Conflict resolution

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Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes involved in facilitating the
peaceful ending of conflict and retribution. Committed group members attempt to resolve group
conflicts by actively communicating information about their conflicting motives or ideologies to
the rest of the group (e.g., intentions; reasons for holding certain beliefs) and by engaging in
collective negotiation.[1] Dimensions of resolution typically parallel the dimensions of conflict in
the way the conflict is processed. Cognitive resolution is the way disputants understand and view
the conflict, with beliefs, perspectives, understandings and attitudes. Emotional resolution is in
the way disputants feel about a conflict, the emotional energy. Behavioral resolution is reflective
of how the disputants act, their behavior. [2] Ultimately a wide range of methods and procedures
for addressing conflict exist, including negotiation, mediation, mediation-arbitration,
[3]
diplomacy, and creative peacebuilding.
The term conflict resolution may also be used interchangeably with dispute resolution, where
arbitration and litigation processes are critically involved. The concept of conflict resolution can
be thought to encompass the use of nonviolent resistance measures by conflicted parties in an
attempt to promote effective resolution. [4] Conflict resolution as an academic field is relatively
new. George Mason University in Fairfax, VA, was the first university to offer a PhD program.

Contents
[hide]

 1Theories and models

o 1.1Dual concern model
 2Political conflict resolution in practice
 3Culture-based
 4In animals
 5Education
 6Conflict management
o 6.1Counseling
 6.1.1Steps to conflict resolution in the classroom
 7See also
o 7.1Organizations
 8Footnotes
 9References
 10Works cited
 11Further reading
 12External links

Theories and models[edit]

Dual concern model[edit]
The dual concern model of conflict resolution is a conceptual perspective that assumes
individuals’ preferred method of dealing with conflict is based on two underlying themes or
dimensions: concern for self (assertiveness) and concern for others (empathy).[1]
According to the model, group members balance their concern for satisfying personal needs and
interests with their concern for satisfying the needs and interests of others in different ways. The
intersection of these two dimensions ultimately leads individuals towards exhibiting different
styles of conflict resolution.[5] The dual model identifies five conflict resolution styles/strategies
that individuals may use depending on their dispositions toward pro-self or pro-social goals.
Avoidance conflict style
Characterized by joking, changing or avoiding the topic, or
even denying that a problem exists, the conflict
avoidance style is used when an individual has withdrawn in
dealing with the other party, when one is uncomfortable with
conflict, or due to cultural contexts. [nb 1] During conflict, these
avoiders adopt a “wait and see” attitude, often allowing
conflict to phase out on its own without any personal
involvement.[6] By neglecting to address high-conflict
situations, avoiders risk allowing problems to fester or spin
out of control.
Yielding conflict style
In contrast, yielding, “accommodating”, smoothing
or suppression conflict styles are characterized by a high level
of concern for others and a low level of concern for oneself.
This passive pro-social approach emerges when individuals
derive personal satisfaction from meeting the needs of others
and have a general concern for maintaining stable, positive
social relationships.[1] When faced with conflict, individuals
with a yielding conflict style tend to harmonize into others’
demands out of respect for the social relationship.[citation needed]
Competitive conflict style
The competitive, “fighting” or forcing conflict style
maximizes individual assertiveness (i.e., concern for self) and
minimizes empathy (i.e., concern for others). Groups
consisting of competitive members generally enjoy seeking
domination over others, and typically see conflict as a “win or
lose” predicament.[1] Fighters tend to force others to accept
their personal views by employing competitive power tactics
(arguments, insults, accusations or even violence) that foster
intimidation.[7]
Conciliation conflict style
The conciliation, “compromising”, bargaining or negotiation
conflict style is typical of individuals who possess an
intermediate level of concern for both personal and others’
outcomes. Compromisers value fairness and, in doing so,
anticipate mutual give-and-take interactions.[6] By accepting
some demands put forth by others, compromisers believe this
agreeableness will encourage others to meet them halfway,
thus promoting conflict resolution.[8] This conflict style can be
considered an extension of both “yielding” and “cooperative”
strategies.[1]
Cooperation conflict style
Characterized by an active concern for both pro-social and
pro-self behavior, the cooperation, integration, confrontation
or problem-solving conflict style is typically used when an
individual has elevated interests in their own outcomes as
well as in the outcomes of others. During conflict, cooperators
collaborate with others in an effort to find an amicable
solution that satisfies all parties involved in the conflict.
Individuals using this type of conflict style tend to be both
highly assertive and highly empathetic.[6] By seeing conflict as
a creative opportunity, collaborators willingly invest time and
resources into finding a “win-win” solution. [1] According to
the literature on conflict resolution, a cooperative conflict
resolution style is recommended above all others. This
resolution may be achieved by lowering the aggressor's guard
while raising the ego.[9][10][11]

Political conflict resolution in practice[edit]

Moshe Dayan and Abdullah el Tellreach a

ceasefire agreement during the1948 Arab–
Israeli War in Jerusalem on 30 November
1948
Wars may occur between parties who contest an
incompatibility. The nature of an incompatibility
can be territorial or governmental, but a warring
party must be a "government of a state or any
opposition organization or alliance of
organizations that uses armed force to promote its
position in the incompatibility in an intrastate or
an interstate armed conflict".[12] Wars can
conclude with a peace agreement, which is a
"formal agreement... which addresses the
disputed incompatibility, either by settling all or
part of it, or by clearly outlining a process for
how... to regulate the
[13]
incompatibility." A ceasefire is another form of
agreement made by warring parties; unlike a
peace agreement, it only "regulates the conflict
behaviour of warring parties", and does not
resolve the issue that brought the parties to war in
the first place.[14]
Peacekeeping measures may be deployed to
avoid violence in solving such incompatibilities.
[15]
Beginning in the last century, political
theorists have been developing the theory of
a global peace systemthat relies upon broad
social and political measures to avoid war in the
interest of achieving world peace.[16] The Blue
Peace approach developed by Strategic Foresight
Group facilitates cooperation between countries
over shared water resources, thus reducing the
risk of war and enabling sustainable
development.[17]
Conflict resolution is an expanding field of
professional practice, both in the U.S. and around
the world. The escalating costs of conflict have
increased use of third parties who may serve as a
conflict specialists to resolve conflicts. In fact,
relief and development organizations have added
peace-building specialists to their teams. [18] Many
major international non-governmental
organizations have seen a growing need to hire
practitioners trained in conflict analysis and
resolution. Furthermore, this expansion has
resulted in the need for conflict resolution
practitioners to work in a variety of settings such
as in businesses, court systems, government
agencies, nonprofit organizations, and
educational institutions throughout the world.

Culture-based[edit]
Conflict resolution as both a professional practice
and academic field is highly sensitive
to cultural practices. In Western cultural contexts,
such as Canada and the United States, successful
conflict resolution usually involves fostering
communication among disputants, problem
solving, and drafting agreements that meet
underlying needs. In these situations, conflict
resolvers often talk about finding a mutually
satisfying ("win-win") solution for everyone
involved.[19]
In many non-Western cultural contexts, such
as Afghanistan, Vietnam, and China, it is also
important to find "win-win" solutions; however,
the routes taken to find them may be very
different. In these contexts, direct communication
between disputants that explicitly addresses the
issues at stake in the conflict can be perceived as
very rude, making the conflict worse and
delaying resolution. It can make sense to involve
religious, tribal, or community leaders;
communicate difficult truths through a third
party; or make suggestions through stories.
[20]
Intercultural conflicts are often the most
difficult to resolve because the expectations of
the disputants can be very different, and there is
much occasion for misunderstanding.[21]

In animals[edit]
Conflict resolution has also been studied in non-
humans, including dogs, cats, monkeys, snakes,
elephants, and primates.[22]Aggression is more
common among relatives and within a group than
between groups. Instead of creating distance
between the individuals, primates tend to be more
intimate in the period after an aggressive
incident. These intimacies consist
ofgrooming and various forms of body
contact. Stress responses, including increased
heart rates, usually decrease after these
reconciliatory signals. Different types of
primates, as well as many other species who live
in groups, display different types of conciliatory
behavior. Resolving conflicts that threaten the
interaction between individuals in a group is
necessary for survival, giving it a
strong evolutionary value.[citation needed]
These
findings contradict previous existing theories
about the general function of aggression, i.e.
creating space between individuals (first
proposed by Konrad Lorenz), which seems to be
more the case in conflicts between groups than it
is within groups.
In addition to research in primates, biologists are
beginning to explore reconciliation in other
animals. Until recently, the literature dealing with
reconciliation in non-primates has consisted of
anecdotal observations and very little quantitative
data. Although peaceful post-conflict behavior
had been documented going back to the 1960s, it
was not until 1993 that Rowell made the first
explicit mention of reconciliation in feral sheep.
Reconciliation has since been documented in
spotted hyenas,[23][24] lions, bottlenose dolphins,
[25]
dwarf mongoose, domestic goats,[26] domestic
dogs,[27] and, recently, in red-necked wallabies.[28]

Education[edit]
Universities worldwide offer programs of study
pertaining to conflict research, analysis, and
practice. Conrad Grebel University College at
the University of Waterloo has the oldest-
running peace and conflict studies (PACS)
program in Canada.[29] PACS can be taken as an
Honors, 4-year general, or 3-year general major,
joint major, minor, and diploma. Grebel also
offers an interdisciplinary Master of Peace and
Conflict Studies professional program.
The Cornell University ILR School houses the
Scheinman Institute on Conflict Resolution,
which offers undergraduate, graduate, and
professional training on conflict resolution. [30] It
also offers dispute resolution concentrations for
its MILR, JD/MILR, MPS, and MS/PhD graduate
degree programs.[31] At the graduate
level, Eastern Mennonite University's Center for
Justice and Peacebuilding offers a Master of
Arts in Conflict Transformation, a dual Master of
Divinity/MA in Conflict Transformation degree,
and several graduate certificates.[32] EMU also
offers an accelerated 5-year BA in Peacebuilding
and Development/MA in Conflict
Transformation. Additional graduate programs
are offered at Georgetown University, Johns
Hopkins University, Creighton University, the
University of North Carolina at Greensboro,
and Trinity College Dublin.[33] George Mason
 University’s School for Conflict Analysis and
Resolution offers BA, BS, MS, and PhD degrees
in Conflict Analysis and Resolution, as well as an
undergraduate minor, graduate certificates, and
joint degree programs.[34] Nova Southeastern
University also offers a PhD in Conflict Analysis
& Resolution, in both online and on-campus
formats.[35]
Conflict resolution is a growing area of interest in
UK pedagogy, with teachers and students both
encouraged to learn about mechanisms that lead
to aggressive action and those that lead to
peaceful resolution.
Tel Aviv University offers two graduate degree
programs in the field of conflict resolution,
including the English-languageInternational
Program in Conflict Resolution and Mediation,
allowing students to learn in a geographic region
which is the subject of much research on
international conflict resolution.
The Nelson Mandela Center for Peace & Conflict
Resolution at Jamia Millia Islamia University,
New Delhi, is one of the first centers for peace
and conflict resolution to be established at an
Indian university. It offers a two-year full-time
MA course in Conflict Analysis and Peace-
Building, as well as a PhD in Conflict and Peace
Studies.[36]

Conflict management[edit]
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Conflict management refers to the long-term
management of intractable conflicts. It is the
label for the variety of ways by which people
handle grievances—standing up for what they
consider to be right and against what they
consider to be wrong. Those ways include such
diverse phenomena as gossip, ridicule, lynching,
terrorism, warfare, feuding, genocide, law,
mediation, and avoidance.[citation needed] Which forms
of conflict management will be used in any given
situation can be somewhat predicted and
explained by the social structure—or social
geometry—of the case.
Conflict management is often considered to be
distinct from conflict resolution. In order for
actual conflict to occur, there should be an
expression of exclusive patterns which explain
why and how the conflict was expressed the way
it was. Conflict is often connected to a previous
issue. Resolution refers to resolving a dispute to
the approval of one or both parties, whereas
management is concerned with an ongoing
process that may never have a resolution. Neither
is considered the same asconflict transformation,
which seeks to reframe the positions of the
conflict parties.
The role of culture is not always fully appreciated
and must be taken into account. In a piece on “the
ocean model of civilization”, Prof Nayef Al-
Rodhan argues that greater transcultural
understanding is critical for global security
because it diminishes ‘hierarchies’ and alienation,
and avoids dehumanization of the ‘other’.
Counseling[edit]
When personal conflict leads to frustration and
loss of efficiency, counseling may prove helpful.
Although few organizationscan afford to have
professional counselors on staff, given some
training, managers may be able to perform this
function. Nondirective counseling, or "listening
with understanding", is little more than being a
good listener—something every manager should
be.[37]
Sometimes simply being able to express one's
feelings to a concerned and understanding
listener is enough to relieve frustration and make
it possible for an individual to advance to a
problem-solving frame of mind. The nondirective
approach is one effective way for managers to
deal with frustrated subordinates and coworkers.
[38]
There are other, more direct and more diagnostic,
methods that could be used in appropriate
circumstances. However, the great strength of the
nondirective approach[nb 2] lies in its simplicity, its
effectiveness, and that it deliberately avoids the
manager-counselor's diagnosing and interpreting
emotional problems, which would call for special
psychological training. Listening to staff with
sympathy and understanding is unlikely to
escalate the problem, and is a widely-used
approach for helping people cope with problems
that interfere with their effectiveness in the
workplace.[38]
Steps to conflict resolution in the
classroom[edit]
Step 1: Clarifying and focusing: problem
ownership
Negative feelings such as annoyance, anger and
discomfort can interfere with understanding
exactly what is wrong in situations of
confrontation and how to set things right again.
Gaining a bit of distance from negative feelings is
exactly what such moments call for, especially on
the part of the person with (presumably) the
greatest maturity. Problem ownership is defined
as deciding who should take ownership of the
behavior or conflict in the issue (Gordon, 2003).
The main person who is bothered by the root
problem is also the “owner” of the problem, and
thus the owner of a problem needs to be the one
who takes primary responsibility for solving the
issue. Identifying ownership makes a difference
in how behavior is dealt with, as well as how the
problem is effectively solved. It is important to
ask clarifying questions to really understand the
root causes of the conflict.
Step 2: Active listening
Several strategies help with distinguishing who
has a problem with a behavior and who takes
ownership. One of those strategies is active
listening. Active listening is attending carefully
to all aspects of what a student says and
attempting to understand or empathize as much
as one can (Seifert & Sutton). Active listening
consists of continually asking questions in order
to test your understanding. It also requires giving
encouragement to the student by letting them tell
their story, and paraphrasing what the student
says so you can form an unbiased conclusion. It
is key not to move too quickly at solving the
problem by just giving advice, instructions, or
scolding. Responding too soon with solutions can
shut down the student’s communication and leave
you with inaccurate impressions of the source or
nature of the problem (Seifert & Sutton).
Step 3: Assertive discipline and I-messages
Once you, as the teacher, have taken in the
student’s point of view, form your comments
around how the student’s behavior affects your
role. Your comments should be assertive,
emphasize I-messages, and encourage the student
to think about the effects of his or her behavior.
They should not be passive, apologetic, hostile or
aggressive, but matter-of-fact, such as, “Charlie,
you are talking while I am talking.” The
comments should emphasize I-messages that
focus on how the behavior is affecting the
teacher’s teaching and the other students' learning
(Seifert & Sutton). An example of this would be,
“You are making it hard for me to focus on
teaching this math lesson.” Lastly, you should
ask the student more open-ended questions that
make him or her think about the consequences of
his or her behavior, such as, “How do the other
kids feel when you yell in the middle of class?”
(Seifert & Sutton).

 The comments should encourage the student

to think about the effects of his or her actions
on others—-a strategy that in effect
encourages the student to consider the ethical
implications of the actions (Gibbs, 2003).
Instead of simply saying, “When you cut in
line ahead of the other kids, that was not fair
to them”, you can try asking, “How do you
think the other kids feel when you cut in line
ahead of them?”
Step 4: Negotiation
Seifert and Sutton state that the first three steps
describe desirable ways of handling situations
that are specific and last for only a short time.
These steps by themselves could potentially not
be enough when conflicts persist over extended
periods of time. Often it is better to negotiate a
solution in these situations. Negotiating is
defined as methodically deliberating various
options and deciding on one if possible (Seifert &
Sutton). Even though negotiation demands time
and energy, it often demands less time or effort
ultimately than continuing to cope with the
problem. The results of negotiation can be
valuable to everyone involved in the situation.
Various experts on conflict resolution have
suggested different ways to negotiate with
students about problems that are continual
(Seifert & Sutton). The theories differ in
specifics, but typically are generally similar to the
steps we previously discussed:

 Determine what the problem is—involves

active listening
 Discuss and share possible solutions,
consider their efficacy
 Attempt to reach a consensus: Total
agreement on the subject will not always be
possible, but should be set as your end goal
 Assess the success of the decision:
Renegotiation might be necessary.[39]

See also[edit]

 Civil resistance
 Conflict continuum
 Conflict early warning
 Conflict management
 Conflict resolution research
 Conflict style inventory
 Conflict transformation
 Cost of conflict
 Creative peacebuilding
 Dialogue
 Fair fighting
 Family therapy
 Gunnysacking
 Interpersonal communication
 Let the Wookiee win
 Nonviolent Communication
Organizations[edit]

 Center for the Study of Genocide, Conflict

Resolution, and Human Rights
 Conscience: Taxes for Peace not War is a
London organisation that promotes
peacebuilding as an alternative to military
security
 Heidelberg Institute for International Conflict
Research
 Peninsula Conflict Resolution Center
 Search for Common Ground is one of the
world's largest non-government organisations
dedicated to conflict resolution
 Seeds of Peace develops and empowers
young leaders from regions of conflict to
work towards peace through coexistence
 United Network of Young Peacebuilders
(UNOY) is a global NGO and youth network
dedicated to the role of youth in
peacebuilding and conflict resolution
 University for Peace is a United Nations
mandated organization and graduate school
dedicated to conflict resolution and peace
studies
 Uppsala Conflict Data Program is an
academic data collection project that provides
descriptions of political violence and conflict
resolution

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Works cited[edit]

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across cultures. Louisville, Kentucky:
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 Bannon, I. & Paul Collier (Eds.).
(2003). Natural resources and violent
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D.C: The World Bank.
 Ury, F. & Rodger Fisher. (1981). Getting to
yes: Negotiating agreement without giving in.
New York, NY: Penguin Group.
 Wilmot, W. & Jouyce Hocker.
(2007). Interpersonal conflict. New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill Companies.
 Bercovitch, Jacob and Jackson, Richard.
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Roosmalen. 1979. Reconciliation and
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Ecology and Sociobiology 5: 55–66.
 de Waal, Frans B. M. 1989. Peacemaking
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 Judge, Peter G.; de Waal, Frans B.M.
(1993). "Conflict avoidance among rhesus
monkeys: coping with short-term
crowding". Animal Behaviour. 46: 221–
232. doi:10.1006/anbe.1993.1184.
 Veenema, Hans; et al. (1994).
"Methodological improvements for the study
of reconciliation". Behavioural
Processes. 31: 29–38. doi:10.1016/0376-
6357(94)90035-3.
 de Waal, Frans B. M. and Filippo Aureli.
1996. Consolation, reconciliation, and a
possible cognitive difference between
macaques and chimpanzees. Reaching into
thought: The minds of the great apes (Eds.
Anne E. Russon, Kim A. Bard, Sue Taylor
Parker), Cambridge University Press, New
York, NY: 80–110.
 Aureli, Filippo (1997). "Post-conflict anxiety
in non-human primates: the mediating role of
emotion in conflict resolution".Aggressive
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328. doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-
2337(1997)23:5<315::aid-ab2>3.0.co;2-h.
 Castles, Duncan L.; Whiten, Andrew (1998).
"Post-conflict behaviour of wild olive
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consolation". Ethology. 104: 126–
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0310.1998.tb00057.x.
 Aureli, Filippo and Frans B. M. de Waal, eds.
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 de Waal, Frans B. M. 2000. Primates––A
natural heritage of conflict
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 Hicks, Donna. 2011. Dignity: The Essential
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 Silk, Joan B (2002). "The form and function
of reconciliation in primates". Annual Review
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1743.
 Weaver, Ann; de Waal, Frans B. M. (2003).
"The mother-offspring relationship as a
template in social development:
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(Cebus apella)". Journal of Comparative
Psychology. 117: 101–
110.doi:10.1037/0735-7036.117.1.101.
 Palagi, Elisabetta; et al. (2004).
"Reconciliation and consolation in captive
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 Palagi, Elisabetta; et al. (2005). "Aggression
and reconciliation in two captive groups of
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294. doi:10.1007/s10764-005-2925-x.
 Lorenzen, Michael. 2006. Conflict
Resolution and Academic Library
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 Winslade, John & Monk, Gerald.
2000. Narrative Mediation: A New Approach
to Conflict Resolution. Jossey-Bass
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  Bar-Siman-Tov, Yaacov (Ed.) (2004). From
Conflict Resolution to Reconciliation. Oxford
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 Tesler, Pauline. 2001, 2008. Collaborative
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 Kellett, Peter M. (2007). Conflict Dialogue.
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0930-9.

Further reading[edit]

 Peter T. Coleman (2011). The Five Percent:

Finding Solutions to Seemingly Impossible
Conflicts. ISBN 978-1-58648-921-2.
 Caraccilo, Dominic J. "Beyond Guns and
Steel: A War Termination Strategy", Santa
Barbara, California: PSI, 2011.ISBN 978-0-
313-39149-1.
 Michal Alberstein, Amy Cohen, Hanan
Mandel, Orna Rabinovitch-Eini, Jay
Rothman, Amira Schiff and Ephraim Tabory,
eds. (2013). International Journal of Conflict
Engagement and Resolution. ISSN 2211-
9965.
 Shair-Rosenfield, Sarah; Wood, Reed M.
(May 2017). "Governing well after war: how
improving female representation prolongs
post-conflict peace". The Journal of
Politics. Chicago
Journals. doi:10.1086/691056.

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