❑ Wave

❑ Characteristics of Wave Motion

❑ Types of Waves: Transverse and Longitudinal

❑ Stationary wave, Progressive/ Traveling wave

❑ Simple Harmonic Motion

❑ Mathematical Representation of a Traveling Wave

❑ Simple pendulum, Second pendulum

❑ Kinetic energy and potential energy of a particle executing SHM

❑ Refraction, Reflection and Transmission

❑Mechanics, Wave motion & Heat

- Francis W. Sears
❑Fundamental of Physics
- Resnick and Holliday
 Wave:
▪ A wave is a form of energy traveling progressively from point
to point in a medium.
▪ All types of traveling waves transport energy.
▪ Study of a single wave pulse shows that it is begun with a
vibration and is transmitted through internal forces in the
medium.
▪ Continuous waves start with vibrations, too. If the vibration is
SHM, then the wave will be sinusoidal.

Some terms related to waves are:

▪ Amplitude, A
▪ Wavelength, λ
▪ Frequency, f
▪ period, T
Figure -1: Generation of a wave.
▪ Wave velocity, v
 ▪ A waveform is a graphical
representation of a signal in the
form of a wave.

Figure -2: Waveform in a water wave.

Characteristics of wave motion

• A wave is a propagating disturbance that conveys energy.

• Longitudinal and transverse are the two main types of waves: some propagate along and the others
perpendicular to their wave motion.
• Wavelength is the distance between two equivalent points in a wave.

• Amplitude is the maximum displacement or distance moved by a point on a wave measured from its
equilibrium position.
• The period of a wave is defined as the time a particle in a medium takes to make one complete cycle.
• Sound, visible light, and microwaves are all examples of waves. The wave characteristic determines
different properties in each of these cases. For example, in sound wave, amplitude determines the
volume and frequency determines the pitch. In light, wavelength determines the color we perceive
and also its energy.
Amplitude (A): Amplitude refers to the distance of the maximum displacement of the wave from its mean
position. Larger the amplitude, the higher the energy.
Wavelength (λ): The distance between two successive maxima (“peaks”) or minima (“troughs”) in the wave.
Frequency (f ): The frequency of a wave is the number of waves that pass a point in a certain period of time.
Frequency can also be described as the number of waves that pass a point in one second. Waves that are moving
more quickly will have a higher frequency than waves that are moving slowly.
Period (T): Wave periods are the amount of time it takes to complete one wave cycle. The period of a wave is
found by taking the inverse of the frequency, or dividing the wavelength by its velocity.
Wave velocity (v): The velocity of a wave is equal to the product of its wavelength and frequency (number of
vibrations per second) and is independent of its intensity.

Figure -3: Properties of a wave.

Types of waves: transverse and longitudinal
❑ Transverse wave: A transverse wave is a wave in
which particles move perpendicular to the direction of
the wave propagation. Surface ripples on water, seismic
S (secondary) waves, and electromagnetic (e.g., radio
and light) waves are examples of transverse waves.
All the particles of the medium vibrate in the same
direction as the wave, having crest and trough.

❑ Longitudinal wave: A longitudinal wave is a wave in

which the particles move in a direction parallel to the
wave propagation. Sound waves in air, the primary
waves of an earthquake, ultrasound, the vibration of a
spring, the fluctuations in a gas etc.
When longitudinal waves travel, the include compressions
and rarefractions. Figure -4: (a) Transverse Wave,
(b) Longitudinal Wave
Stationary wave and progressive/ traveling wave

Progressive/ traveling wave: A wave, which travels continuously

in a medium in the same direction, is called a progressive wave. (a)

Stationary wave: A stationary wave, is a wave that oscillates in time

but whose peak amplitude profile does not move in space. A stationary
wave is one that is not moving or is at a standstill or resting pose.
▪ Stationary waves, or standing waves, are produced by
the superposition of two waves of the same (b)
frequency and amplitude travelling in opposite directions
▪ This is usually achieved by a travelling wave and its reflection. The
superposition produces a wave pattern where the peaks and troughs do
not move.
▪ Unlike a travelling wave, a standing wave does not appear to travel.
Each point on the standing wave will oscillate about a point on the axis Figure -5: (a) Travelling wave
of the wave. (b) Stationary wave
1. A stationary wave is formed by the superposition of two equal progressive waves travelling in opposite
directions whereas, a progressive wave is formed due to continuous vibration of the particles of the medium.
2. The wave does not travel in any direction in stationary waves whereas, in progressive waves, the wave
travels with a certain velocity.
3. There is no flow of energy in stationary waves whereas, in progressive waves, there is a flow of energy.
4. Particles at the node are at rest in stationary waves whereas, in progressive waves, no particles in the medium
are at rest.
5. In stationary waves, amplitude is different particles, whereas in progressive waves, amplitude of all the
particles is the same.
6. In stationary waves, all particles in a loop are in the same phase and they are in opposite phase with respect
to particles in adjacent loops, whereas in progressive waves, phase change continuously from particle to
particle.
Simple harmonic motion: A Simple Harmonic Motion, or SHM, is defined as a motion in which the restoring force is
directly proportional to the displacement of the body from its mean position.
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
Let, the mass of a particle be m that is moving in a simple harmonic motion and force, F applied on it. Let, the particle in a
distance x from the mean position. By definition, 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 ------------------------ (1)
Where, k is proportional constant, called spring constant.
𝑑𝑣
From the 2nd law of Newton, we have 𝐹 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑚 ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2𝑥
=𝑚 ------------------------ (2)
𝑑𝑡 2

Combining equation (1) and (2):

𝑑 2𝑥
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑 2𝑥
Or, 𝑚 2 + 𝑘𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑥 𝑘
Or, + 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
𝑑2𝑥 𝑘
Or, + 𝜔 2𝑥=0 [as, = 𝜔 , the angular momentum]
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
By solving the equation we have, x= A𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)
𝛿 is the phase difference.
Mathematical representation of a traveling wave:
Let a travelling wave is propagating at the forward direction from left to right.
At time t the wave equation be,
y = A sin ωt
Where, a is the displacement at time t.
If the frequency of the particle be f, then ω = 2πf
y = A sin 2πft
If there is a phase difference between two waves then,y = a sin(2πft − δ)
Now, for wavelength ℷ the phase difference be 2π. So for displacement x the
phase difference equation be,
2π
δ= x
ℷ
From equation (3) and (4) we have,
2π
y = A sin(2πft − x)
ℷ
2π
Or, y = 𝐴 sin (vt − x)
ℷ
This is the general equation that representing a travelling wave.
Simple pendulum
A simple pendulum can be described as a device where its point mass is attached to a
light inextensible string and suspended from a fixed support. The vertical line passing
through the fixed support is the mean position of a simple pendulum. The vertical distance
between the point of suspension and the centre of mass of the suspended body, when it is in
the mean position, is called the length of the simple pendulum, denoted by L. This form of
the pendulum is based on the resonant system having a single resonant frequency.
Assumptions:
▪ There is negligible friction from the air and the system

▪ The arm of the pendulum does not bend or compress and is massless

▪ The pendulum swings in a perfect plane

▪ Gravity remains constant

A simple pendulum is a mechanical arrangement that demonstrates periodic motion. The

simple pendulum comprises a small bob of mass ‘m’ suspended by a thin string secured to
a platform at its upper end of length L.
Therefore, the time period of a simple pendulum is given by,
𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑔

Second pendulum: A seconds pendulum is a pendulum whose period is precisely two

seconds; one second for a swing in one direction and one second for the return swing.
Kinetic energy and potential energy of a particle executing SHM

At any instant a particle in SHM will have both potential and kinetic energy. The magnitude of the total energy will be
equal to the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy. Potential energy is converted to kinetic energy or kinetic
energy to potential energy due to motion, but the total amount of enrgy remains constant over time. Which supports the
principle of conservation of mechanical energy.

Potential energy: The potential energy of a particle in SHM at position x,

𝑥
𝑈 = 𝐸𝑝 = න −𝐹𝑑𝑥
0

[ If force and displacement are opposite to each other, work is negative.]

For SHM, F=-kx
𝑥
𝑈 = 𝐸𝑝 = න 𝑘𝑥𝑑𝑥
0
1
𝑈 = 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2

This is the equation for potential energy.

Again, 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿
1
𝑈 = 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑘𝐴2 sin2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)
2
For maximum value of potential energy, sin2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) = 1.
1
So maximum potential energy, 𝑈 = 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑘𝐴2
2

Kinetic energy: For a particle of mass m and velocity v moving in SHM,

1
Kinetic energy, 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Using the velocity equation, 𝑣 2 = 𝐴2 𝜔 2 cos 2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)
1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝐴2 𝜔2 cos 2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)
2
But 𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2
1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑘𝐴2 cos 2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿)
2
1
= 𝑘𝐴2 (1 − sin2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿))
2
1
= 𝑘(𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 )
2
This is the equation for kinetic energy.
1
For maximum value, 𝐸𝑘𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘𝐴2
2
Total energy,
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑝 + 𝐸𝑘
1 1
= 𝑘𝐴2 sin2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿) + 𝑘𝐴2 cos 2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿
2 2
1
=2 𝑘𝐴2

As both k and A are constants, then total mechanical

energy must be constant which obey the conservation
of energy.
𝐸 ∝ 𝐴2
Defines that, for SHM total energy is proportional to
the square of the amplitude A.
Refraction, reflection and transmission

▪ Transmission: Transmission is the passing of light through a material without being absorbed.
For instance, an incoming light will just pass through a glass window as transmitted light. The
extent of the transmission of light depends on the type of the material the light strikes. Transparent
and translucent materials transmit light, but opaque materials do not. If light is not transmitted, it
may have been reflected or absorbed.
▪ Refraction: Refraction is the bending of light due to the
change in its speed when it obliquely passes two different
media. When light travels from a medium with a low
refractive index to a medium with a higher refractive index,
it slows down and refracts closer to the normal line. On the
other hand, when light travels from a medium with a high
refractive index to a medium with a lower refractive index,
it speeds up and refracts away from the normal line.
▪ The light ray that is entering a different medium is called
the incident ray while the bent ray is called the refracted ray.
Refractive index describes how light propagates through a
medium. A higher refractive index means the light
propagates slower, and its direction changes more upon
entering a medium. A lower refractive index means the light
travels faster, and its direction changes less upon entering a
medium.
▪ Reflection: Reflection occurs when light bounces
back as it hits a reflecting surface, such as a mirror.
This phenomenon can be described using light rays.
▪ The ray of light that hits the reflecting surface is called
an incident ray. After hitting the surface, it bounces off
as a reflected ray. The incident ray and the reflected ray
form angles with the normal line, which is a line
perpendicular to the reflecting surface. These angles
are called angle of incidence and angle of reflection,
respectively.
▪ The relationship between the angle of incidence and
the angle of reflection is illustrated in the law of
reflection. This law states that the angle of incidence,
the angle of reflection, and the normal line are found
on the same plane; and the angle of incidence is equal
to the angle of reflection.