really well in planning for STARs (Standard Terminal Arrival Procedures) too where you are expected to cross a certain fix
at XYZ altitude and ABC speed.
Here is another rule of thumb descent calculation that works quite well for most turbine powered airplanes (and high performance piston
airplanes).
To calculate the top of descent (TOD) and rate of descent do the following two steps:
a) Top of descent
1) Figure altitude to lose
2) Multiply by three
3) Take off the zeros = Miles to start the descent
EXAMPLE: At FL240 you are cleared FL120 (12000 feet to lose)
12000 x 3= 36000, knock off the zeros gives 36 miles to start your descent
b) Rate of descent Groundspeed divided by two, and add a zero
EXAMPLE: GS is 300KTS/ 2 = 150, add a zero = 1500 feet per minute
A really easy Descent Calculation?
In piston powered airplanes (where cooling is a consideration) use 5 miles per 1000 ft. In turbine aircraft 3 miles per thousand works well
as a rule of thumb.
(03) Estimate the rate of climb or rate of descent, distance and time.
Descent Range
Different types will have different performance so pilots must establish and check any ‘rule’ for their own aircraft.
30 per 10 plus 10…
For many older jet transports, a normal descent from cruise altitude descent required about 30 nm for each 10,000ft of height loss and a
further 10 nm to slow down. Therefore:
30,000’ cruise = (3 x 30) + 10 = 100 nm descent
35,000’ cruise = (3.5 x 30) + 10 = 115 nm descent
Although not strictly accurate, it provided a good first guesstimate.
Modern, more efficient aircraft, will need greater distances but similar rules of thumb can often be defined from a review of performance
figures and line experience. You may find that (e.g.) “40 per 10 plus 15” works better for your type. The important point here is that well
practiced rules of thumb may need to be revised dramatically when changing from one type to another.
Similarly, to confirm that a descent profile is going well:
30 out at 10 and 250….
Thirty miles from the airport at 10,000' and 250 knots.
If at 30 nm from destination, the aircraft is still above either 10,000’ or 250 kt (or both!) getting down and reducing speed to achieve a
stabilized approach will be a real challenge in many jet transports.
Diagram showing Descent range rules of thumb
Ground speed divided by 2 x 10 gives you the required rate of descent for a 3 degrees glide slope:
Example: if your GS is 420 kt, (420/2) x10 = 210 x 10 = 2100 fpm is your desired rate of descent.
(04) Add or subtract time, distance, and fuel mass.
(05) Calculate fuel burn given time and fuel flow.
(06) Calculate the time available (for decision-making) given relevant fuel information.
Basic Calculations
Before a cross-country flight, a pilot should make common calculations for time, speed, and distance, and the amount of fuel required.
Converting Minutes to Equivalent Hours
Frequently, it is necessary to convert minutes into equivalent hours when solving speed, time, and distance problems. To convert minutes to
hours, divide by 60 (60 minutes = 1 hour). Thus, 30 minutes is 30/60 = 0.5 hour. To convert hours to minutes, multiply by 60. Thus, 0.75
hour equals 0.75 × 60 = 45 minutes.
Time T = D/GS
To find the time (T) in flight, divide the distance (D) by the GS. The time to fly 210 NM at a GS of 140 knots is 210 ÷ 140 or 1.5 hours.
(The 0.5 hour multiplied by 60 minutes equals 30 minutes.) Answer: 1:30.
Distance D = GS X T
To find the distance flown in a given time, multiply GS by time. The distance flown in 1 hour 45 minutes at a GS of 120 knots is 120 ×
1.75 or 210 NM.
GS GS = D/T
To find the GS, divide the distance flown by the time required. If an aircraft flies 270 NM in 3 hours, the GS is 270 ÷ 3 = 90 knots.
Fuel Consumption
To ensure that sufficient fuel is available for your intended flight, you must be able to accurately compute aircraft fuel consumption during
preflight planning. Typically, fuel consumption in gasoline-fueled aircraft is measured in gallons per hour. Since turbine engines consume
much more fuel than reciprocating engines, turbine-powered aircraft require much more fuel, and thus much larger fuel tanks. When
determining these large fuel quantities, using a volume measurement such as gallons presents a problem because the volume of fuel varies
greatly in relation to temperature. In contrast, density (weight) is less affected by temperature and therefore, provides a more uniform and
repeatable measurement. For this reason, jet fuel is generally quantified by its density and volume.
This standard industry convention yields a pounds-of-fuel per-hour value which, when divided into the nautical miles (NM) per hour of
travel (TAS ± winds) value, results in a specific range value. The typical label for specific range is NM per pound of fuel, or often NM per
1,000 pounds of fuel. Preflight planning should be supported by proper monitoring of past fuel consumption as well as use of specified fuel
management and mixture adjustment procedures in flight.
For simple aircraft with reciprocating engines, the Aircraft Flight Manual/Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) supplied by the aircraft
manufacturer provides gallons-per-hour values to assist with preflight planning.
When planning a flight, you must determine how much fuel is needed to reach your destination by calculating the distance the aircraft can
travel (with winds considered) at a known rate of fuel consumption (gal/hr or lbs/hr) for the expected groundspeed (GS) and ensure this
amount, plus an adequate reserve, is available on board. GS determines the time the flight will take. The amount of fuel needed for a given
flight can be calculated by multiplying the estimated flight time by the rate of consumption. For example, a flight of 400 NM at 100 knots
GS takes 4 hours to complete. If an aircraft consumes 5 gallons of fuel per hour, the total fuel consumption is 20 gallons (4 hours times 5
gallons). In this example, there is no wind; therefore, true airspeed (TAS) is also 100 knots, the same as GS. Since the rate of fuel
consumption remains relatively constant at a given TAS, you must use GS to calculate fuel consumption when wind is present. Specific
range (NM/lb or NM/gal) is also useful in calculating fuel consumption when wind is a factor.
You should always plan to be on the surface before any of the following occur:
• Your flight time exceeds the amount of flight time you calculated for the consumption of your preflight fuel amount
• Your fuel gauge indicates low fuel level
The rate of fuel consumption depends on many factors: condition of the engine, propeller pitch, propeller revolutions per minute (rpm),
richness of the mixture, and the percentage of horsepower used for flight at cruising speed. The pilot should know the approximate
consumption rate from cruise performance charts or from experience. In addition to the amount of fuel required for the flight, there should
be sufficient fuel for reserve. When estimating consumption you must plan for cruise flight as well as startup and taxi, and higher fuel burn
during climb. Remember that ground speed during climb is less than during cruise flight at the same airspeed. Additional fuel for adequate
reserve should also be added as a safety measure.
(07) Determine the top of descent using a simple method that is described by the approved training organization (ATO).
(Panamedia Maneuvers Manual PA34 220T Seneca III)
We have to calculate how many feet we have to descend. The descend will be at 500 ft/min, due that it is not a pressurized aircraft, and
we calculate the minutes that we will be descending. Finally, knowing the time of descent and the ground speed (e.g.120KTS) we can
calculate the distance to descent.
Example: From 10000´, we need (10000/500) 20 minutes to descent; @ 2 NM per minute (120/60), TOD will be at 40 NM from
destination.
(08) Determine the values that vary by a percentage, e.g. dry-to-wet landing distance and fuel burn.
Percentage
Percentage means “parts out of one hundred.” The percentage sign is “%”. Ninety percent is expressed as 90% (= 90 parts out of 100). The
decimal 0.90 equals 90⁄100, or 90 out of 100, or 90%.
Finding a Number When a Percentage of It Is Known
How much is the 10% of 1.325:
1.325 is 100%
x is 10%
x = 1.325 x 10/100 = 13.250/100 = 132, 5.
Example:
If we have 9 kt headwind:
Ground roll = 1.325 ft - 10% = 1.325 - (1325 x 10)/ 100 = 1.325 - 132,5 = 1.192,5 ~ 1.192 ft.
If we have 10 kt (5 x 2) tailwind (maximum limit):
Ground roll = 1.325 ft + (10 x 5) 50% = 1.325 + (1325 x 50)/ 100 = 1.325 + 662,5 = 1.987,5 ~ 1.988 ft.
For operation on a dry, grass runway
Ground roll = 1.325 ft + 15% = 1.325 + (1325 x 15)/ 100 = 1.325 + 198,75 = 1.523,75 ~ 1.524 ft.
If we have 14ºC (7 x 2) above standard temperature:
Time, fuel, distance for standard temperature 10 min,21 lb, 20 NM
We have to add 20% to these values
Time: 20 x 10/100 = 2 min; 10 + 2 = 12 min
Fuel: 20 x 21/100 = 4,2 lb; 21 + 4,2 = 25,2 lb
Distance: 20 x 20/100 = 4 NM; 20 + 4 = 24 NM
(09) Estimate heights at distances on a 3-degree glideslope.
3 degree glide-slope = 300’/nm to touchdown
From the 1 in 60 rule (next), 3 degrees at 60 nm ~ 3 nm ~ 18,000’ so 3 degrees at 6 nm ~ 1,800’ and 3 degrees at 1 nm ~ 300’)
This is not exact – and approach plates will show precise figures for any approach - but it provides a simple way to spot any gross errors.
Rate of Descent on Final Approach
For a 3 degree glide-slope, required rate of descent in feet per minute is approximately equal to ground speed in knots multiplied by 5.
From the above, at 120 knots GS, the rate of descent to maintain a 3 degree glide-slope is approximately 600 fpm.
(10) Estimate headings using the 1-in-60 rule.
1 in 60 Rule
A 1 degree offset angle at 60 nm equates to 1 nm of displacement.
Distance off track = (number of degrees off course x distance to station)/60
Speed/Distance/Time
Flying speeds that simplify mental arithmetic can help you in many ways, such as keeping retaining situational awareness during radar
vectoring.
120Kts = 2nms/min
180Kts = 3nms/min
240Kts = 4nms/min
300Kts = 5nms/min
The 1 in 60 rule combined with Speed/Distance/Time assumptions is the basis of many other ‘rules of thumb’ that can be useful in pilot
navigation (or to check that an FMS-calculated track makes sense. For example:
At 120 kt groundspeed, the aircraft travels 60nm in 30 minutes. A 10 kt wind blows the aircraft 5 nm in 30 minutes. At 120 kt groundspeed,
a 10 kt crosswind will cause 5 degrees of drift (wind speed 10 divided by 120Kts = 2nms/min = 5 degrees of drift)
Maximum drift angle (Max Drift) = Windspeed divided by Groundspeed in miles per minute
(11) Estimate headwind and crosswind components given wind speed and direction and runway in use.
Crosswind Component
Useful for evaluating runway crosswind from reported wind, the crosswind is a function of the SINE of the angle between the runway and
the wind direction. Therefore, crosswind can be estimated as follows:
The analogue clock face provides an easy way to remember this:
15 min = ¼ of an hour 15 degrees off = ¼ of the total wind across 30 min = ½ of an hour 30 degrees off = ½ of the total wind across 60
min = A full hour 60 degrees off = All of the wind across
A similar process can be used to estimate wind effect on groundspeed
Combining Max drift and Crosswind component:
Flying at 420 kt groundspeed (7 nm/min) in the vicinity of a 60 kt wind (approx. 8½ degrees max drift) headwind from 30 degrees off
track, the expected drift angle is just over 4 degrees.
Flying at 420 kt airspeed in the vicinity of a 60 kt wind from 30 degrees off track, groundspeed will be approximately 360 kt (~6 nm/min)
so max drift is 10 degrees and the expected drift angle will be 5 degrees.
