1) Explain in detail about Swenson Walker crystallizer

The Swenson-Walker crystallizer is a type of continuous crystallizer commonly used in the

chemical and pharmaceutical industries to produce large, uniform crystals of various
substances. It’s particularly effective for cooling crystallization processes, where the
solubility of a compound decreases as the temperature drops, causing the compound to
crystallize out of solution.
Structure and Components
The Swenson-Walker crystallizer has a simple and robust design that includes:
1. Trough: The crystallizer consists of a long, shallow, open trough where the
crystallization process takes place. The trough can be made of stainless steel or other
corrosion-resistant materials, depending on the nature of the solution being
processed.
2. Screw Conveyor: Running through the length of the trough is a rotating screw
conveyor or helical blade. This conveyor slowly moves the solution along the length
of the trough, encouraging a steady, controlled flow for uniform crystallization.
3. Cooling System: The crystallizer trough is jacketed with cooling channels through
which a cooling fluid (such as water or brine) circulates. This cooling gradually lowers
the temperature of the solution as it travels through the trough, initiating and
controlling the crystallization process.
4. Inlet and Outlet: Solution containing the solute to be crystallized is introduced at one
end of the trough, and the crystallized product exits at the other end. The process is
continuous, with fresh solution entering and crystal-laden slurry leaving the trough
continuously.
Working Principle
The Swenson-Walker crystallizer works on the principle of cooling crystallization in a
continuous, controlled environment. Here’s a step-by-step explanation of its operation:
1. Solution Feeding: The solution containing the dissolved solute is fed into one end of
the trough. This solution is typically heated, so the solute remains dissolved.
2. Cooling and Crystallization: As the solution travels along the length of the trough,
the cooling jacket surrounding the trough gradually lowers the temperature of the
solution. The cooling rate is carefully controlled to ensure that the solubility of the
solute decreases progressively, promoting gradual and uniform crystal growth.
3. Crystal Formation and Growth: As the solution cools, the solubility limit of the solute
is reached, and the solute begins to crystallize out of the solution. The screw
conveyor gently agitates the slurry, keeping the crystals suspended and preventing
them from settling at the bottom of the trough. This gentle agitation also allows for
 uniform crystal growth, as fresh solute in the solution can reach the growing crystal
surfaces evenly.
4. Product Discharge: The screw conveyor continuously moves the crystal slurry toward
the discharge end of the trough. By the time the slurry reaches the end, the crystals
have had enough time to grow to the desired size. The slurry, which now contains the
crystals and a mother liquor (remaining solution), exits the crystallizer, where the
crystals can be separated from the liquid, washed, and dried.
Advantages of Swenson-Walker Crystallizer
1. Uniform Crystal Size: The slow, controlled cooling and gentle agitation allow for the
formation of large, uniform crystals, which is often desirable in pharmaceutical and
food industries.
2. Continuous Operation: The Swenson-Walker crystallizer is ideal for continuous
operation, making it efficient for large-scale production.
3. Energy Efficiency: By using a simple cooling jacket rather than complex refrigeration
equipment, the Swenson-Walker crystallizer can operate with relatively low energy
requirements.
4. Versatile Applications: It can be used for various materials that undergo cooling
crystallization, including salts, sugars, and other organic and inorganic compounds.
5. Low Maintenance: The simple design of the trough, screw conveyor, and cooling
jacket makes this crystallizer durable and easy to maintain, which is advantageous in
industrial settings.
Applications
The Swenson-Walker crystallizer is widely used for producing crystals in industries where
consistent crystal size and shape are critical. Common applications include:
 Chemical industry: For producing crystals of chemicals such as sodium chloride,
potassium nitrate, and ammonium sulfate.
 Pharmaceutical industry: For crystallizing active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs)
where controlled crystal size impacts drug solubility and bioavailability.
 Food industry: For crystallizing substances like sugar and salt in food processing

2) Discuss about the Vacuum crystallizer with neat sketch.

A vacuum crystallizer is a type of crystallization equipment that operates under reduced

pressure (vacuum conditions) to facilitate the crystallization of solutes from a solution.
Vacuum crystallization is a popular method in various industries such as food,
pharmaceuticals, and chemicals, particularly for temperature-sensitive materials and those
with high boiling points.
Structure and Components
The typical structure of a vacuum crystallizer includes:
1. Vacuum Chamber: The main body of the crystallizer where crystallization takes place.
This chamber is designed to maintain a vacuum, reducing the boiling point of the
solvent and allowing controlled evaporation.
2. Heating and Cooling System: A heating system (often a steam jacket) and a cooling
system are used to maintain the desired temperature and manage the heat
generated during crystallization. The heating section is usually where initial
concentration happens by evaporation under reduced pressure, while the cooling
system is used to bring the temperature down, prompting crystallization.
3. Condenser and Vacuum Pump: A condenser is connected to the vacuum crystallizer
to condense and collect the evaporated solvent. The vacuum pump maintains the
reduced pressure inside the chamber, which is essential for lowering the solvent’s
boiling point and controlling the rate of evaporation and cooling.
4. Agitator or Stirrer: Some vacuum crystallizers include an agitator to provide gentle
mixing, ensuring uniform temperature distribution and preventing excessive crystal
growth or agglomeration.
5. Product Discharge System: The crystallized product is discharged from the bottom of
the crystallizer, where it can be separated, washed, and dried.

Working Principle
The working principle of a vacuum crystallizer is based on the reduction of pressure to lower
the boiling point of the solvent, which in turn facilitates controlled evaporation and
crystallization at lower temperatures. Here’s a step-by-step breakdown of the process:
 1. Vacuum Creation and Solution Introduction: The crystallizer chamber is first
evacuated to create a vacuum, lowering the boiling point of the solvent. The
solution, containing the solute, is introduced into the chamber.
2. Evaporation Under Vacuum: Under vacuum conditions, the solvent begins to
evaporate at a lower temperature. This controlled evaporation causes the solution to
become more concentrated without requiring high temperatures, which is beneficial
for heat-sensitive materials. The concentration reaches the solubility limit, promoting
nucleation—the initial step in crystal formation.

3. Cooling and Crystallization: As the solvent evaporates, the cooling system gradually
lowers the temperature. This cooling causes the solute to precipitate out as crystals.
The reduced temperature under vacuum helps form uniform crystals and prevents
unwanted decomposition of temperature-sensitive compounds.
4. Crystal Growth and Agitation: As the crystallization proceeds, crystals grow in size.
The agitator (if present) gently stirs the mixture, ensuring that the crystals remain in
suspension and grow uniformly. This prevents crystal clumping and allows fresh
solution to contact the crystal surfaces evenly.
5. Separation and Collection: Once crystallization is complete, the crystal slurry is
discharged from the crystallizer. The crystals are separated from the remaining
mother liquor by filtration or centrifugation and are then washed and dried as
needed.
Advantages of Vacuum Crystallizers
1. Lower Operating Temperatures: Vacuum conditions allow solvent evaporation and
crystallization at lower temperatures, making vacuum crystallizers ideal for heat-
sensitive materials that would degrade at higher temperatures.
2. Controlled Crystal Size: Vacuum crystallizers allow precise control over evaporation
and cooling rates, resulting in uniform and consistent crystal sizes, which is desirable
for product quality in many industries.
3. Energy Efficiency: Operating at reduced pressure reduces the energy needed for
heating, especially when the crystallizer is used in combination with a cooling system.
4. High Purity Crystals: Vacuum crystallization often leads to high-purity crystals since it
avoids thermal decomposition, which can introduce impurities.
5. Versatility: Suitable for a variety of substances, including chemicals, salts, and
pharmaceuticals, making it widely applicable in industries requiring high-purity
crystals.
Applications
Vacuum crystallizers are widely used in industries such as:
 Pharmaceuticals: For crystallizing active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and
compounds that are sensitive to high temperatures.
 Food industry: For crystallizing products like sugar, salts, and dairy products, where
maintaining flavor and nutritional content is important.

 Chemical industry: For crystallizing organic and inorganic compounds, including

those with high boiling points or temperature sensitivity.

 Petrochemicals: In processes that require crystallization of hydrocarbons and other

compounds with high melting points.

3) Write briefly about the procedure to determine the number of theoretical

plates required in the distillation column using the McCabe Thiele method.

The McCabe-Thiele method is a graphical approach used to determine the number of

theoretical plates (stages) required for a binary distillation column to achieve a desired
separation. Here’s a brief outline of the procedure:
Steps in the McCabe-Thiele Method:
1. Plot the Equilibrium Curve: Plot the equilibrium data (vapor-liquid equilibrium) for
the binary mixture on an xxx-yyy diagram, where xxx is the mole fraction of the more
volatile component in the liquid phase, and yyy is the mole fraction in the vapor
phase.
2. Draw the Operating Lines:
o Rectifying Section: Calculate the slope of the operating line for the rectifying
section, which depends on the reflux ratio RRR (Reflux Ratio = L/D, where LLL
is the liquid returned and DDD is the distillate). y=RR+1x+xDR+1y = \frac{R}{R
+ 1}x + \frac{x_D}{R + 1}y=R+1Rx+R+1xD where xDx_DxD is the mole fraction
of the distillate product.
o Stripping Section: Use a material balance around the entire column to
determine the slope of the operating line for the stripping section:
y=LsVsx−xB⋅LsVsy = \frac{L_s}{V_s} x - \frac{x_B \cdot L_s}{V_s}y=VsLsx−VsxB
⋅Ls where xBx_BxB is the mole fraction of the bottoms product.

3. Draw the Feed Line (q-Line): The slope of the qqq-line, which represents the
condition of the feed (subcooled, saturated liquid, saturated vapor, or superheated),
is given by:
q=1−qqq = \frac{1 - q}{q}q=q1−q
where qqq is the fraction of the feed that is liquid. The feed line intersects the equilibrium
curve and the operating lines.
4. Construct Stages:
o Starting at the distillate composition point (xD,yD)(x_D, y_D)(xD,yD), draw
horizontal and vertical lines (stepwise) between the equilibrium curve and the
operating lines.
o Each step represents one theoretical stage, and this process continues until
you reach the bottom composition (xB,yB)(x_B, y_B)(xB,yB).
5. Count the Steps: The number of steps (horizontal and vertical lines) represents the
number of theoretical stages needed for the desired separation.

4) Discuss in detail with neat diagram of extractive distillation and Flash

distillation and its applications.

Extractive Distillation is a technique used to separate mixtures of components with similar

boiling points or those that form azeotropes, where conventional distillation fails. In
extractive distillation, a separation agent or solvent is added to alter the relative volatility of
the components, making it easier to separate them.

Working Principle

 A high-boiling solvent, often referred to as the entrainer, is introduced into the

distillation column. The solvent selectively interacts with one of the components,
changing its volatility relative to the other components.
 The mixture is fed into the column below the point where the entrainer is added. The
entrainer remains primarily in the liquid phase, interacting with the components of
the mixture as they ascend the column.
  The addition of the entrainer increases the relative volatility of the components,
allowing them to be separated based on their modified boiling points.
 The more volatile component, which is less affected by the entrainer, leaves the top
of the column as the distillate, while the entrainer and the less volatile component
exit at the bottom.
 After the separation, the entrainer is recovered and recycled back into the column for
continuous operation.

Applications
 Separation of Azeotropes: Extractive distillation is widely used for separating
azeotropic mixtures, such as ethanol-water, which form a constant-boiling mixture
under normal distillation.
 Separation of Close-Boiling Mixtures: It is used to separate close-boiling point
components, such as benzene and toluene, which are difficult to separate by simple
distillation.
 Petrochemical Industry: Extractive distillation is used in the refining of hydrocarbons,
including the separation of aromatic and non-aromatic hydrocarbons.
Advantages

 Enables separation of azeotropes and close-boiling mixtures, which are not feasible
with regular distillation.

 Allows recovery and recycling of the entrainer, making the process more economical
in the long term.


Flash Distillation
Flash Distillation is a single-stage separation process where a liquid mixture is partially
vaporized to separate components based on their volatility differences. Flash distillation is
commonly used when rapid separation is needed or when only a limited amount of
separation is required.
Working Principle
 In flash distillation, the liquid mixture is heated to a temperature above the boiling
point of the more volatile component(s).
 The heated liquid is then fed into a flash chamber or separator at reduced pressure.
This causes a portion of the liquid to rapidly vaporize (flash), and the vapor and liquid
phases separate based on differences in their compositions.
 The vapor phase is enriched in the more volatile component(s), while the liquid
phase retains a higher concentration of the less volatile component(s).
 The separated vapor and liquid phases are collected from the flash chamber. Since
this is a single-stage process, it typically provides less separation efficiency than a
multi-stage distillation column.
Applications
 Crude Oil Refining: Flash distillation is commonly used in crude oil processing to
separate light and heavy fractions at various stages of the refining process.
 Natural Gas Processing: It is used to separate light hydrocarbons, such as methane
and ethane, from heavier hydrocarbons in natural gas streams.

 Chemical Production: Flash distillation is used in processes where simple separations

are needed, such as in the dehydration of alcohols or the initial purification steps for
chemical mixtures.
Advantages

 Simplicity and low cost since it requires only one stage and is easier to operate
compared to multi-stage distillation processes.
 Rapid separation, making it suitable for continuous processing of large volumes.

Summary of Key Differences

Feature Extractive Distillation Flash Distillation

Separation Uses an entrainer to modify

Relies on partial vaporization
Mechanism volatility

Stages Multi-stage distillation process Single-stage process

Azeotropic and close-boiling Simple separation of volatile

Applications
mixtures components

Advantages Effective for difficult separations Simpler setup and lower cost