Lect

ureNot
es:
EMG2106:
Wor
kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

EMG2106Wor kshopPr ocesses&Pr acti

ceI
CourseOut li
ne
Coursedescr i
pt i
on
•Wor kshopsaf ety
•Measur ementandI nspection
•UseofVer ni
er,Int
ernal andExter
nal micr
omet er
sandaccuracy
•Testf oracceptanceorr ej
ect
ionofneworwor nparts.
•Benchwor k:Softsolderingandbrazing,r
ivet
ing,handscr
ewcutti
ng.

References
1.ChapmanW.A.J.( 1986)Wor kshopTechnol
ogy-Part1,ArnoldI
nter
nat
ional
,
Students
Ed.
2.SherifD.ElWakil
,ProcessesandDesi gnf
orManufactur
ing,2ndEd.
BlackB.Wor kshopProcesses,Practi
cesandMater
ial
s,4thEd

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EMG2106:
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1.I NTRODUCTI ON
Manuf acturi
ngi sthebackboneofanyi ndustrial
iz
ednat ion.Manuf acturi
ngand
technicalstaffi
ni ndust r
ymustknowt hev ariousmanuf acturingprocesses, materials
beingpr ocessed,tool sandequi pment sf ormanuf acturi
ngdi ffer
entcomponent sor
product swithoptimal pr
ocesspl anusi ngpr operprecautionsandspeci f
iedsafetyr ul
es
toav oidaccidents.
Allkindsoft hefutur eengineersmustknowt hebasicrequirement sofwor kshop
activ
iti
esi nterm ofman, machi ne,mat eri
al,methods, moneyandot heri
nfrast
ructur e
facil
iti
esneededt obeposi ti
onedpr operlyforoptimal shoplay outsorplantlayoutand
othersuppor tservicesef fecti
velyadjustedorl ocatedint heindustryorplantwithina
wellplannedmanuf acturi
ngor ganizati
on.

Safepr acti
ces
Almostev eryonewor ki
nginaf actor
yhasatsomest ageinhi sorhercareersuf feredan
i
njuryrequiri
ngsomeki ndoft reat
mentorf ir
staid.Itmayhav ebeenacutf ingeror
somet hingmor eser i
ous.Thecausemayhav ebeencar el
essnessbyt hevictim ora
coll
eague, defectivesafet
yequi pment ,
notusingthesaf etyequipmentprov i
dedor
i
nadequat epr otecti
veclothi
ng.What evertheexplanationgivenfortheaccident ,thetr
ue
causewasmostl i
kelyafail
uretothinkahead.Youmustl earntowor ksafely.Your
workplacewi l
l haveitsownsaf etyrulessoobeyt hem atal l
times.Askifyoudon’ t
understandanyi nstr
ucti
onanddor eportanyt
hingwhi chseemsdanger ous, damagedor
faul
ty.

Def
ini
ti
ons

Accident
Accidentisanunf oreseenoccurr
encewithnegati
veconsequenceasar esul
tofsudden
i
mpact ,sy st
em malfuncti
onhumaner rororasaresul
tofcarel
essnesswhenwe
undertakeunsaf eacts.Acci
dentresul
tsinpai
ns,l
ossofbodymemberordeat hto
vi
ctims, awast eofti
me, money,materi
alsanddamagetoequipment.Consequentl
y,i
t
i
sofi nteresttodevi
semeasur estopreventorr
educeaccident
sinalloperat
ionst
othe
barestmi nimum

Inj
ury
Inpubli
chealthpracti
ce,i
njuryusuall
ymeansphysical
har
mtoaperson’
sbody
.
Physi
cal i
njury(
harm)resultsfr
om contactbet
weenpeopl
eandhar
mf ul
obj
ect
s,
substances,orothert
hingsintheirsur
roundi
ngs.

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Saf
ety
Saf
etyinitssimplestfor
mi sastateofbei ngatli
tt
leornor iskofi
njuryresul
ti
ngfrom a
har
mf ulexter
nalimpact,i
nhal
ati
on, orcontact.I
tisaholisti
capproacht oastateof
wel
lbeingthatrequir
espeoplet
of eeltheyaref r
eefrom beingharmedi naddit
ionto
act
uallybei
ngsaf e.Tobesafeinanywor kenvir
onment,y oumustthinkaboutt he
nat
ureofy ourjobandplanaheadt oav er
thazardsthatcouldbeassoci atedwithi
t.

Gener
alheal
thandsaf
etypr
ecaut
ions

Remembert
oobser
vet
hef
oll
owi
ngsaf
etypr
ecaut
ionswhi
l
eint
hewor
kshop
1.Hor
sepl
ay
i
)Wor
kisnott
hepl
acef
orhor
sepl
ay,
pract
ical
jokes,
orsi
l
lyt
ri
cks.
2.Housekeepi
ng
i
)Neverthr
owrubbishonthef
loor;
i
i
)Keepgangway sandworkareafr
eeofmet
albars,
component
s,etc.
;
i
i
i)I
foilorgr
easeisspi
ll
ed,wi
peitupi
mmediat
elyorsomeonemightsli
pandf
all
.
3.Movi
ngabout
i
)Alwayswalk–neverrun;
i
i
)Keept ogangways–nevertakeshortcut
s;
i
i
i)Lookoutforandobeywarningnot
icesandsaf
etysi
gns;
4.Per
sonalpr
otect
iveequi
pment
i
)useallpersonalprotect
ivecl
othi
ngandequipment,
suchasearandey
epr
otect
ors,
dustmasks,overal
ls,glov
es,safet
yshoesandsafet
yhelmet
s;
i
i)Getr
eplacement sifdamagedorwor n.
5.Ladder
s
i
)Donotusel adderswithdamaged, mi ssingorlooser ungs;
i
i
)Alway sposit
ionladdersonaf i
rm baseandatt hecor rectangle–t hehei
ghtofthe
t
opsuppor tshouldbefourtimesthedi stanceoutf rom thebase;
i
i
i)Ensuretheladderislongenough–atl eastonemet reabov ethelandi
ngplace;
i
v)Makesur etheladderisti
edatthet oporsecur edatthebot tom;
v
)Nev erover-
reachfrom aladder–besaf e,getdownandmov eit;
v
i)Takeallnecessaryprecauti
onstoav oidv ehi
clesorpeopl ehi t
ti
ngthebott
om ofthe
l
adder.
6.Machi
ner
y
i
)ensureyouknowhowt ostopamachi nebeforeyousetitinmoti
on;
i
i
)Keepy ourconcentrati
onwhi l
et hemachi
nei sinmot i
on;
i
i
i)Neverleaveyourmachi neunat t
endedwhil
eitisinmot i
on;
i
v)Takecar enottodistr
actothermachineoperators;
v
)Nev ercleanamachi newhileitisinmoti
on–al way si
solat
eitf
rom thepowersuppl
y
f
ir
st;
v
i)nevercleanswarfawaywi thy ourbar
ehands–al waysuseasuitabl
erake;
v
ii
)Keepy ourhairshortorunderacaporhai r
net–i tcanbecomet angl
edindril
l
sor

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EMG2106:
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rotati
ngshafts;
vii
i)Avoidl
oosecl othing–wearasnug- f
it
ti
ngboi l
ersuit,
doneup, andensurethatany
neckwearistuckedi nandsecur e;
i
x)Donotwearr ings, chainsorwat chesatwor k–t heyhavecausedseriousi
njurywhen
caughtaccidentall
yonpr oject
ions;
x)Donotal l
owunguar dedbart oprotr
udebey ondtheendofamachi ne,e.
g.inacentre
l
at he;
xi)alwaysensurethatal lguardsarecor r
ectl
yf i
tt
edandi nposit
ion–r emember ,
guards
aref i
tt
edonmachi nest opr ot
ectyouandot hersfrom acci
dentall
ycomingincontact
withdangerousmov ingpar ts.
7.Har
mfulsubst
ances
i
)learnt orecognisehazardwar ningsignsandlabel
s;
i
i)Foll
owal li
nstr
uctions;
i
ii
)Bef orey ouuseasubst ancefindoutwhatt odoifitspi
l
lsontoyourhandorcl
othes;
i
v)Nev ereatordrinkinthenearv ici
nit
y;
v)Donott akehomeanycl ot
heswhi chhavebecomesoakedorst ainedwit
hharmful
substances;
vi
)Donotputl iquidsorsubstancesi nt
ounlabel
ledorwrongl
ylabel
ledbott
lesor
containers.
8.El
ect
ri
ci
ty
i
)Makesur eyouunderstandalli
nstruct
ionsbefor
eusi
ngelectri
cal
equipment;
i
i)Donotuseel ect
ri
calequi
pmentf oranypurposeot
herthan,nori
ntheareaothert
han
theintendedone;
i
ii)Alwaysswitchofforisol
atebeforeconnecti
ngordi
sconnecti
nganyelect
ri
cal
equipment .
9.Fi
re
i
)takecar ewhenusi ngf l
ammabl esubst ances;
i
i)Neversmokei n‘nosmoki ng’areas;
i
ii
)Donott hr
owr ubbish,cigaret
teendsandmat chesincorner
sorunderbenches;
i
v)Alwaysmakesur et hatmat chesandci garet
tesar eputoutbef
oret
hrowingthem
away;
v)Knowt hecor rectfiredril
l.
10.Fi
rstaid
i
)Hav efi
rstaidt reatmentf oreveryinj
uryhowev ertr
ivi
al;
i
i)Knowt hefirstaidar rangement sforyourwor kplace.

4
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EMG2106:
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

2.Bencht
ool
s

I
ntr
oduct
ion
Nowaday
s,medium andheavyindust
ri
esareusi
ngautomati
cmachines.These
machi
nesarecapabl
eofproducingworkatafast
err
ate.Howev
er,t
hereareoccasi
ons
whencomponentsarepr
ocessedatthebench

Somet imes, i
tbecomesnecessar ytor epl
aceorr epaircomponentwhi chmustbef it
withanot hercomponentonr eassembl y.Thisi nvolv
esacer tai
namountofhandf it
ti
ng.
Fit
tingwor kisnecessar yforcompl etingandf ini
shingaj obtothedesiredaccuracy.
Mostofsemi -
fi
nishedwor kscanbeaccompl ishedwi thagooddegr eeofaccuracyina
reasonabl eti
met hroughv ari
ouski ndsofqui ckmachi ningoperati
ons.Theystil
lrequi
re
somemi noroper ati
onst obeper formedt ofi
ni shthejobbyhand.
Thet erm benchwor kref
erst othepr oduct i
onofcomponent sbyhandont hebench,
wher easf it
ti
ngdeal swhicht heassembl yofmat ingparts,t
hroughremov alofmetal,t
o
obtainther equir
edf i
t.
Botht hebenchwor kandf it
tingrequirest heuseofnumberofsi mplehandtoolsand
considerablemanual eff
orts.Theoper ati
onsi ntheabov ewor ksconsistoffi
li
ng,
chipping,sawing, dr
il
li
ng,etc.

Toolsusedi nwor kshop/f

it
ti
ngshop
 Mar kingtools
 Measur inginstrument
s
 Suppor ti
ngt ool
s
 Holdingt ools
 Stri
kingt ools
 Cuttingtools
 Tighteningt ool
s

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act
iceI

Handprocesses
Handtoolsareusedt oremov esmall
amount
sofmater
ial
,usual
l
yfr
om smal
lar
easof
t
hewor kpi
ece.Thismaybedonebecauseof :
1.Nomachi nei savail
abletodothewor
k
2.Thewor kpieceistoolargetogoonamachi
ne
3.Theshapei stoointr
icate

Sincet heuseofhandt oolsisphysi

call
yti
ri
ng,i
tisimport
antt
hattheamountof
mat eri
altoberemov edbyhandi skepttoanabsolutemini
mum andthatthecorr
ect
tool i
schosenf orthet ask.
Thet oolsusedf orhandpr ocessesarecal
ledbenchtool
sorfi
tti
ngtools.
Wheni nvol
vedinbenchwor k,oneshoul
dalwaysselectt
heri
ghttoolt
oensurefour
things:-
 maxi mum met alremovalwit
hmi ni
mum effort
,
 desiredaccuracy ,
 goodf i
nishand
 Mi ni
mum t i
mespent

Engineer’
sf i
les
Af i
l
ei sahar denedpieceofhi ghgr adesteelwi t
hsl antingrowsoft eet
h.
Theyar eusedt operform awi dev ariet
yoftasks, f
rom si mpleremov alofsharpedgesto
producingintri
cateshapeswher et heuseofamachi nei snotpracti
cable.
•Theycanbeobt ai
nedinav ar i
etyofshapesandi nl engthsf r
om 150mm t o350mm.
•Whenaf il
ehasasi ngleseriesoft eet
hcutacr ossi t
sf aceitisknownassi ngle-
cutfi
l
e,
andwi thtwoset softeethcutacr ossi tsf
acei tisknownasdoubl e-
cutfil
e,Fi
g.1.0
Fi
gur e1.0consistsofabl adeorbodywi t
hat angf orfixingintothewoodenhandl e.

Fi
g1.
0:Engi
neer
’sFi
l
e

Gener
alclassi
_cat
ionof_lesbasedonshapesorcrosssecti
onsareshowninFig
Fl
at_l
esFlat_l
esar egeneral
l
yusedfor_l
ingatsurf
acesin_tt
ingshop.
Squar
e_lesSquare_ l
esarecommonlyusedfor_li
ngincorner
sinjobs.Theyar
edoubl
e

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EMG2106:
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

cutonal lsidesandt apers.

Round_ lesRound_ lesaregener all
yusedf oropeni ngouthol esandr oundinginsidecor-
ners.Rough, bast ard,secondcutandsmoot h_ lesunder15cm i nl engtharesinglecut.
Hal fround_ lesThese_ l
escompr i
sesofatandhal froundsi des.Theatsi deof
hal f
Fi
lesarecl assi fiedaccor dingto:
1. Si zeoff il
e-i ndi
cat edbyitslengt h(distancef r
om thepoi nttotheheel without
thet ang) .
Lengt hf orgener aluse-200t o450mm, lengthforfi
nerwor k-100mm t o200mm.
2. Cutoft eeth
Single- cutf i
le:Teet harecutpar allelt
oeachot herrunningacr ossthefacesand
o
atangl eof60 t othecent reli
neoft hefile.
–Thesef il
esar efrequentlyreferredtoasf l
ats.
–Usedf orver yhardmet als
Doubl e- cutf i
le-Fileswitht woset soft eethcutacrossi tsface( Fi
g.1.1).
Teet honl ycutont hef orwardst rokebecauseal lt
het eethslopebackwar ds.

Fig1.1:f
il
esaccordi
ngtocutofteeth
3. Gradeofcutoffi
l
e-Classif
iedaccor
dingt
ot hepi
tchoft
het eet
hi.e.spacing
betweentherowsofteeth.Theymaybe;Rough-Forheavyreducti
on;Bast ar
d-
Forreduci
ngbulkywork;Smooth-forsmootheni
ngandfi
li
ngdel i
catewor k;e.
t.
c

4.Shapeoft hef i
l
e-Fi l
esar ei
dent i
fi
edeitherbythei rgeneralshapei.e.hand,f
lator
pil
larorbyt heircross-secti
oni.e.square,t
hree-square,round,half-
roundorknife
Generalclassifi
cationoff i
les
a)Fl atfil
e
Forgener aluse,ty
pi call
yusedonf l
atsurfaces
I
tisrectangularincr oss-secti
onandt aper si
nbot hwidthandt hi
cknessf or
approximatelythelastt hir
dofi tsl
engtht owardsthepoi nt.
Bothf acesar edoubl e–cutandbot hedgessi ngle–cut.Thet apersinwi dthand
thi
cknessenabl ethi sfil
etobeusedi nslotswhicharenar r
owert hanitsfullwidt
hand
thi
cknessandwhi chr equirefil
ingonlengt handwi dt
h.

b)Handf
il
e

7
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EMG2106:
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
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Alsof orgeneraluse,typicall
yonf l
atsur faces
Itisrectangulari
ncr oss-secti
on,parallelinwidthalongit
slengt
h,butt aper
ssli
ghtl
yin
thicknessforappr oximatelythelastthirdofitslengthtowardst
hepoi nt.
Itisdouble-cutonbot hfacessi ngle-
cutononeedgeandi splai
nont hesecondedge.
Thepl ainedgewi thnot eethisknownast hesafeedgeandi sdesignedt ofi
l
euptot he
edgeofasur facewi t
houtdamagi ngit.Thet aperinthi
cknessenablest hef
il
etoentera
slotslight
lylessthani t
sf ul
lthi
ckness.

Fi
gur
e1.
4:Ty
pesoff
il
es

c)Squar efile
–Thesquar efileisofsquar ecr oss- section,parall
elforappr oximat el
yt wo–t hir
dsofi t
s
l
engt h,thent aper i
ngtowar dst hepoi nt .
–I tisdoubl e–cutonal lsides.
–Thi sfi
leisusedf orfil
i
ngkey way s, sl
ot sandt hesmal lersquar eorr ectangularholes
o
with90 si des
d)Pi l
larfil
e
Hassamesect ionasahandf il
ebutofat hi
nnersect i
on.I tisusedf ornar rowslotsand
key ways.
e)Tr i
angul arfile
–Thet hree–squar eortriangul arfilehasa60ot ri
anglecr oss- secti
on, parallel
for
appr oxi
mat elyt wot hi
rdsofi tslengt h,thent aperi
ngt owar dst hepoint.
–Thet hreef acesar edoubl e-cutandt heedgesshar p.
–Thi sfi
leisusedf orsur f
aceswhi chmeetatl essthan90o, angul arholesandr ecesses.
f) Roundf i
le
–Ther oundf i
l
ei sofci r
cul arcr oss-sect i
on, paral
lelforappr oxi matelytwo- thi
rdsofits
l
engt handt hent aperi
ngt owar dst hepoi nt.
–Af il
ewhosewi dthispar al l
elthroughouti scal l
edpar all
el roundf i
le.
–Af il
ewi thwi dthparall
el upt omi ddl eandt hent aperi
ngt owar dsthet ipiscal l
edar at
fi
le.
–Second- cutandsmoot hf ilesar esi ngle-cut,whil
ethebast ar disdoubl e-cut.
–Thi sfi
leisusedf orenlar gingr oundhol es,elongati
ngsl otsandf i
nishingi nt
ernal

8
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

roundcor ners.
g)Hal f-
roundfil
e
–Thehal f–roundfil
ehasonef latandonecur vedside.
–I tisparall
elforapproxi
mat el
ytwo- thi
rdsofit
slength,andthent
apersi
nwi dthand
thicknesstowar dsthepoint.
–Thef l
atsidei sdouble-
cutandt hecurv edsi
deissingl
e-cutonsecond-
cutandsmooth
fi
les.
–Thi sisanext remelyusefuldoubl e-
purposefi
leforfl
atsurf
acesandforcurved
sur f
acestool argefortheroundfile.

h)Kni f
eedgef ile
–Thekni fefil
ehasawedge–shapedcr oss–section,
–Thet hinedgebei ngstraightwhi l
ethethickedget aper
stothepoi nti
nappr oxi
matel
y
thelastthi
rdofitslength.
–Thesi desaredoubl e–cut .
–Thi sfi
leisusedinf i
li
ngacut eangles.
i) Needlefil
es
–Needl efil
esareusedf orv er
yfineworkintool makingandfitt
ing,wherev er
ysmall
amount sofmat eri
alhav etober emov edinintr
icateshapesorinaconf inedspace.
–Thi stypeoffil
eisav ai
lablef r
om 120mm t o180mm l ong,ofwhi chapproxi
matel
y
halfisfi
l
e-shapedandcut ,theremainderformingasl enderci
rcularhandle.

Fi
g1.
5:Needl
efi
l
e

Met
hodsoff
il
ing
Therear
etwomet hodsusedforf
ili
ng:
1.Crossfi
li
ng:–Usedforeff
ici
entremov
alofmaxi
mum amountofmet
ali
nthe
short
estti
mepossibl
e.

–Fil
i
ngst r
okesrunal
ternat
ivel
yfrom lefttori
ghtandf rom rightt
oleft(
Figur
e
1.
6(b)
).
–Thewhol eofthefi
lesurf
acemov esacrosst hewhol eofthewor ksur
facein
onestr
oke.
2.Dr awfil
i
ng: –Usedtoremovef i
l
emar ksandf orthefinishi
ngoperati
on.
–Thef i
leisgr
ippedasclosetothewor kaspossi bl
ebet weentwohands( Fi
gure
1.
6(a))
.Iti
smov edli
ghtl
ytoandf roov erthewor k.

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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Fi
g1.
6:met
hodsoff
il
ing

Thef il
i
ngoper ati
onconsi stsoft hef oll
owi ngst eps:
1.Wor kisheldf i
rmlyinthev i
cewi t
ht hemi ni
mum amounti fproj
ectionwi th
surfacet obef il
edtrul
yhor i
zontal
2.Filehandlei sgraspedi nt herighthandandt heendoft hefi
lehandl epr essing
againstthepal m ofthehand.Thepr essur eont heworkisappli
edbyhol dingt he
endoft hebladewi t
ht hel efthand.Wor kershoul dhavefeetfi
rmlypl antedand
sli
ghtlyapart.
3.Ast rokeismadebymov ementofr ightar m andswayofbodyt owar dst he
wor k
4.Strokeshoul dbel ong, slowandst eadywi t
hpr essur
eonlyappl i
edont he
forwardmot ion.
5.Ther eshouldbenopr essur eont her eturnst rokethoughthef i
l
er emai nsi n
contactwi t
ht hewor kpiece
6.Testt hesur faceforstraightnessper i
odi call
y .

CareofFil
es
1.Fi
leshouldnotbeusedwi thloosefi
tti
nghandl eorwi t
houtahandl e
2.Neverthr
owf i
lesontopofeachot herinadr awer ,
asthet eethmaybechi pped.
3.Neverknockthefi
leoni tsedget ogetridoffil
ingsinthet eethuseaf i
lebrush.
4.Afil
ebrushshouldbeusedr egular
lytoremov efili
ngsfrom thet eet
h, asfail
ure
todosowi l
lcausescratchingoft heworksurfaceandi neffi
cientremov al of
metal.
4.Avoi
dusinganewf i
leonr oughsurfacesofcast ings,weldsorhar dscal e.
Someoft heteet
hmaybr eakof fduetotheirsharpnesswor klightl
yunt i
l t
hefine
toot
hpointsarewornslightly.
5.Coatfi
lewithmachineoi lduri
ngstoragetopr eventrust.Machineoi lshouldbe
removedbeforeusebycaust i
csoda.

Thehacksaw
- Usedt ocutmet
al
- Itconsist
sofametalfr
ameandabl adeast
hetwomai npart
s.
- Handhacksawsaremadei nt
wot y
pesnamelyafi
xedfr
ameandadj ust
able
fr
ameor i
ent
edasshowni nFi
g.1.
7
- Fixedhacksawpossessessol
idfr
ameinwhichthel
engthcannotbechanged

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- Adjustabl
ecompr i
sest headj ustabl eframewhi chhasabackt hatcanbe
l
engthenedorshor tenedtohol dbl adesofdi ff
erentsizes.
- Thehandhacksawsar ecommonl yusedf orsawingal lsof
tmet al
.Theyconsi
st
ofaf r
ame, handl
e,prongs, t
ighteni ngscr ewandnut ,andbladeasshowni n
fi
gure.
- It
sframei smadet ohol dthebl adet ightl
y .
- Poweroper atedhacksawcanal sobeusedf orcutti
ngr awmat eri
alsi
nsizesi
n
caseofcont i
nuouscut t
inggener all
yoccur r
ingfrequentlyi
nfit
tingorinmachi
ne
shops.

Fi
g1.
7:hacksaw

Ahacksawbl adeshoul
dbechosentosuitt hetypeofmateri
albei
ngcut,
whetherhar
d
orsoft
,andthenatureoft
hecut,whet
hert hicksect
ionorthi
n.
Fact
orsinthechoiceofabladear
ethepitch( Pit
chisthenumberoft
eethper25mm
l
ength),
ordistancebet
weeneachtoot
handt hemater
ialf
rom whi
chthebladei
smade.

Sawi
ng
1.Workisheldtight
lyinvice
2.Sui
tablebladeisfi
xedwi t
hteethfaci
ngf or
wardsothati
tcut
sthemat
eri
alont
he
for
war dstr
oke.Bladetensi
onedsuf f
ici
entl
yusi
ngawi ngnut
.
3.Thedesiredcutismarkedbyagui del i
ne.
4.Theframeoft hehacksawi shel
dasshowni nf
igur
e1.8.

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Fi
g1.
8:sawi
ng

5.Star
tcutt
ingbykeepi
ngt
hebl
adesli
ghtl
yincl
inedt
othehori
zont
al.Pressur
eis
appl
iedduri
ngthefor
war
dstr
okeandrel
ievedduri
ngther
etur
nstroke.

Car
eofHacksaws
- Blademustbest rainedti
ghtl
yint
heframeandsteadyst
rokesshoul
dbeused.
- Breakageofblademaybedoneduet o:
- Rapidstrokes
- Toomuchpr essure
- Bladeheldtoolooselyinthefr
ameWor knothel
dfi
rmlyi
nthevice
- Soli
dmet alsshouldbecutwithgoodpressur
eandthi
nsheetsandtubeswi
th
l
ightpressure
Whenusi
ngt
hehacksaw;
 Alwaysholdthehacksawwi thbothhands,
 Securet
hewor kpiecefi
rmlyonthev i
cewit
ht hepositi
onbei
ngcutcl
osetothe
vi
ce
 Alwaysstar
tcutti
ngont heforwardstr
oke
 Applypr
essureont heforwardstr
okeandreleasepressur
eontheretur
nstr
oke
 Foreasi
erstart
ingy oucoul
dmakeasmal l
nickwiththeedgeofafil
e
 Tocutathinpieceofmet al
,holditbet
weentwopi ecesofwood

Chisel
s
Coldchisel
sareusedf orcutti
ngmetal.
Theyaremadef rom high-car
bonsteel
,har
denedandt
emperedatthecut
ti
ngend.
Theoppositeend,whichisstruckbythehammer,i
snothar
denedbutisl
eftt
o
wit
hstandthehammerbl owswi t
houtchi
ppi
ng.

Typesofchi
sel
s
Fl
atchi
sel

Thi
schisel
hasabr oadflatpoi
ntandisusedtocutt
hinsheetmet
al,
removeri
vetheads
orspl
i
tcorrodednuts.Thecutt
ingedgeisgr
oundtoanangleofappr
oximat
ely60OC.
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Fig1.9:
flatchi
sel
Cross-cut
Thischiselhasanar r
owerpointthanthefl
atchiselandi
susedtocutkeyways,
nar
row
grooves,squarecornersandholesinsheetmetaltoosmall
fort
heflatchi
sel
.

Usi
ngaChi
sel
1.Tor emov easecti
onf r
om thecentr
eofapl ate,
theplatecanbesuppor t
edon
softmet al.
2.Iti
sbestt omarkouttheshaperequir
ed,dri
ll
aser i
esofholesi nt
hewaste
mat er
ial,andusethechiselt
obreakthroughbetweenthehol es.
3.Thechi selshoul
dbehel dfi
rmlybutnottooti
ght,andtheheadshouldbest ruck
wit
hshar pblowsfrom t
hehammer ,keepingyoureyeont hecutti
ngedge,notthe
chi
sel head.

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Fi
gure2.
0:(
a)Chi
sel
cut
ti
ngahol
esuppor
tedbyasof
tmet
al(
b)Cor
rectangl
eof
chi
sel
.

4.Holdthechi selatapproximat ely40OC.Donotholdthechi

selatt
oosteepan
angl
e;ot her
wi seitwil
ltendt odi gi
ntothemetal.Tooshal
lowananglewil
lcause
thechiseltoski dandpreventi tcutt
ing.
5.Useahammerl ar
geenought odot hejob,
graspingi
twell
backattheendofthe
handl
e, notatt heendnear estthehead.

Car
eofChi
sel
s

Neveral
lowalargemushr
oom headtof
orm ontheheadofachisel
,asaglanci
ngblow
fr
om thehammercandisl
odgeachipwhi
chcouldf l
yoffanddamageyoureyeorhand.
Alwaysgri
ndoffanysi
gnofamushroom headasitdev
elops.

Fi
g2.
1:Car
eofachi
sel

Scrapper
Ascraperisasingl
e-edgedtool
usedtoscr
apmet al
from asur
face.Thi
smaybe
requi
redwhereasur f
aceneedstobemadet rue,
correct
edforfi
ttoamat i
ngpar
t,
needstoretai
noil,
ortogiveadecor
ati
vefi
nish.

Hammer s
Theengineer
shammerconsi
stsofahar
denedandtemper
edsteelhead,v
ary
ingi
n
massfrom 0.1kgt
oabout1kg,f
ir
mlyfi
xedonatoughwoodenhandle.

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Thef
latst
ri
ki
ngsur
facei
sknownast
hef
ace,
andt
heopposi
teendi
scal
l
edt
hepei
n.

Typesofhammer
s
Bal
l-
Pei
nHammer :Thepei
ni stheshapeoftheball
.Most
lyusedforri
vet
ingand
chi
ppi
ng.Thesi
zeofaball
-peinhammerv ar
iesfr
om 0.
11kgto0.91kg.

Fi
g:bal
lpei
nhammer

Fi
g:Par t
sofaBallpei
nhammer
Cross–peinhammer :Thepei
nisli
keawedgeper
pendi
cul
art
othehandl
e.Usedf
or
bending,st
ret
chi
ng,hammer i
ngint
oshoul
der
se.t
.c.

St
rai
ght
-peenhammer:Thepei
nisstr
aightandparal
lel
tothehandl
e.Widt
hofthepei
n
i
sequal
tothediamet
erofthef
ace.Usedforstr
etchi
ngthemetalbyhammeri
ng.

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Doubl
e–f
acedhammer:Consi
stsofaheadwhi
chhast
woi
dent
ical
facesatbot
hends.
Usedf
orstr
iki
ngcupt
ool
sforri
veti
ng.

Softhammer:Usedforst
ri
kingf
ini
shedsur
facewhichcanbedamagedbythehar
dened
faceofahammer
Theyhaveacastir
onheadintowhi
chraw–hidepl
ugsare.Pl
ugsar
erepl
acedwhen
worn.

ClawHammer :Theclawhammeri sshowninFig.2.

4.Oneofi
tsendspossesses
curvedcl
awwhichisusedforext
racti
ngnail
sinordert
oprovi
detheext
rastrengt
h
neededfort
hisl
everi
ngacti
on.Theotherendisusedforl
i
ghtstr
iki
ngwork.

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Fi
g2.
4:Cl
awhammer

Dead-
blowHammer:Deadbl
owHammerhasani
ronf
isti
nav
elv
etgl
ove.Anonmar
ri
ng
hammerthathi
tswi
tht
remendousf
orce.

Blacksmi
th’
ssl
edgeHammer
:Bl
acksmi
th’
ssl
edgehammeri
sdesi
gnedf
orshapi
nga
barofwhi
te-
hotst
eel

Chasi
ngHammer
:Chasi
nghammer
sar
edesi
gnedandshapemet
alj
ewel
ry.

Welder
’sHammer /
Chi
ppinghammer:Welder
’shammerhaswei
rd-
looki
ngspr
inghel
ps
handl
eincr
easescomf
ortanddi
ssi
patesheat
.

Dri
ll
Dri
lli
sacommont oolwi
del
yformakinghol
esinametalpi
ecei
nfi
tt
ingshop.I
tis
general
l
yheldinchuckofbenchdri
l
li
ngmachineshownbel
ow.I
tusual
lyconsi
stsof
twocutti
ngedgessetatananglewit
htheaxi
s.

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Fi
g:Benchdr
il
li
ngmachi
ne

Dri
ll
sar
ealsoav
ail
abl
eforhanduse.Thev
ari
oushanddr
il
lsandt
hei
roper
ati
onsar
e
showni
nthefol
l
owingfi
gure.

Fi
g:Var
ioust
ypesofhanddr
il
li
ngmachi
nes

Reamers
Thedri
lldoesnotal waysproducethecor recthol
esomet imewi thgoodfini
sh.Thusa
corr
ectholei
spr oducedwi thgoodfini
shofapr edr
il
ledholeusingar eamer.A
commonhandr eamerisshownbel ow.I tiscommonl yemployedt oremovemi nimum
amountofmet al f
rom t
hehol e.Dur
ingreami ngoperati
ons,thejobshouldbepr oper
ly
suppor
tedandr igi
dlyheld.Thereamermustbekepti nit
scor r
ectpositi
onrelat
ivetothe
j
ob.Itmustber unslowlyandexcessi v
ef eedmustbeav oided.

Fi
g:handr
eamer

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3.Mar
kingout

I
ntr
oduct
ion

 Markingouti sthescratchi
ngofl i
nesonthesurfaceofawor kpiece,knownas
scri
bing,
 Itis usuallycarr
ied outonlyon a singl
e workpiece ora smal lnumberof
workpieces.
 Thet womai npurposesofmarkingoutare:
1. Toindicatetheworkpi
eceoutl
ineortheposit
ionofholes,sl
ots,et
c.Iftheexcess
materialwi l
lhavet o beremov ed,aguidei sgivenf ortheext entto which
hacksawi ngorfi
li
ngcanbecarriedout;

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2. Toprov i
deaguidetosetti
nguptheworkpieceonamachi ne.Thewor kpiecei
s
setupr el
ati
vetothemarkingoutandi
st henmachined.Thisisespecial
ly
importantwhenadat um hast
obeestablishedwhencasti
ngsandf orgingsareto
bemachi ned.
• Scri
bedl i
nesareonlyaguide,
andanyaccur at
edimensionmustbef inall
y
checkedbymeasur i
ng.

Dat
um

•Thef unct
ionofadatum istoest
abli
sharef
erenceposi
tionfr
om whichalldi
mensi
ons
aretakenandhenceal l
measurementsaremade.
•Thedat um maybeapoi nt,
anedgeoracentr
eline,
dependingontheshapeofthe
workpiece
•Foranyplanesur f
ace,t
wodatumsar er
equi
redtoposit
ionapointandtheseare
usuall
yatrightangl
estoeachother.

Fi
g:Dat
um poi
nt Fi
g:dat
um edge

Measur ingandMar kingTools

Measur ementi sapr ocedureinwhichanunknownquantit
yiscompar edtoaknown
standard, usi
nganaccept edandconsistentsyst
em ofuni
ts.Measurementprovi
desa
numer i
cal valueofthequant i
tyofi
nter
estwithi
ncert
ainli
mitsofaccuracyandpreci
sion.
Varioust oolsareusedf ormeasurementsandmar ki
ngandar edi
scussed.

Engi
neer
s’st
eelr
ule

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•St
if
f,st
rai
ghtst
eelstri
phavi
ngallt
hefacesmachinedt
rue.
•Ononeofthefaces,gr
aduat
ionsaremarkedi
ninchesandtheot
heri
ncent
imet
ers.
Thel
eastcounti
s1/ 10ofacenti
meter
.

Out sideCali
pers
Outsidecali
persareoft wotypes:
1.OrdinaryCali
pers:
•Hast wost
eellegsbentinward,hingedbetweenwashersforf
reemov ement.
•Usedt omeasureoutsidedi
amet erofroundobj
ectsandtomeasurewi dt
hand
thi
ckness.
•Donebyopeni ngt helegsandmeasur ingthedi
stancebet
weenthelegswithast
eel
rul
e.

2.Spr
ingCal
iper
s:
•Haveafl
atcurvedspr
ingi
nsteadofhingeandt
hel
egsar
emov
edwi
thascr
ewwhi
ch
hel
pstokeepthesetdi
mensionunalt
ered.

Fi
gur
e:(
a)Si
mpleoutsi
decali
per
s(b)Cal
i
perhel
dagai
nstr
ule(
c)
St
andar
dspr
ingj
ointout
sidecal
i
per

InsideCali
per
s
•Theinsi
decali
persar
eoftwoty
pesi.
e.or
dinar
yandspri
ngt
ype.
•Simil
artoout
sidecal
i
per
swiththel
egsbentoutwar
ds.

21
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Dividers
•Usedf ormar kingwor k
•Similart ocali
per sbuti t
slegshav esharppoint
s.
Divi
der sar eusedf or:
1.Measur ingthedi stancebetweent hepoint
s,
2.Divi
di ngagi venl engthinadef i
niterat
io,
3.Drawi ngci r
clesandar cs
4.Transf erri
ngdi mensi onsfrom scalest
oobjects.

Scri
ber
•Thesear
emadeupofhi ghcarbonsteelandarehardenedfr
om thefrontedge.
•Oneendissharppoi
ntedandtheotherendisalsosharppoint
edbutbent.
•Scri
beri
susedforscr
atchi
ngli
nesont hesheetmetalduri
ngtheprocessoflayi
ngout
ajob
•Thebentendisusedt
oscratchli
nesinplaceswherethestr
aightendcannotreach.

Fi
g:Scr
iber
s

Sur
faceGaugeorScr
ibi
ngBl
ock

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•Itconsistsofacastironsli
dingbasefit
tedwithavert
icalsteelrod(
Figure(
a))
.
Thescriberormar keri
sposi t
ionedorsetint
oanadjustabl
edev ice
Thescribercanbel oosenedort i
ght
enedbymeansoft henut .
•Themar keri
susedt osetitatanydesir
edincli
nat
ion,
mov edtoandfroinsi
dethehol
e
accommodat i
ngitoradjustit
sheightal
ongt hever
ti
calpil
l
ar .

Fi
g:sur
facegauge

Punches

•Alsoknownasacent erpunch( Figure(a)

).
•Madef r
om castst eelofabout100mm l ong
•Oneendoft hepunchi sgr oundt oani ncl
udedangl esof900.
•Theotherend( cal l
edhead)i sslightl
ychamf eredtopr eventitfr
om burri
ng
•Bodyisknurl
edf orgr i
ppi ngitbyhand
•usedtomakesmal lpunchmar ksonl ayoutl
inesi nordertomaket hem l
astl
onger .
•Usedformar kingt heendsofwor ktobecent eredforturni
ngi nlatheaswell
asf orall
center
sofholesf ordr i
l
ling.
Pri
ckpunchissi mi lartocent erpunchbutsmal linsize(Figure(b)).
0
–Madeof6mm di amet ercastst eelwithashar perpoint,
60
–Usedf ormar kingposi tionoflinesandcent resofci r
clestobedr awnwithdi
viders.

Fi
g:(
a)Cent
rePunch(
b)Pr
ickpunch.

AnglePlate
•Angleplat
eisacastironplatehavi
ngtwof acesmachi nedtomakethem absolut
elyat
ri
ghtanglestoeachother
.
•Holesandslotsareprovi
dedonbot hfacessot hati
tmaybecl ampedonaf acepl
ate
andcanhol dthej
oborwor kpieceontheotherfacebybol t
sandclamps.
•Theplatesareusedinconjuncti
onwithasurfaceplatewhentheholdi
ngsurfaceofthe

23
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j
obshoul
dbekepthor
izont
al.

Combinat
ionset
Thecombinati
onsetconsi
stsofagraduat
edhardenedst
eelr
uleonwhi chanyoft hr
ee
separ
ateheads–protr
actor,
squar
eorcentrehead–canbemount ed.Ther ul
ehasa
sl
otinwhicheachheadsli
desandcanbelockedatanyposi
ti
onalongitslength.

Protr
actorhead
Thisheadisgraduatedf
rom 0to180o,
isadj
ustabl
ethr
ought
hisr
ange,
andi
sused
whenscr i
bingl
inesatanangl
etoawor kpi
ecedatum.

Squarehead
Thisheadi susedinthesamewayasanengi neer’
ssquare,
but,becauset herul
eis
adj
ustable,i
tisnotasaccurate.Asecondf
aceisprovi
dedat45.Aspiritlevel
is
i
ncorporatedwhichisusef
ul whensetti
ngwor
kpiecessuchascasti
ngsl evelwit
hthe
ref
erencesurface.

Fi
g:Combi
nat
ionset

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25
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Her
maphr
odi
tecal
iper
s

Thesecombineast r
aightpoint
eddiv
iderl
egwi thacali
perorst
eppedl
egandareused
toscr
ibeali
nepar al
leltotheedgeofawor kpi
ece.Theyaremorecommonlyknownas
‘
odd-l
egs’
or‘jenni
es’
.Aher maphrodi
tecal
iperisshownbelow.

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Ver
nieri
nst
rument
s

All
instrumentsempl oy
ingav er
nierconsi
stoftwoscales:onemov i
ngandonef ixed.
Thefixedscaleisgraduat
edi nmill
imetr
es,ever
y10divisi
onsequali
ng10mm, andi s
number ed0,1,2,3,
4upt ot hecapacit
yoftheinst
rument.Themov i
ngorverni
erscal e
i
sdividedinto50equal di
visi
ons,eachequali
ng0.02mm.Tost artmeasur
ingwitha
ver
nierscale,t
hetwoscal esshouldini
ti
all
yhavethei
rzerosinl
ineasshownbel ow;

Totakear eadi
ng,not
ehowmanymi l
li
metr
esthezer oontheverni
erscal
eisfr
om zero
onthefixedscal
e.Thennotet
henumberofdi
visionsontheverni
erscal
efrom zer
otoa
l
inewhichexactl
ycoinci
deswit
hali
neonthefi
x edscale.

Exampl
es;

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Readi
ngsf
ort
heabov
ever
nieri
nst
rument

a.Fixedscal ereadi
ng;
40mm;verni
erscal
e;11devi
sons=11*0.02mm =0.
22mm:
totalreading;40+0.
22=40.
22mm
b.Fixedscal ereadi
ng;
123mm;verni
erscal
e;6di
vi
sions=6*0.02mm =0.12mm:
Tot al
r eadi
ng123+0.12=123.
12mm

Verniercal
iper
Themostcommoni nstr
umentusi ngtheabovepri
nci
plei
sthever
niercal
i
per
.These
i
nstrumentsar ecapabl
eofexternal,i
nter
nalanddept
hmeasurementsandareavail
abl
e
i
nar angeofmeasur ingcapacit
iesfrom 150mm to1000mm.
I
twor ksont hepri
ncipl
eofvernierandcanmeasurethedimensi
onstoanaccuracyof
0.
02mm.

Stepsformeasur ing
-Thejobi splacedbet weent hefixedandmov abl
ejaw
-Themov abl
ej awi smov edunt i
lital
mostcont actst
hejobkeptagainstthefi
xedj
aw
-Theslidingjawassembl yoft heverni
erthatcarri
esthefi
neadjustmentscrewshoul
d
beclampedt ot hegr aduatedbeam wi t
ht hehelpoffneadjustmentscrew.
-Themai nslideassembl yi sthelockedtothebeam wi t
hthehel pofcl
amp.
-Thecal i
perist hencarefull
yremov edfrom thejobtopreventspri
ngi
ngt hej
awsand
thereadingtaken.

28
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EMG2106:
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Fi
g:Ver
niercal
i
per

Vernierheightgauge
Thev ernierhei ghtgaugei sasor tofv erniercaliper,equippedwit
haspeci al baseblock
andot herat tachment swhi chmaket hei nstrumentsui tablef
orheightmeasur ements.
Thev ernierhei ghtgaugei smai nlyusedi nt heinspect i
onofpartsandl ayoutwor k.Wit
h
ascribingat tachmenti npl aceofmeasur i
ngj aw,thi
scanbeusedt oscri
bel inesat
cert
aindi stanceabov esurf ace.
Procedur etousev ernierhei ghtgauge
1.Ensur eev erythingi sclean; surfaceplat e,heightgagebaseandwor ksurface
2.Adjusthei ghtsot hatt hescr iberjustmakescont actwi t
hthetopf aceofthepar al
lel
bar
3.Lockv erniersl ideatt hisposi ti
onusi ngt hecl ampscr ew
4.Taket her eadi ng

29
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EMG2106:
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ocesses&Pr
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iceI

Fi
g.Av
erni
erhei
ghtgauge

Micromet er
s
Themi crometersar
ecommonl yempl oyedf ormeasuringsmalldi
mensi
onswi
th
extr
emeaccur acyof0.01mm.Theymaybeoft hethreekinds-
(a)Exter
nalmicrometerformeasur
ingext ernaldimensions,
(b)Int
ernalmicromet
erformeasuringinternaldimensions,and
(c)Depthmi cr
ometerformeasuri
ngdept hs.

Commonpar tsofout sidemi cromet er

(1)Fr ame.TheUf rameofmi cromet erismadeofei thersteelorcasti ron
(2)Har denedanv il.Itpr otrudesfrom t heframef oradi stanceofatleast3mm f or
holdingandsuppor t
ingt hejobsformeasur ement .
(3)Scr ewedspi ndle.I tdoest heact ual measur i
ngandpossessest hr eadsof0. 5mm
pit
ch.
(4)Bar relorSleev e.I thasdat um l
ineandf ixedgraduat i
ons.
(5)Thi mble.Thi sisat ubularcoverf astenedwi ththespi ndl
eandmov eswi t
ht he
spindle.Thebev elededgeoft hethimbl eisdi v
idedinto50equal parts, everyfi
fthbei
ng
number ed.
(6)Rat chet.Thispar tiscommonl yrecogni zedasf ri
ctionstopofthemi cr
omet er,
which
actsasapr ecautionar ymeasur ealso.I tisasmal lextensiontothet himbl einwhichthe
ratchetslipswhent hepr essureont hescr ewexceedsacer tai
namount .
Thispr oducesuni formr eadingandpr eventsanydamageordi stor
tionoft heinstr
ument.
(7)Spi ndleclamp.I tisusedt olockt hei nstrumentatanydesi redset ti
ngoratany
particularreading.

30
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EMG2106:
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Fi
g:out
sidemi
cromet
er

Readi
ngmi
cromet
erscal
e

Themi cromet erreli

esforit
smeasur ingaccuracyont heaccuracyofthespindlescr
ew
thread.Thespi ndleisrot
atedinaf i
xednutbymeansoft hethi
mble,whichopensand
closesthedistancebet weentheendsoft hespi ndl
eandanv il.
Thepi t
choft hespi ndl
ethread,i
.e.t
hedistancebetweent woconsecuti
vethreadfor
ms,
i
s0. 5mm.
Thismeanst hat ,foronerevol
uti
on, t
hespindleandt hethimbleatt
achedtoitwi l
lmove
alongitudi
nal dist
anceof0. 5mm.

Ona0–25mm micrometer
, t
hesl
eevearoundwhi
chthethi
mblerotat
eshasa
l
ongit
udi
nal
li
negr
aduatedinmm from 0to25mm ononesideoftheli
neand
subdi
vi
dedi
n0.5mm int
erval
sontheothersi
deofthel
ine.

Theedgeoft
het
himbleisgr
aduat
edi
n50di
visi
onsnumber
ed0,
5,10,
upt
o45,
then0.
Thi
smeansonegraduat
ion=0.
5mm/50=0.
01mm.

Stepsformeasur i
ng
Formeasur i
ngadi mensioni nexter
nalmicrometer
,thewor kpi
ecei shel
dbetweenthe
fi
xedanv i
lfaceandt hespindlefaceofthemi cr
ometer.
Thespindleofthemi crometerisall
owedt omov el
inearl
ytowardst heworkbyrot
ating
thi
mbleunt i
lthespindl
et ouchesthewor kpiecepr
operly
,theratchetwil
lgi
veit
ssound.
Thesmal ll
ockingleveristhenrotatedt
oclampt hespindlesothatreadi
ngcanbet aken
mor eaccuratel
y.

Exampl
es

31
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es:
EMG2106:
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

a.Thimblehasuncov
er ed9mm onthesl
eevethi
mblegraduat
ionlinedupwitht
he
l
ongitudi
nall
i
neont hesleev
eis44=44*0.01=0.44.Totalreading;
9.44mm
b.Thimblehasuncov
er ed16mm and0.
5mm andt hethi
mbleislinedupwi t
h
graduati
on27=27*0. 01=0.27mm;Totalr
eadi
ng;16.77mm.

Gaugebl
ocks

Gaugi
ngisdef
inedast
heaccept
abil
it
yofagi
vendi
mensi
onwhet
heri
tli
esi
nit
s
speci
fi
edoral
l
owablel
imi
tsornot.

Gaugebl ocksar emeasur i

ngt ool soft hehighestor der.
Theyar epr imar yst andar dsofl ength, andwhenused, theymustbehandl edi namanner
thatwi l
l conser vet heor i
ginal accur acyandf i
nefinishoft hegaugesur f
aces.
Gaugebl ocksar emadef rom awear -resi
stingmat erial–har denedandst abilizedhigh-
gradest eel ,tungst encar bi deandcer ami candt hei rdimensionsandaccur acyar e
cov eredbyBSENI SO3650: 1999.
Steel gaugebl ockshav epr ov ent heirreli
abilit
yov ermanyy ear sandar ethemost
commonl yaccept edf orlengt hst andar ds.Theypr ovidehighr esistancetowearand
wr i
ngwel ltoot hergaugebl ocksbutneedpr otectionagai nstcor rosi
on.
Tungst encar bidegaugebl ocksar etent imesmor er esistanttoweart hanst eel gauge
blocksandar ei ntendedf orf requentuse.
Cer amicgaugebl ocksar eext r emel yr esist
antt owearandscr atchesandwr ing
per f
ectlyt ost eelandcar bidebl ocks.
Whenusi ngt hegauges, thebl ocksshoul dbewi pedof fwi t
hasof tclothdampened
l
ight l
ywi thmi neral spirit
st or emov eanycor rosi
onr esisti
ngoi lorotheroi l
s,gr ease,or
dirtthatmaybeont hegage.
Twousesf orgaugebl ocksar e: (i
)gener alusef orpr ecisemeasur ementwher eaccur at
e
wor ksizesar er equi red(ii)asst andar dsofl engthusedwi t
hhi ghmagni f
ication
compar ator stoest ablisht hesi zesofgaugebl ocksi ngener al use.

Eachgaugeblockisofar ect
angul
arsecti
onwitht
hemeasur i
ngfacesf
ini
shedby
preci
si
onlappi
ngtot herequi
reddi
stanceapart–knownasthegaugelengt
h,Figure
below,wi
thi
nthetolerancesofl
ength,
flat
nessandparal
l
eli
sm setouti
nthestandard.

32
Lect
ureNot
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EMG2106:
Wor
kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Themeasur ingfacesareofsuchahi ghdegreeofsurfacefi

nishandfl
atnesst
hatgauge
blockswill
readil
ywringtoeachot her
,i.
e.t
heywi l
ladherewhenpressedandsli
d
together
.Thusasetofsel ected-
sizegaugeblockscanbecombi nedtogiveaver
ywide
rangeofsizes,usual
lyi
nst epsof0.001mm.

Standar dsetsar eavail

ablewithdif
f eri
ngnumber sofpieces.Atypi
calsetisshowni n
Fi
g.3.1.Theseset sareidentif
iedbyanumberi ndicat
ingthenumberofpi ecespref
ixed
bythel etterM, t
oindicatemet r
icsizes,andfoll
owedbyt henumber1or2.Thi sl
att
er
numberr eferstoa1mm-or2mm- basedseries,t
hisbeingthebasegaugel engt
hoft he
smallerbl ocks.Forexampl e,
an88pi ecesettoa1mm basei sdesignat
edM88/ 1and
containst hesizesshowni nTabl e3.1.

Fi
g.3.
1.setofgaugebl
ocks

33
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ureNot
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EMG2106:
Wor
kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Tabl
e.3.
1

An88pi
ecesett
oa2mm basei
sdesi
gnat
edM88/
2andcont
ainst
hesi
zesshowni
n
Tabl
e3.
2.

Tabl
e.3.
2

Tobuil
dupasizecombinati
on,thesmall
estpossi
blenumberofgaugebl
ocksshould
beused.Thi
scanbedonebyt akingcar
eofthemicrometr
es(0.001mm)fi
rst
,fol
lowed
byhundredt
hs(
0.01mm) ,t
enths( 0.
1mm)andwhol emil
li
metres;

Example
Deter
minethegaugebl
ocksr
equi
redf
orasi
zeof78.
748mm usi
ngt
heM88/
2set
previ
ousl
yli
sted:

34
Lect
ureNot
es:
EMG2106:
Wor
kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Exampl
e

Usingthegagebl
ocksi
zesgivenbelowt
odet
ermi
net
hegaugebl
ockst
ochoosei
n
ordert
oobtainadi
mensionof3.6083

Setofgaugeblocks;
-9blockswit
h0.0001in.i
ncr
ementfr
om 0.
1001to0.
1009
-49blockswit
h0. 001i
n.i
ncr
ementfr
om 0.
101to0.
149
-19blockswit
h0. 050i
n.i
ncr
ementfr
om 0.
050to0.
950
-4lblockswi
th1i n.i
ncr
ementf
rom 1to4

Angul armeasur ement

Anangl eistheincl i
nat ionoft wol i
neswhi chmeet( butar enoti nt hesamedi rect
ion)to
oneanot her.Thebasi sofmostangul armeasur ementi st hedi videdcircleas
exempl i
fi
edbyt hescal eofav ernierpr otr
actor .Init
smostr efinedf ormt hiscircl
eisa
sil
ver-coatedorgl assdi scuponwhi cht hedivisionlinesar er uledoret ched, andt he
scaleisr eadt hr
oughanopt i
cal system ofconsi derablemagni fyingpower .Opt i
cal
divi
ding-headsandci rcul ardividing-tablesoper atingont hi spr i
nci pl
earenowobt ai
nabl
e
readingt o1secondoft hear c,andofmaxi mum cumul ati
v eer rornotexceedi ng5
secondsofar c.
Iti
simpor tanttonot et hat1degr ee=60mi nutes
1minut e=60seconds
Theref orethedenot ation23o25’ 32”means23degr ees, 25mi nut esand32seconds.
o
Thiscanbeconv ert
edt odeci mal togi ve23.425.
Asanal ternati
vet ot hedi v
idedci rcle,angleslipgaugesar eav ail
ablemadet oa
tol
eranceof2secondsofar c.Sincet heymaybewr ungt oget heraddi t
ivelyor
subtractively,
asmal lnumberofgaugescangi v eal arger angeofcombi nations.

35
Lect
ureNot
es:
EMG2106:
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Ther
ear et
womai nsourcesofer
rori
nangul
armeasurement:
1.Er
rorofcent
eri
ng,e.
g.ofadivi
dedscal
e.
2.Er
rorbet
weentheplaneinwhichanangl
eisdef
inedandthepl
anei
nwhi
chi
tis
measured.

4.I
nspect
ionofGeomet
ri
cFeat
ures

I
ntr
oducti
on
I
nspect
ionisaprocedurei
nwhichapartorpr
oductcharacter
ist
ic,
suchasadi
mensi
on
i
sexaminedtodeterminewhet
heri
tconformstothedesignspecif
icat
ion.

Manyinspect
ionmet
hodsr
elyonmeasur
ementt
echni
ques,
whi
l
eot
her
susegaugi
ng
method.

I
tisf
ast
ert
hanmeasurementandpr ovi
desscanti
nfor
mationaboutt
heact
ualval
ueof
t
hechar
act
eri
sti
c.I
ninspect
ionpartpassesorf
ail
s.Measuri
ngcanbeachi
evedthr
ough
l
i
nemeasuri
ngorendmeasur i
ng.

Str
aight
ness
Theworkshopst
andardagai
nstwhi
cht
hest
rai
ght
nessofal
i
neonasur
facei
s
comparedist
hestr
aight
edge.

Aner r
orinstrai
ghtnessofaf eat
uremaybest atedasthedi
stanceseparati
ngtwo
paral
lelstr
aightl
inesbetweenwhi chthesur f
aceofthefeat
ure,i
nthatposit
ion,wi
l
ljust
l
ie.Threetypesofstraightedgeareav ail
able:t
oolmaker’
sstr
aight
edges,cast-
ir
on
str
aightedgesandst eelorgranit
est r
aightedgesofrect
angul
arsecti
on.

Flat
ness
Thewor kshopstandardagainstwhichtheflat
nessofasurf
aceiscompar edi sthe
surf
acepl at
eortable.Theerrori
nflat
nessofaf eat
uremaybest atedasthedi stance
separati
ngt woparal
lelpl
anesbetweenwhi chthesurf
aceofthefeaturewil
ljustlie.
Thusf l
atnessisconcernedwiththecompleteareaofasurf
ace,wher easst
raightnessis

36
Lect
ureNot
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EMG2106:
Wor
kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

concer
nedwi
thal
ineataposit
iononasur
face;
e.g.l
i
nesAB, BC,
CDandDAi
nthe
fi
gurebel
owmayall
bestr
aightbutt
hesur
facei
snotflat
,iti
stwi
sted.

Thesimpl
estmethodofcheckingt
heflat
nessofasur
facei
stocompar
eitwi
tha
sur
faceofknownaccur
acy,i
.e.asurf
aceplat
e.
Sur
facePl
ate
•Madeofgr eycastiron.Itisusuall
ysquar eorr ectangul ar.
•Hast het opandt headjacentedgesaccur atelymachi nedandscr apedt ofor
m at r
ue
fl
atsur f ace.
•Iti
spl acedhor i
zontal
lyonaf ir
m suppor twhosewor kingheightisabout800mm f rom
thefloor .
•Iti
susedt ocheckt hetruenessoff l
atsurfaces.
Thesmal l
ersizesofplatesmaybeusedonabench; thel ar
geronesar eusuall
y
mount edonast andandar ethenknownassur facet ables.
Checki ngf l
atnessisdonebysmear i
ngat hinev enlay erofengineer’sblueonone
surface, pl
acingt hesurf
acet obecheckedont hesur facepl at
e,andmov i
ngitsl
ightl
y
from si det osideaf ewt i
mes.Engi neer’
sbluewi l
lbet ransferr
edfrom onesur f
aceto
theot her ,theamountofbl uepresentandi t
sposi ti
ongi vinganindicat
ionofthedegr ee
offlatness.

37
Lect
ureNot
es:
EMG2106:
Wor
kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Fi
g:Sur
facepl
ate

Squareness
Twosur f
acesaresquarewhent heyareatri
ghtanglestoeachother
.Thechecki
ngof
ri
ghtanglesi
sacommonr equi
rement,andt
hewor kshopstandar
dagainstwhi
chthey
arecomparedistheengineer’
ssquare.

TrySquare
•Alsoknownasengineer
’ssquare.
•Consist
sofasteelbl
adefixedatri
ghtangl
etotheedgeofamachinedstockofcast
i
ron.
Usedfortest
ingsquar
enessofsurfacesandsosetof
fli
nesatr
ightangl
estoagiven
edge.

Fi
g:t
rysquar
e

Par
all
eli
sm

Parall
eli
sm i sameasur ementofwhet hertwosur facesofanobjectar eparall
eltoeach
other,orwhet hert wol inesar epar all
el.Paral
l
el meanst hatthedistancesbet weenthe
twosur facesort wol inesar econst ant.Ift
hesur facesorli
neswer et oextend
theoreti
callytoinf i
nit
y, theywoul dneverconv erge.Inengineer
ing,measur ing
parall
eli
sm i sveryimpor tantf ormachi ningpartsthatwillf
uncti
onpr operly.I
n
mat hemat i
cs,ther earedi fferentway st omeasur ewhet hertwolinesar eparall
el.
Tobeabl etomeasur epar allel
ism onemustf i
rst
1)Def i
net hesurf acer equiringt esti
ng
2)Def i
net hedat um touseasar ef
erence.Thisi susuall
yonesur faceoredgeoft he

38
Lect
ureNot
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EMG2106:
Wor
kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

object
3)Ensur ethatt hedatum islevelandcleanbecausey ourmeasur ement swill
bef l
awed
i
fforei
gnobj ectsareallowedt ointerf
ere
4)Definet het ol
erancerange.Not wosurfacesar eexactlyparal
leltoeachother.You
mustdef inet helevelofprecisionyourequireandt helevelofprecisi
ont hatyoucan
measur e.Ifthet wosurfacesf allwi
thi
nthatt ol
erancer ange,y
out hencansayt hatthey
areparallel.

Concent r
icit
y( somet i
mesr eferr
edt oascoaxial
ly
)
Concent r
icit
yisameasur eoft hedispl
acementbetweent her ef
erenceci
rcl
ecent erand
thedat um.I tisdefined(inISO1101)ast hediameterofacent r
alci
rcl
ewhosecent eris
alignedwi ththedat um.Ther eferencedfeatur
eandaxesf ordat um ar
ederivedfrom t
he
featureormedi anpoi nt
sofapar t
.Sincethi
spropert
yisreliantuponader i
vedaxisas
opposedt angiblefeatureorsur f
acemeasur ements,i
tisreservedforpar
tswhi ch,i
n
ordertof unctionpr operl
y,needahi ghdegreeofpreci
sion.Oneexampl ewoul dbe
transmi ssiongears.

ASSI
GNMENT1
1.Useappr opri
atesket
chestoexplai
nhowthefoll
owingtool
sar
eusedtoinspect
str
aightnessofawor kpi
ece:
a. Toolmaker ’
sstrai
ght
edges
b. Cast-i
ronstrai
ghtedgesandsteelorgr
ani
testr
aight
edgesofr
ect
angul
ar
secti
on

2.Expl
aindif
fer
entmethodswhichar
eusedtocheckr
oundnessofci
rcul
arpar
ts
i
naf i
tti
ngshop.Usesket
cheswherenecessar
y.

Roundness
Therear
eanumberofwor kshoptestswhichar
eusedt odetermi
netheroundnessofa
part
;however
,notal
lofthesegiveapr eci
sel
ytr
ueindicat
ion.Aparti
sroundwhenall
poi
ntsonit
scircumf
erencear eequidi
stantf
rom i
tsaxisbut,
asaresultofdi
ff
erent

39
Lect
ureNot
es:
EMG2106:
Wor
kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

met hodsandofmachi netool

susedi ntheproductionofcy li
ndricalpart
s, errorsin
roundnesscanoccur .
Thesi mpl estcheckforroundnessistomeasur edi r
ect l
yatanumberofdi amet r
icall
y
opposi t
epoi ntsaroundthecircumferenceofapar t,usingameasur inginstrumentsuch
asami cromet erorverni
ercali
per.Anydiffer
enceinr eadingwi l
lgiveani ndicationoft he
out-of-r
oundnessoft hepar t
.Howev eriti
spossible,whenusi ngt hismet hod, forerrors
i
nr oundnesst ogoundet ect
ed.Forexampl e,anincorrectset-uponacent reless
gri
ndi ngmachi necanpr oduceatri-
lobedshapesuchasi sshownexagger at edint he
fi
gur ebelow.Measur ingatdiametri
callyopposit
epoi ntswillgiveidenti
cal readings,but
thepar ti
snotr ound.

Theidealwor kshopt estwhi chov ercomest hepr oblemsalreadyoutli

nedi storotatethe
partunderadi alindicatorwi ththepar tsuppor t
edi nav eeblock.Thi
smet hodiscal l
ed
i
scal l
edthreepoi ntmet hod.I nthismet hodt hepar tt
obet estedisplacedi nav ee-
blockandr ot
at edwhi l
ei ncont actwi thadialgaugeorsi mil
arindi
cator.Thepar tis
rotat
edslowlyandcar efullybyhand, takingcarenott odisturbthevee-bl
ockorgauge
standandmaki ngsur et hatthepar trestsont het woar msoft heveeallthet i
me.I ft
he
parti
st r
ulyround, withnegl igi
blei r
regulari
ty,
thepoi nterofthegaugewi llnotmov e.If,
howev er
,thepar tisout -
of -
roundt hei r
regular
iti
eswi ll
causet heparttomov eupand
downast heycont actthesi desoft hev ee.

40
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Exampl
esofmar
kingout

Exampl
e1

Theplateshownatst
ep1hasbeenf
il
edt
ol engt
handwi
dthwi
tht
heedgessquar
eand
requi
restheposi
ti
onoft
hest
epstobemarkedout.

St
ep1:Useasquar
eononedat
um edgeandmeasur
ethedi
stancef
rom t
heot
her
dat
um edgeusi
ngapr
eci
sionst
eel
rul
e.Scr
ibel
i
nes.

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iceI

St
ep2:Repeatwi
tht
hesquar
eont
heseconddat
um edgeandscr
ibel
i
nest
oint
ersect
.

Example2
Theplat
eshownatstep1hasbeencutout2mm ov
ersi
zeonl
engt
handwi
dthandhas
notbeenfi
l
ed.Al
lfoursi
deshav
esawnedges.

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ocesses&Pr
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iceI

St
ep1:Measur
efr
om eachl
ongedgeandf
indt
hecent
reusi
ngapr
eci
sionst
eel
rul
e.
Scri
bethecent
rel
ineusingtheedgeoft
herul
easagui de.Fi
ndt
hecentr
eofthesmall
radi
usbymeasuri
ngf r
om oneendthesi
zeoftheradi
usplus1mm (t
hisall
owsfort
he
extr
alef
tontheend).Cent
redotwheret
heli
nesinter
sect.

St
ep2:Usi
ngdi
vi
der
s,sett
hedi
stancef
rom t
hecent
reoft
hesmal
lradi
ust
othecent
re
ofthefi
rstsmal
lhole.Scri
beanarc.Repeatf
orthesecondsmall
holeandthelarge
radi
us.Centr
edotattheinter
secti
onofthecent
reli
nes.Thedi
vi
dersaresetusingthe
graduat
ionsofaprecisi
onsteel
rule.

St
ep3:Setdi
vi
der
stot
hesmal
lradi
us.Locat
eont
hecent
redotandscr
ibet
her
adi
us.
Repeatf
ort
hel
arger
adi
usandi
fnecessar
y,t
het
wohol
es.

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iceI

St
ep4:Compl
etet
hepr
ofi
l
ebyscr
ibi
ngal
i
net
angent
ial
tot
het
wor
adi
iusi
ngt
heedge
ofapr
eci
sionst
eel
rul
easagui
de.

Example3
Theplateshownatst
ep1hasbeenroughlycutt
osi
zeandrequir
escompl
etemarki
ng
outoftheprof
il
eandhol
es.Cl
ear
lyexpl
ainthest
epsformar
kingout
.Usesket
ches
wherenecessary
.

St
ep1:Cl
ampt
hepl
atet
othef
aceofanangl
epl
ate,
ensur
ingt
hatt
hecl
ampswi
l
lnot
i
nterf
erewit
hmar ki
ngout.Useascriberinasur
facegaugeandsettheheight
sin
conj
uncti
onwithaprecisi
onsteelr
ule.Scri
bet
hedatum l
ine.Scr
ibeeachhori
zont
all
i
ne
thecorr
ectdi
stancefr
om thedatum.

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Withoutunclampingthepl ate,swingtheangleplateont oi
tsside(not
et heimpor
tance
ofclampposi t
ionsatstep1) .Thisensuresthatthelinesabouttobescr i
bedareatri
ght
anglestothosescribedinst ep1, owi
ngtotheaccur acyoftheangleplate.
Scri
bethedat um centr
eline.Scr i
beeachhor i
zontall
inethecorrectdi
stancefr
om the
datum toi
ntersecttheverticalli
nes.

Exampl
esofmar
kingout

Exampl
e1

Theplateshownatst
ep1hasbeenf
il
edt
ol engt
handwi
dthwi
tht
heedgessquar
eand
requi
restheposi
ti
onoft
hest
epstobemarkedout.

45
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

St
ep1:Useasquar
eononedat
um edgeandmeasur
ethedi
stancef
rom t
heot
her
dat
um edgeusi
ngapr
eci
sionst
eel
rul
e.Scr
ibel
i
nes.

St
ep2:Repeatwi
tht
hesquar
eont
heseconddat
um edgeandscr
ibel
i
nest
oint
ersect
.

46
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ocesses&Pr
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iceI

Example2
Theplat
eshownatstep1hasbeencutout2mm ov
ersi
zeonl
engt
handwi
dthandhas
notbeenfi
l
ed.Al
lfoursi
deshav
esawnedges.

St
ep1:Measur
efr
om eachl
ongedgeandf
indt
hecent
reusi
ngapr
eci
sionst
eel
rul
e.
Scri
bethecent
rel
ineusingtheedgeoft
herul
easagui de.Fi
ndt
hecentr
eofthesmall
radi
usbymeasuri
ngf r
om oneendthesi
zeoftheradi
usplus1mm (t
hisall
owsfort
he
extr
alef
tontheend).Cent
redotwheret
heli
nesinter
sect.

St
ep2:Usi
ngdi
vi
der
s,sett
hedi
stancef
rom t
hecent
reoft
hesmal
lradi
ust
othecent
re
oft
hef
ir
stsmal
lhol
e.Scr
ibeanar
c.Repeatf
ort
hesecondsmal
lhol
eandt
hel
arge

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ocesses&Pr
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iceI

radi
us.Centr
edotatt
heint
ersect
ionoft
hecent
rel
i
nes.Thedi
vi
der
sar
esetusi
ngt
he
graduat
ionsofapr
eci
sionst
eelrule.

St
ep3:Setdi
vi
der
stot
hesmal
lradi
us.Locat
eont
hecent
redotandscr
ibet
her
adi
us.
Repeatf
ort
hel
arger
adi
usandi
fnecessar
y,t
het
wohol
es.

St
ep4:Compl
etet
hepr
ofi
l
ebyscr
ibi
ngal
i
net
angent
ial
tot
het
wor
adi
iusi
ngt
heedge
ofapr
eci
sionst
eel
rul
easagui
de.

Example3
Theplateshownatst
ep1hasbeenroughlycutt
osi
zeandrequir
escompl
etemarki
ng
outoftheprof
il
eandhol
es.Cl
ear
lyexpl
ainthest
epsformar
kingout
.Usesket
ches
wherenecessary
.

48
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ureNot
es:
EMG2106:
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

St
ep1:Cl
ampt
hepl
atet
othef
aceofanangl
epl
ate,
ensur
ingt
hatt
hecl
ampswi
l
lnot
i
nterf
erewit
hmar ki
ngout.Useascriberinasur
facegaugeandsettheheight
sin
conj
uncti
onwithaprecisi
onsteelr
ule.Scri
bet
hedatum l
ine.Scr
ibeeachhori
zont
all
i
ne
thecorr
ectdi
stancefr
om thedatum.

Withoutunclampingthepl ate,swingtheangleplateont oi
tsside(not
et heimpor
tance
ofclampposi t
ionsatstep1) .Thisensuresthatthelinesabouttobescr i
bedareatri
ght
anglestothosescribedinst ep1, owi
ngtotheaccur acyoftheangleplate.
Scri
bethedat um centr
eline.Scr i
beeachhor i
zontall
inethecorrectdi
stancefr
om the
datum toi
ntersecttheverticalli
nes.

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ocesses&Pr
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iceI

ASSI
GNMENT2

1.Sket
chdi
ff
erentt
ypesofhammer
sanddescr
ibet
hei
ruse

2.Descri
bewheresof
t-
facedhammer
sar
eusedandnamet
hreemat
eri
alsusedf
or
thesoftf
aces.

3.Whenwoul daveeblockbeuseddur
ingamarki
ngoutoperat
ion?
4.Whatarethetwomai npur
posesofmarki
ngoutengi
neer
ingcomponent
s?
5.Namet hethr
eeheadswhichcompri
seacombinati
onsetanddescr
ibet
heuseof
eachone.

5.PROCESSCAPABI
LITY

ProcessCapabi lit
y( Cp)i sast at i
sticalmeasur ementofapr ocess’sabi l
itytopr oduce
partswi t
hinspeci fi
edl imi t
sonaconsi stentbasi s.Thenat ur eofapr ocessr efersto
boththev ar i
abili
ty(ori nherentuni formity)andt heaccur acyort heai m oft hepr ocess.
Thusinat arget-shoot i
ngexampl e,aper fectpr ocesswoul dbecapabl eofpl acingnine
shotsrighti nthemi ddl eofabul l’
s-eye,oner ightont opoft heot her.
Thepr ocesswoul ddi splaynov ariabil
it
ywi t
hper f
ectaccur acy .Suchper formance
wouldbev eryunusual i
nar eal i
ndust ri
al process.Thev ariabi l
i
tymayhav eassi gnable
causesandmaybecor rectablei fthecausecanbef oundandel i
mi nat ed.
Thatvar i
abi l
it
yt owhi chnocausecanbeassi gnedandwhi chcannotbeel i
mi nat edis
saidtobei nherentint hepr ocessandi st hereforeitsnat ur e.Todet ermi nehowour
processi soper ati
ng, wecancal culateCp( ProcessCapabi lity)
,Cpk( Pr ocessCapabi l
ity
Index)
, orPp( Pr el
imi naryPr ocessCapabi lit
y)andPpk( Pr eliminar yPr ocessCapabi l
it
y
Index)
, dependi ngont hest ateoft hepr ocessandt hemet hodofdet er mi ni
ngt he
standarddev i
ationorsi gmav alue.
Accuracy :Refer stohowcl oseameasur edv aluei stot het ruequant ityofwhati sbeing
measur ed.Wi thoutcompar isont oast andar d,accur acycannotbedet er mined.
Repeat abil
ity(orpr ecision) :descr ibeshowwel lasy stem ordev icecanr eproducean
outcomei nunchangedcondi tionswi t
hincer taindef i
nabl ebounds.I nsomeappl icati
ons,
repeatabil
ityismor eimpor tantt hanaccur acy.Ifthesy st em i srepeat abl e,aner rorcan
bemappedandcompensat edf or

Resoluti
on:I
st hesmal lestincrementt hesy stem candi spl
ayormeasur e.Asy stem can
haveahi ghresoluti
onwi thpoorr epeatabil
ityandaccur acy.
Resoluti
onisapr imaryconcer ni napplicat
ionsr egar
dingspeedcont r
olorsurfacef i
nish.
Thiscouldcorrespondt othesmal leststepsizeonamachi neaxiscontr
oll
edopenl oop
byast epmot or(forexample, inapoi nttopointmodeofoper at
ion),
thesmal l
est
i
ncrementofmot ionmeasur ablewi t
hanencoderi nacl osedloopservomot ordr i
ven
sys-t
em, ort
hemostsi gnifi
cantdi gitonamet rol
ogysy stem.

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ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Degreeofaccur acy
Thedegr eeofaccur acytowhi chameasur ementshouldbemadedependsuponsev er
al
fact
ors.Chi efamongt hem being
 Ty peofwor k:Thehighertheclassofthepr oj
ect,t
hehighertheaccur acy
requirement
 Ski l
l,typeandcondi t
ionofplantavail
able:Ski
ll
edwor kersongoodmachi neswill
alway spr oducebet t
erworkthanlessski l
ledworkersonani nfer
iormachine
 Met hodofmeasur i
ng:Ami cr
omet erwhenusedf ormeasur ementwi llal
ways
givebet teraccuracythanast eelr
ule
 Par ticularconsiderati
onforeachpar tbeingmade: Aprojectrequir
ingalengthto
be20cm ±2cm r equi
reslessaccuracythanonespeci fi
edas20cm ±0. 005cm

6.METALJOI
NING

Somemet hodofj oiningpar t

st oget herisusedt hroughouti ndust ry,t
ofor m eithera
compl etepr oductoranassembl y .Themet hoduseddependsont heappl icat
ionoft he
fi
nishedpr oductandwhet hert hepar tshav et obedi smant ledformai ntenanceor
replacementdur ingser vice.
Thechoi ceofonepr ocessov eranot heralsodependsonf actors,suchasj oi
ntdesign,
mat er i
alssi ze, shape, andt hicknessoft hecomponent stobej oined.Themet all
urgi
cal
processesofwel ding, brazi ng, andsol der i
ngar eusual lyusedt oj oinmet alsandof t
en
i
nv olvet hesol i
dificationofmol tenmat erial.Theuseofdi scretef asteners( suchasnut s,
bolts, screws, andr ivet s)r equir est hecr eationofal ignedhol esandpr oducesst ress
l
ocal ization.Whi lethehol esmayaf fectper f ormance, disassembl yandr eassembl ycan
oftenbeper for medwi thr elativeease.Adhesi vebondi nghasgr ownwi t
hnew
dev elopment si npol y mer icmat erial sandi sbei ngusedext ensiv elyinaut omot i
veand
air
cr aftpr oduct ion.Anymat erial canbej oinedt oanyot hermat erial
,andl ow-
temper aturej oiningi spar ticular l
yat tracti
v ef orcomposi t
emat er i
als.
Ther ear esev eral met hodsbywhi chpar tsmaybej oined:
a)mechani cal fast ener s–scr ews, bol t
s, nut s,ri
vets
b)sol dering
c)br azi ng
d)wel ding
e)Adhesi vebondi ng

Joi
ntsmaybecl assifi
edbroadlyint
otwogr oups;
a)Permanentj oi
nts
b)Temporaryordet achabl
ejoints
Thepermanentjointsarethosethatcannotbedi sassembledwi t
houtdestr
oyi
ngthe
connect
ingcomponent ssuchassol dered,brazed,weldedandr i
vetj
oint
s.
Temporaryordetachablejoi
ntscanbedi sassembl edwithoutdestr
oyi
ngtheconnect
ing
componentse.g.screwed,keyed,cott
ers,pinsandsplinesjoi
nts

Al
thoughsolderedandbr
azedjoi
ntsareconsi
der
edper
manent
,theycanbedi
smant
led
byheati
ngforrepai
randrepl
acement.

51
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
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iceI

Ingeneralmostjoi
ningprocessesusemechanicalfast
enerssuchasbolts,nuts,and
screws.Joint
smadewi thmechani cal
fast
enersareusuall
ynon-per
manentandcanbe
usedonpr oduct
sandmachi nesthatmustbet akenapartformaint
enanceandr epai
r.
Othermethodssuchasl iqui
dstateweldi
ngcouldhowev eralsobedonewher ebyheat
and/orpressureisappl
iedinordertopermanentl
yfuseorbondt wopieces.

ASSI
GNMENT3

Wr
it
esshor
tnot
esonMechani
cal
fast
ener
scov
erngscr
i ews,
bol
ts,
nut
s,washer
s,
spr
ingt
ensi
onpi
ns,
Cir
cli
ps.

Mechani calJoi ning

Mechani cal joiningi sawi delyused, cost-effecti
v emeansofj oini
ng, whichisext r
emel y
suitablef ort hinsheetsect ions.Fast eningi npar ti
cularisthemostcommonmet hodof
mechani cal joiningwhi chi ncludesbol ts,nut s,screwsandpi ns.
Boltsandscr ewscanbesecur edwi t
hnut s, ortheymaybesel f-
tapping,inwhi chcase,
thescr ewei thercast sorf or mst het hreadi ntot heparttobef astened.Selftappingis
particularlyef fectiveandeconomi calinplast i
ccomponent s, f
orwhi chtheneedf orpre
tapped.Hol esornut scanof t
enbeel iminated.I nsomecases, mov eabl
ej ointssuchas
hinges, slidingmechani smsf ordrawer sanddoor s,andadj ustablecomponent sand
fixt
ur esar eal soused.Sev eralrulesoft humbcangener all
ybeappl i
edforusi ng
mechani cal fastener s.
I)Usi ngf ewerbutl argerfast enersi sgener allylesscost l
ythanwhenusi ngal arge
numberofsmal l ones.
II
)Thef itbet weenpar tstobej oinedshoul dbeasl ooseaspossi bleinor dertokeep
cost slowandt of acili
tatet heassembl ypr ocess.
II
I)St andar d-sizedf astener sshoul dbeusedwhenev erpossible.
IV)Hol esf orfast eningshoul dnotbemadet oocl oset otheedgesorcor ner
sofa
componenti nor dert oav oidt earingoft hemat er i
alwhent hepar tissubj ect
edt oforces.

ScrewFast eningdev i
ces
Ascr ewisoneoft hemosti mpor tantandcommont y peoff astenert oolusedtoj oi
n
partsthatmayr equiretobet akenapar tatal aterdatef orpur posesofr epairor
repl
acement .Theymakei neffectat empor aryjoint
.AScr ewi sgener all
yat ypeof
fast
enerwi t
hashar pandpoi ntedendchar acteri
zedbyahel i
calr idgealsoknownas
malet hr
eadorext ernalthr
eadorsi mpl ythread.Screwt hreadsar eprimari
lydesignedto
holdont oparticularjoi
nttogi vestrengthwhi lemanyot herscr ewsar epar t
icul
arly
designedtomat ewi thaninternalthreadingal soknownasf emal et hr
ead.These
femininethreadscanbeanutoranobj ectwhi chhasi nternal t
hr ead.
NutsandBol t
s:Thesear eusedwhenbot hsidesoft hej ointareaccessi bleinorderto
all
owt heuseofaspannert ot i
ghtent henutandhol dt hebol ti
fneedbe.Theyof fer
savinginthemanuf actureofcomponent sasonl yclear ancehol esneedt obedr i
lledand

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not hr
eadsarer equi
redi
nthecomponenti
tsel
f.Theref
oreint
heeventofdamaget
othe
thr
eads, i
tischeaptorepai
rasonl
yanewnut /
boltisneededwit
houtneedfor
scrappingthecomponentit
sel
f.

Allenbolt/screw:t
hesear edesi
gnedwi thahexagonalsocketint hei
rheadthatis
meantt obeusedwi t
hanAl l
enwrench/key.Al
lenheadsareusual lypr
eferr
edwher ethe
fastenerneedst obesunki ntot
hesurfaceofwhatt heyar
ef asteningforsafeoperat
ion
oft heequipment.All
enheadscr ewsont heotherhandarepr ef
erredinsome
appl i
cat
ionsbecauset heycanbet i
ghtenedtoahighertor
quet hanei t
herasl othead
screworacr ossheadscrew.

Studf
astener:Theseareusedwher
eheavypr
essuresarerequi
redt
oensuregasti
ght
orwatert
ightjoi
nts.Thest
udsar
efir
stscr
ewedint
ot hecomponentandt
ight
ening
donebymeansofnut s

SetScrew:Thesearethreadedalong
thei
renti
rel
engthandar etypi
call
yused
tosecureashaftfr
om rotati
ng.They
'r
e
usedinpull
eys,spr
ockets,col
lar
sand
knobsamongot herthi
ngs.

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Ri
vet
ing
Thisprocesscanbeconsideredtobeapermanentmethodofjoi
ningmetal
stoget
herandis
general
lyusedforrel
ati
vel
ythinworksuchasshi
pandaircr
aftbui
ldi
ng.Ari
vetisametalpi
n
madeofsof tsteel
,br
ass,copperoral
uminum wi
thaheadatoneend.Thetwomostcommon
aretheroundheadandt hecounter
sunkhead.

Tradi
tionalr
ivet
ingconsist
sofplaci
ngar
ivett
hroughhol
esintwoormor
epi ecesofmetaland
thenformingaheadont heotherendoft
heriv
etwithabal
lpeenhammer.Thisri
vet
ingsty
le
demandsf orsolidr
ivet
s

Ri
vet
inggunssuchast
heonesbel
owcanhowev
eral
sobeusedt
oper
for
mri
vet
ing

Thesehowev er
don’tworkwi th
theregularsoli
d
ri
vetsshown
earl
ierand
i
nsteaduse
holl
owr i
v et
s
suchast
hesebel
ow

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ocesses&Pr
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Advant agesofRi vetedJoi nts

Herear etheadv antagesofRi vetedjointswhencompar edtoweldedjoi
nts
Itismor ereli
able
Itcanal sobeusedf ornonf errousmet al
s
Pa rtsassembl edbyRi vetedjointdonothav eanythermalaf
tereff
ects
Itsqual i
tyinspect ioni seasyandcheap
Wh enpar t
sar edi smant l
edr i
vetedpartshavelessdamagecompar edtowelded
parts
Disadv antagesofRi vet edjoints
Herear ethedi sadv ant agesofRi vetedjoint
swhencompar edtoweldedjoint
s
Du et oholespl atesbecomeweak
L aborcosti smor e
Ov erallcostofr ivetedj oint
sismor e
Th eyhav emor ewei ghtthanwel dedjoints
Ri v
et i
ngpr ocesscr eatesmor enoi se
St r
essconcent rationnearhol es

Sof tsol der i

ng
Sof tsol der i
ngi sapr ocessofj oiningmet al(andnonmet al)partsbyheat ingand
runni ngal ow- melti
ngpoi ntal loybet weent hetwosur facesbei ngjoi
ned.Whencool i
ng
takespl ace, thealloysolidifies, resulti
ngi nasecur ejoint.Formostpur poses, t
helow-
mel t
ing- pointsolderalloyi sacomposi ti
onoft i
nandl ead.Sol dermel t
sata
temper at urelessthan300OC, whi chi sfarbel owt hemel ti
ngt emperatureoft hemet al
bei ngj oined, andpr oducesal ow- strengthj oi
nt.Thisal l
oyi smel tedusingasol dering
i
r on, torch, orov en
Sol der i
ngi susednotonl yt omakeamechani calbondbet weensur f
acesbutal sot o
pr ovideal eak-proofseal whenl iquidshav etobecont ained.Itcanal sobeusedt o
pr ovideaper manentel ectrical connect ion.Topr ovi
deasecur ejoint
, i
tisessentialthat
thej ointsur f
acesar eper fect l
ycl eanandf reefrom rust, greaseoranyot hersubstance
l
ikel ytopr eventgoodmet al-to-met alunion.Themostl i
kelycauseofabadj oi
nt,
assumi ngt hesur f
acei sclean, ist hethinoxi def i
lm whichi spr esentonal lmetals.
Oxi def ilmscanber emov edusi ngemer ycl othoraf l
ux .

Fl
uxes

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ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Fluxesusedi nsoftsolderi
ngar eeitheracti
v eorpassiv
e.
Anact iv
ef l
uxchemi call
yremov est heoxidef i
l
m, hasanaci dbase, andishighly
corrosi ve.
Thesef l
uxesar eusual lyhydrochloricaci
dinwhi chzinchasbeendi ssolvedtoform zi
nc
chlor i
de, knownas‘ kil
ledspirit
s’.Anyjointpreparedusinganact i
v efluxmustbe
thoroughl ywashedi nwar m waterwhensol deri
ngiscompl eted,t
or emov eanyf l
ux
residue.Fort hi
sreasonanact i
vef luxisnotsuitabl
eforelectri
calappl i
cati
ons.
Apassi vef luxi
susedaf t
ertheoxi defil
m hasbeenr emov edusingemer ycloth,t
o
prev entt heoxidefil
mr eforming.Passi vefl
uxesar eusuall
yr esi
n-basedandar e
sufficientf orel
ectri
cal work.

Themai nfuncti
onsperformedbyf luxesar e:
(a)Remov eoxidef r
om basepartsurfaces,
(b)Preventoxi
dat i
onduri
ngheating,and
(c)Helpsinfl
owofmol t
ensolderintot hejoi
ntbywett
ingthesur
faces.
Thef l
uxesshoul d
(a)Bemol t
enatsolderingtemper atur
e,
(b)Leavear esi
duethatisnon-corrosiv
eandnon-conducti
ve.

Solderingt ools
Themai nt ool usedforsol der i
ngi st hesol deri
ngiron.Someconsumabl elikefluxes,
solderwi reorst ickandspel terareal soused.
SolderingI ron-I tconsistsofacopperbi tatt
achedt oironr odatitsoneend, anda
woodenhandl eatt heot herend.I ti susedt omeltthef i
llermet alandpasteittomake
thejoint.Asol deri
ngironcanbeaf or gesol deri
ngironwhi chisheatedinaf urnaceto
havesuf f
icienttemper aturet omel tthef i
ll
ermetaloritcanbeel ectr
icsolderiron.
Electr
icsol deri r
oni sheatedbypassi ngel ectr
iccurr
entt hroughit.Useofel ectri
csolder
i
roni spopul arandcostef fecti
v e.Spel terisanalloyofzi ncandcopperi nequal
proportion.Thi sisoneoft hef il
lermet al wit
hlowmel t
ingpoi ntwithotherdesirable
propertiest omakegoodqual i
tysol derj oint
.

TypesofSol ders
Mostoft hesoldermet al
saretheall
oyofti
nandl ead.Percent
ageofl eadiskeptleast
duet oi
tstoxicproperti
es.Ti
nbecomeschemi cal
lyacti
v eatsol
deringtemperatureand
promotesthewet t
ingacti
onrequi
redformaki
ngt hejoi
nt.Copper,sil
verandantimony
arealsousedi nsolder
ingmetalasperthestr
engthrequirementsofthejoint
.Diff
erent
soldert
heirmel t
ingpointandappl
icat
ionsar
egi v
eni nthetabl
ebelow.

56
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EMG2106:
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Solderi
ngdef ects
a.Granularformati
onatt hesur
faceoft hej
ointofsolderisoneoft hecommon
sol
deringdef ect
s.
b.Format i
onofspher oi
dsatthesurfaceofsolderi
ngjointisalsosimilardefect.Thi
s
happensduet ounderheati
ngoroverheat i
ngofsolderiron,insuff
ici
entuseoff lux.
Formationofspher oi
dsmakest hejointugl
yandweeki nstrength.
c.I
mpr operorunev enappli
cati
onoff l
uxmaymaket hejointofweakerst rength.

Brazing
Brazingi sajoini
ngpr ocesswher ebyanon- ferr
ousf i
llermet al all
oyisheat edtomel ting
temper ature(abov e450° C)anddi str
ibutedbet weent woormor eclosef i
tti
ngpar tsby
capill
aryat t
racti
on.Ati tsl i
qui
dust emper ature,t
hemol tenf i
llermet alinteractswi t
ha
thinlayeroft hebasemet al
,cooli
ngt oform anexcept ionallyst r
ong, sealedjointduet o
grainstructureinteraction.Onlythefil
lermet ali
smel tedandnott hewor kpieces.The
brazedj ointbecomesasandwi chofdi fferentlayer s,eachmet all
urgicall
yl i
nkedt oeach
other.Forsuccessf ul brazing,t
hef ol
lowingpoi ntsshoul dbeobser ved: (1)Thecor rect
j
oi ntgapshoul dbepr ovided(2)Jointsur facesmustbemechani call
yandchemi call
y
cleantoensur efullcapill
aryacti
on( 3)Asui tabl
ef luxmustbeused( 4)Par tsshoul dbe
wiredt oget herwher enecessar y(5)Af ter
abr iefpr eli
mi narywar mi ngupoft he
whol ejob, t
hej obshoul dbeheat edup
quicklyt ot hemel t
ingpoi ntofthesol der

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ureNot
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EMG2106:
Wor
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ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Awi
dev
ari
etyofgasmi
xtur
escanbeusedt
omel
tthef
il
lermet
alf
orbr
azi
ng.

 Oxy
-acet
ylene

 Oxy
-pr
opane

 Compr
essedai
rpl
usnat
ural
gas

 Compr
essedai
rpl
uscoal
gas

Bendi
ng
Bendi ngofsheetmet ali
sacommonandv i
talprocessinmanufactur
ingi
ndustr
y.
Similartoot hermetalf
ormingprocesses,bendingchangestheshapeoft heworkpi
ece,
whilet hevol umeofmateri
alwil
lremainthesame.Thi scanbeusedt ocreateadesi
red
geomet ri
cf orm,t
oimpartstr
ength/
sti
ffnesstosheetmet al
,tochangeapar t
'smoment
ofiner t
ia,forcosmeti
cappearance,el
iminatesharpedgesortoj oi
ntwosheetsofmetal.
Belowv ari
ousf or
msofjoini
ngbybendi ngareill
ustrat
ed

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Lect
ureNot
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EMG2106:
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Handscr
ewcut
ti
ng

-Tapsanddi eshandtool
sar eusedt ocutthreads.Thet apsareusedf orcutti
ng
i
nternal threadsanddiesar eusedt ocutext ernalt
hreads.Therear et womaj ortypesof
fasteningt hreads:
metri
ct hreads( I
sostandar d)andWhi tworththreads( Bri
ti
sh
Standar d).
Thesi zel i
sti
ngsofmet ri
ct hreadsstartwit
h“ M”andcont i
nuewi tht heoutsi
dedi ameter
i
nmi l
li
met ers.Eg.12-
mm ODt hreadthathasa1. 25-mm pi t
chandmustbedesi gnat
ed
“M12x1. 25.MostI SOmet ri
ct hreadsizescomei ncoarse,medi um, andfine.Examples
forISOmet r
icthreadsare
shownbel ow.

1. Tappi
ng

–Tappingistheoperation
ofcutt
inganinter
nalthread
bymeansofacut ti
ngt ool
knownasat ap.
–Tapi sprov
idedwith
cutt
ingedgesandhardened
sothatwhenitisscr
ewed

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Lect
ureNot
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EMG2106:
Wor
kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

i
nahol
e,i
tcut
sani
nter
nal
thr
eadt
ofi
tanext
ernal
thr
eadoft
hesamesi
ze.

Tapsar
eusual
l
ymadei
nthr
eeset
s;di
ff
eri
nthel
engt
hofchamf
eratt
hepoi
nt,
known
asthel
ead.

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ocesses&Pr
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iceI

61
Lect
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EMG2106:
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ocesses&Pr
act
iceI

Usi
ngahandt
ap

2.Di
esandSt
ocks

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EMG2106:
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kshopPr
ocesses&Pr
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iceI

63