Training for Performance

-
Factors affecting performance
Objectives

1. Identify factors affecting maximal performance.

2. Provide evidence for and against the central
nervous system being a site of fatigue.
3. Identify potential neural factors in the periphery
that may be linked to fatigue.
4. Explain the role of cross-bridge cycling in fatigue.
5. Summarize the evidence on the order of
recruitment of muscle fibers with increasing
intensities of activity and the type of metabolism
upon which each is dependent.
Objectives

6. Describe the factors limiting performance in all-out

activities lasting less than ten seconds.
7. Describe the factors limiting performance in all-out
activities lasting 10 to 180 seconds.
8. Discuss the subtle changes in the factors affecting
optimal performance as the duration of maximal
performance increase from three minutes to four
hours.
Outline

 Sites of Fatigue  Factors Limiting All-  Athlete as Machine

Central Fatigue Out Aerobic
Peripheral Fatigue Performances
 Factors Limiting All- Moderate-Length
Performances
Out Anaerobic
(Three to Twenty
Performances Minutes)
Ultra Short-Term
Intermediate-Length
Performances
Performances (Twenty-
(Less than Ten Seconds)
One to Sixty Minutes)
Short-Term Performances
Long-Term Performances
(10 to 180 Seconds)
(One to Four Hours)
 Sites of Fatigue

Factors Affecting Performance

Figure 19.1
 Sites of Fatigue

Sites of Fatigue

• Fatigue
– Inability to maintain power output or force during
repeated muscle contractions
• Central fatigue
– Central nervous system
• Peripheral fatigue
– Neural factors
– Mechanical factors
– Energetics of contraction
 Sites of Fatigue

Possible Sites
of Fatigue

Figure 19.2
 Sites of Fatigue

Central Fatigue

• Reduction in motor units activated

• Reduction in motor unit firing frequency
• Central nervous system arousal can alter the state
of fatigue
– By facilitating motor unit recruitment
 Increasing motivation
 Physical or mental diversion
• Excessive endurance training (overtraining)
– Reduced performance, prolonged fatigue, etc.
– Related to brain serotonin activity
• “Central Governor” model
– Conscious and subconscious brain, not spinal cord
or motor unit
 Sites of Fatigue

Peripheral Fatigue: Neural Factors

• Neuromuscular junction
– Not a site for fatigue
• Sarcolemma and transverse tubules
– Ability of muscle membrane to conduct an action
potential
 Inability of Na+/K+ pump to maintain action potential
amplitude and frequency
– Can be improved by training
– An action potential block in the T-tubules
 Reduction in Ca+2 release from sarcoplasmic reticulum
 Sites of Fatigue

In Summary

 Increases in CNS arousal facilitate motor unit recruitment

to increase strength and alter the state of fatigue.
 The ability of the muscle membrane to conduct an action
potential may be related to fatigue in activities
demanding a high frequency of stimulation.
 Repeated stimulation of the sarcolemma can result in a
reduction in the size and frequency of action potentials;
however, shifts in the optimal frequency needed for
muscle activation preserve force output.
 Under certain conditions an action potential block can
occur in the t-tubule to result in a reduction in Ca+2
release from the SR.
 Sites of Fatigue

Peripheral Fatigue: Mechanical Factors

• Cross-bridge cycling and tension development

depends on:
– Arrangement of actin and myosin
– Ca+2 binding to troponin
– ATP availability
• High H+ concentration may contribute to fatigue
– Reduce the force per cross-bridge
– Reduce the force generated at a given Ca+2
concentration
– Inhibit Ca+2 release from SR
• Longer “relaxation time” is a sign of fatigue
– Due to slower cross-bridge cycling
 Sites of Fatigue
A Closer Look 19.1
Radical Production During Exercise
Contributes to Muscle Fatigue
• Exercise promotes free radical formation
– Molecules that contain unpaired electron in outer
orbital
– Capable of damaging proteins, lipids, and DNA
• Can contribute to fatigue
– Damage contractile proteins (myosin and troponin)
 Limits the number of cross-bridges in strong binding state
– Depress sodium/potassium pump activity
 Disruption of potassium homeostasis
• Optimal levels of antioxidants can postpone fatigue
– High doses can impair muscle function
 Sites of Fatigue

In Summary

 The cross-bridge ability to “cycle” is important in

continued tension development. Fatigue may be related
to the effect of a high H+ concentration on the ability of
troponin to bind to Ca+2, the inability of the sarcoplasmic
reticulum to take up Ca+2, or the lack of ATP needed to
dissociate the cross-bridge from actin.
 Sites of Fatigue

Peripheral Fatigue: Energetics of

Contraction
• Imbalance ATP requirements and ATP generating
capacity
– Accumulation of Pi
 Inhibits maximal force
 Reduces cross-bridge binding to actin
 Inhibits Ca+2 release from SR
• Rate of ATP utilization is slowed faster than rate of
ATP utilization
– Maintains ATP concentration
 Sites of Fatigue

In Summary

 Fatigue is directly associated with a mismatch between

the rate at which the muscle uses ATP and the rate at
which ATP can be supplied.
 Cellular fatigue mechanisms slow down the rate of ATP
utilization faster than the rate of ATP generation to
preserve the ATP concentration and cellular
homeostasis.
 Sites of Fatigue

Peripheral Fatigue: Energetics of

Contraction
• Muscle fiber recruitment in increasing intensities of
exercise
– Type I  Type IIa  Type IIx
– Up to 40% VO2 max type I fibers recruited
– Type IIa fibers recruited at 40–75% VO2 max
– Exercise >75% VO2 max requires IIx fibers
– Results in increased lactate production
 Sites of Fatigue

Order of Muscle Fiber Type Recruitment

Figure 19.3
 Sites of Fatigue

In Summary

 Muscle fibers are recruited in the following order with

increasing intensities of exercise: Type I  Type IIa 
Type IIx
 The progression moves from the most to the least
oxidative muscle fiber type. Intense exercise (>75% VO2
max) demands that type IIx fibers be recruited, resulting
in an increase in lactate production.
 Training for Performance
-
Training principles
Components of training session
Training for aerobic power,
muscular strength, and flexibility
Objectives

1. Design a sport-specific training program based on

an analysis of the energy system utilized by the
activity.
2. Define the terms overload, specificity, and
reversibility.
3. Compare and contrast the use of interval training
and continuous training in the improvement of the
maximal aerobic power in athletes.
4. Discuss the differences between training for
anaerobic power and training for the improvement
of strength.
Objectives

5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of

different equipment types in weight training.
6. Define delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
List the factors that contribute to its development.
7. Discuss the use of static and ballistic stretching to
improve flexibility.
8. Discuss the differences between conditioning
goals during: (1) the off-season, (2) the pre-season
conditioning, and (3) in-season.
9. List and discuss several common training errors.
Outline
 Training Principles  Training for Improved  Training for Improved
Overload, Specificity, and Anaerobic Power Flexibility
Reversibility Training to Improve the  Year-Round
Influence of Gender and ATP-PC System
Initial Fitness Conditioning for
Training to Improve the
Influence of Genetics Glycolytic System Athletes
 Training to Improve Off-Season Conditioning
 Components of a
Training Session: Muscular Strength Preseason Conditioning
Warm-up, Workout, Progressive Resistance In-Season Conditioning
and Cool-Down Exercise  Common Training
 Training to Improve General Strength-Training Mistakes
Aerobic Power Principles
Interval Training Free Weights vs.
Machines
Long, Slow Distance
Combined Strength- and
High-Intensity, Continuous Endurance-Training
Exercise Programs
Altitude Training Improves Gender Differences in
Exercise Performance at Response to Strength
Sea Level Training
 Injuries and Muscle Soreness
Endurance Training
 Training Principles

Training Principles

• Training program should match the anaerobic and

aerobic demands of the sport
• Overload
– Increased capacity of a system in response to
training above the level to which it is accustomed
• Specificity
– Specific muscles involved
– Specific energy systems that are utilized
• Reversibility
– When training is stopped, the training effect is
quickly lost
 Training Principles

Aerobic and Anaerobic Energy Systems

in Sports
 Training Principles

Influence of Gender and Initial

Fitness Level
• Men and women respond similarly to training
programs
– Exercise prescriptions should be individualized
• Training improvement is always greater in
individuals with lower initial fitness
– 50% increase in VO2 max in sedentary adults
– 10–15% improvement in normal, active subjects
– 3–5% improvement in trained athletes
 Training Principles

Influence of Genetics

• Genetics plays an important role in how an

individual responds to training
– Åstrand and Rodahl: “If you want to become a world-
class athlete, you must choose your parents wisely.”
• Anaerobic capacity is more genetically determined
than aerobic capacity
– Training can only improve anaerobic performance to
a small degree
– Dependent largely on fast (IIx) fibers
 Determined early in development
 Training Principles

In Summary

 The general objective of sport conditioning is to improve

performance by increasing the maximum energy output
during a particular movement. A conditioning program
should allocate the appropriate amount of training time to
match the aerobic and anaerobic demands of the sport.
 Muscles respond to training as a result of progressive
overload. When an athlete stops training, there is a rapid
decline in fitness due to detraining (reversibility).
 In general, men and women respond to conditioning in a
similar fashion. The amount of training improvement is
always greater in those individuals who are less
conditioned at the onset of the training program.
 Components of a Training Session

Components of a Training Session

• Warm-up
– Increases cardiac output and blood flow to skeletal
– Increases muscle temperature and enzyme activity
– Opportunity for stretching exercises
 Believed to reduce risk of muscle injury
• Workout
– Training session
• Cool-down
– Return blood “pooled” in muscles to central
circulation
 Components of a Training Session

In Summary

 Every training session should consist of a warm-up

period, a workout session, and a cool-down period.
 Although limited data exist, it is believed that a warm-up
reduces the risk of muscle and/or tendon injury during
exercise.
 Training to Improve Aerobic Power

Training to Improve Aerobic Power

• Three methods
– Interval training
– Long, slow distance
– High-intensity, continuous exercise
• Should be geared toward improving:
– VO2 max
– Lactate threshold
– Running economy
 Training to Improve Aerobic Power

Interval Training

• Repeated exercise bouts

– Separated by brief recovery periods
• Work interval
– Distance to be covered
– Intensity: 85–100% HRmax
– Duration: >60 seconds to improve VO2 max
• Rest interval
– Light activity such as walking
– 1:1 ratio of work to rest
• Number of interval sets and repetitions
– Depends on purpose of training and fitness level
 Training to Improve Aerobic Power

Determining Intensity for

Interval Training
 Training to Improve Aerobic Power

Long, Slow Distance

• Low-intensity exercise
– 57% VO2 max or 70% HRmax
• Duration greater than would be expected in
competition
• Based on the idea that training improvements are
based on volume of training
– However, more is not always better
 1.5 hours/day training results in better performance than 3
hours/day
 Training to Improve Aerobic Power

High-Intensity, Continuous Exercise

• Appears to be the best method of increasing VO2

max and lactate threshold
• High-intensity exercise
– At or slightly above lactate threshold
– 80–90% HRmax
 ≥90% HRmax or 95% HRR also suggested
• Duration of 25–50 min
– Depending on individual fitness level
 Training to Improve Aerobic Power

Relationship Between Training Intensity

and Improvement in VO2 Max

Figure 21.1
 Training to Improve Aerobic Power

Altitude Training Improves Exercise

Performance at Sea Level
• Altitude training may not always improve
performance at sea level
– Lower training intensity at altitude may result in de-
training
• Live-High, Train-Low
– Spend sleeping and resting time at altitude
 Increases red blood cell volume and oxygen transport
capacity of blood
– Train at lower altitude
– Better performance gains compared to living and
training at sea level
 Training to Improve Aerobic Power

In Summary

 Historically, training to improve maximal aerobic power

has used three methods: (1) interval training, (2) long,
slow-distance, and (3) high-intensity, continuous
exercise.
 Although controversy exists as to which of the training
methods results in the greatest improvement in VO2 max,
there is growing evidence that it is intensity and not
duration that is the most important factor in improving
VO2 max.
 The “Live-High, Train-Low” altitude training program
provides significant endurance performance gains
compared to training and living at sea level.
 Injuries and Endurance Training

Injuries and Endurance Training

• Most injuries are a result of overtraining

– Short-term, high-intensity exercise
– Prolonged, low-intensity exercise
• The “ten percent rule” for increasing training load
– Increase intensity or duration ≤10% per week
• Other injury risk factors
– Strength and flexibility imbalance
– Footwear problems
– Malalignment
– Poor running surface
– Disease (arthritis)
 Injuries and Endurance Training

In Summary

 The majority of training injuries are a result of

overtraining (e.g., overuse injuries) and can come from
either short-term, high-intensity exercise or prolonged,
low-intensity exercise.
 A useful rule of thumb for increasing the training load is
the “ten percent rule.” The ten percent rule states that
training intensity or duration should not be increased
more than 10% per week to avoid an overtraining injury.
 Training to Improve Anaerobic Power

Training to Improve Anaerobic Power

• ATP-PC system
– Short (5–10 seconds), high-intensity work intervals
 30-yard dashes for football players
– 30- to 60-second rest intervals
 Little lactic acid is produced, so recovery is rapid
• Glycolytic system
– Short (20–60 seconds), high-intensity work intervals
– Very demanding training
 May alternate hard and light training days
 Training to Improve Anaerobic Power

In Summary

 Training to improve anaerobic power involves a special

type of interval training. In general, the intervals are of
short duration and consist of high-intensity exercise
(near-maximal effort).
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Strength-Training Exercises

• Isometric or static
– Application of force without joint movement
• Dynamic or isotonic
– Includes variable resistance exercise
 Nautilus equipment
• Isokinetic
– Exertion of force at constant speed
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Strength Training Adaptations

• Increased muscle mass

– Hypertrophy
 Increased muscle fiber diameter
 Responsible for most of the increase in muscle size
– Hyperplasia
 Increased number of muscle fibers
• Conversion of IIxIIa fibers
• Central nervous system changes
– Increased motor unit recruitment
– Altered motor neuron firing rates
– Enhanced motor unit synchronization
– Removal of neural inhibition
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Progressive Resistance Exercise

• Improvements in strength via progressive overload

– Periodically increasing resistance (weight lifted) to
continue to overload the muscle
• Basis for most weight-training programs
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

General Strength-Training Principles

• Guidelines:
– Intensity
 4–12 RM
 Strength gains lower with >15 repetitions
– Number of sets for maximal strength gains
 Highly trained athletes require 4–8 sets per muscle group
 3–8 sets in trained non-athletes
 1–4 sets in non-trained individuals
– Frequency
 3 days per week
• Should involve muscles used in competition
• Speed of muscle shortening similar to speeds
used in events
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

The Winning Edge 21.1

Strength Training: Single Sets Versus
Multiple Sets for Maximal Strength Gains
• Some research suggests that one set results in
strength gains equal to multiple sets
– Controversial finding
• Number of sets required differs among subject
populations
– Highly trained athletes
 4 to 8 sets
– Trained nonathletes
 3 to 8 sets
– Untrained individuals
 1 to 4 sets
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Free Weights vs. Machines

• Strength gains are similar following training using

free weights and machines
• Argument for free weights:
– Data exist showing that free weights produce greater
strength gains
– Free weights produce greater movement variability
and specificity
– Free weights force control of balance and
stabilization
• Disadvantages of free weights
– Potential for injury
– Proper lifting technique required
– Spotters needed
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Weight Training Equipment

 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Combined Strength and Endurance

Training Program
• Combined strength and endurance training may
result in lower gains in strength than strength
training alone
– Depends on:
 Training state of subject
 Volume and frequency of training
 Way the two methods are integrated
• Strength and endurance training should be
performed on alternate days for optimal strength
gains
– May be due to fatigue
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Gender Differences in Response to

Strength Training
• Untrained males have greater absolute strength
than untrained females
– 50% stronger in upper body, 30% stronger in lower
body
• However, strength related to cross-sectional area of
muscle is similar
– 3–4 kg of force per cm2 of muscle in males and
females
• There does not appear to be a gender differences in
response to short-term strength training
– Men exhibit greater hypertrophy as a result of long-
term training
 Due to higher testosterone levels
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Strength as a Function of Muscle Cross-

Sectional Area in Men and Women

Figure 21.2
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Training-Induced Strength Changes in

Men and Women

Figure 21.3
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Muscle Soreness

• Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS)

– Appears 24–48 hours after strenuous exercise
– Due to microscopic tears in muscle fibers or
connective tissue
 Results in cellular degradation and inflammatory response
 Not due to lactic acid
– Eccentric exercise causes more damage than
concentric exercise
– Slowly begin a specific exercise over 5–10 training
sessions to avoid DOMS
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Steps Leading to DOMS

• Strenuous muscle contraction results in muscle

damage
• Membrane damage occurs
– Including sarcoplasmic reticulum
• Calcium leaks out of SR and collects in
mitochondria
– Inhibits ATP production
– Activates proteases which degrade contractile
proteins
• Results in inflammatory process
– Increase in prostaglandins/histamines
• Edema and histamines stimulate pain receptors
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Proposed Model for Delayed Onset

Muscle Soreness

Figure 21.4
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Research Focus 21.1

The Repeated Bout Effect
• A bout of unfamiliar exercise results in DOMS
– Following recovery, another bout of same exercise
results in minimal injury
• Theories for the repeated bout effect
– Neural theory
 Recruitment of larger number of muscle fibers
– Connective tissue theory
 Increased connective tissue to protect muscle
– Cellular theory
 Synthesis of protective proteins within muscle fiber
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

Proposed Theories to Explain the

“Repeated Bout Effect”

Figure 21.4
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

In Summary

 Improvement of muscular strength can be achieved via

progressive overload by using either isometric, isotonic,
or isokinetic exercise. Isotonic or isokinetic training
seems preferable to isometric exercise in developing
strength gains in athletes, since isometric strength gains
occur only at specific joint angles that are held during
isometric training.
 Although untrained men exhibit greater absolute strength
than untrained females, there do not appear to be
gender differences in strength gains during a short-term
weight-training program.
 Training to Improve Muscular Strength

In Summary

 Delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is thought to

occur due to microscopic tears in muscle fibers or
connective tissue. This results in cellular degradation
and an inflammatory response, which results in pain
within twenty-four to forty-eight hours after strenuous
exercise.
 Training to Improve Flexibility

Training to Improve Flexibility

• Stretching exercises to improve flexibility and

efficiency of movement
– Limited evidence that flexibility reduces injury risk
• Static stretching
– Continuously holding a stretch position
 Hold position for 10–60 seconds
 Repeat each stretch 3–5 times
– Preferred technique
 Less chance of injury or soreness
 Less muscle spindle activity
• Dynamic stretching
– Ballistic stretching movements
 Training to Improve Flexibility

Training to Improve Flexibility

• Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF)

– Preceding a static stretch with isometric contraction
of muscle being stretched
 Contraction stimulates Golgi tendon organ
– Requires a training partner
 Training to Improve Flexibility

In Summary

 Limited evidence exists to support the notion that

improved joint mobility (flexibility) reduces the incidence
of exercise-induced injury.
 Stretching exercises are often recommended to improve
flexibility and optimize the efficiency of movement.
 Improvement in flexibility can be achieved via static or
dynamic stretching, with static stretching being the
preferred technique.
Exercise and the Environment
Objectives

1. Describe the changes in atmospheric pressure, air

temperature, and air density with increasing
altitude.
2. Describe how altitude affects sprint performances
and explain why that is the case.
3. Explain why distance running performance
decreases at altitude.
4. Draw a graph to show effect of altitude on VO2 max
and list the reasons for this response.
5. Graphically describe effect of altitude on the heart
rate and ventilation responses to submaximal
work, and explain why these changes are
appropriate.
Objectives

6. Describe the process of adaptation to altitude, and

the degree to which this adaptation can be
complete.
7. Explain why such variability exists among athletes
in the decrease in VO2 max upon exposure to
altitude, the degree of improvement in VO2 max at
altitude, and the gains made upon return to sea
level.
8. Describe potential problems associated with
training at high altitude and how one might deal
with them.
Objectives

9. Explain the circumstances that caused

physiologists to reevaluate their conclusions that
humans could not climb Mount Everest without
oxygen.
10. Explain the role that hyperventilation plays in
helping to maintain a high oxygen-hemoglobin
saturation at extreme altitudes.
11. List and describe the factors influencing the risk of
heat injury.
12. Provide suggestions for the fitness participant to
follow to minimize the likelihood of heat injury.
13. Describe in general terms the guidelines
suggested for running road races in the heat.
Objectives

14. Describe the three elements in the heat stress

index, and explain why one is more important than
the other two.
15. List the factors influencing hypothermia.
16. Explain what the wind chill index is relative to heat
loss.
17. Explain why exposure to cold water is more
dangerous than exposure to air of the same
temperature.
18. Describe what the “clo” unit is and how
recommendations for insulation change when one
does exercise.
Objectives

19. Describe the role of subcutaneous fat and heat

production in the development of hypothermia.
20. List the steps to follow to deal with hypothermia.
21. Explain how carbon monoxide can influence
performance, and list the steps that should be
taken to reduce the impact of pollution on
performance.
Outline

 Altitude  Heat  Air Pollution

Atmospheric Pressure Hyperthermia Particulate Matter
Short-Term Anaerobic  Cold Ozone
Performance Environmental Factors Sulfur Dioxide
Long-Term Aerobic Insulating Factors Carbon Monoxide
Performance Heat Production
Maximal Aerobic Descriptive
Performance and Characteristics
Altitude Dealing with Hypothermia
Adaptation to High
Altitude
Training for Competition
at Altitude
The Quest for Everest
 Altitude

Altitude

• Atmospheric pressure
– Decreases at higher altitude
• Partial pressure
– Same percentages of O2, CO2, and N2 in the air
– Lower partial pressure of O2, CO2, and N2
• Hypoxia:
– Low PO2 (altitude)
• Normoxia:
– Normal PO2 (sea level)
• Hyperoxia:
– High PO2
 Altitude

Effect of Altitude on Performance

• Short-term anaerobic performance

– Lower PO2 at altitude should have no effect of
performance
 O2 transport to muscle does not limit performance
– Lower air resistance may improve performance
• Long-term aerobic performance
– Lower PO2 results in poorer aerobic performance
 Dependent on oxygen delivery to muscle
• Comparison of performances
– 1964 Olympics in Tokyo
– 1968 Olympics in Mexico City
 Altitude

Short Races: 1964 and 1968 Olympics

 Altitude

Long Races: 1964 and 1968 Olympics

 Altitude

In Summary

 The atmospheric pressure, PO2, air temperature, and air

density decrease with altitude.
 The lower air density at altitude offers less resistance to
high-speed movement, and sprint performances are
either not affected or are improved.
 Altitude

Maximal Aerobic Power and Altitude

• Decreased VO2 max at higher altitude

– Primarily due to lower oxygen extraction
• Up to moderate altitudes (~4,000m)
– Decreased VO2 max due to decreased arterial PO2
• At higher elevations
– VO2 max reduction also due to fall in maximum
cardiac output
 Decreased maximal HR at altitude
 Altitude

Changes in VO2 Max with

Increasing Altitude

Figure 24.1
 Altitude

Effect of Altitude on Submaximal

Exercise
• Elicits higher heart rate
– Due to lower oxygen content of arterial blood
• Requires higher ventilation
– Due to reduction in number of O2 molecules per liter
of air
 Altitude

Effect of Altitude on the Heart Rate

Response to Submaximal Exercise

Figure 24.2
 Altitude

Effect of Altitude on the Ventilation

Response to Submaximal Exercise

Figure 24.3
 Altitude

In Summary

 Distance-running performances are adversely affected at

altitude due to the reduction in the PO2, which causes a
decrease in hemoglobin saturation and VO2 max.
 Up to moderate altitudes (~4,000 m), the decrease in
VO2 max is due primarily to the decrease in arterial
oxygen content brought about by the decrease in
atmospheric PO2. At higher altitudes, the rate at which
VO2 max falls may be increased due to a reduction in
maximal cardiac output.
 Submaximal performances conducted at altitude require
higher heart rate and ventilation responses due to the
lower oxygen content of arterial blood and the reduction
in the number of oxygen molecules per liter of air,
respectively.
 Altitude

Adaptation to High Altitude

• Production of more red blood cells

– Higher hemoglobin concentration
– Via erythropoietin (EPO)
– Counters desaturation caused by lower PO2
• Lifetime altitude residents
– Have complete adaptations in arterial oxygen
content and VO2 max
• In those recently arriving at altitude
– Adaptations are less complete
 Altitude

In Summary

 Persons adapt to altitude by producing more red blood

cells to counter the desaturation caused by the lower
PO2. Altitude residents who spent their growing years at
altitude show a rather complete adaptation, as seen in
their arterial oxygen content and VO2 max values.
Lowlanders who arrive as adults show only a modest
adaptation.
 Altitude

Training for Competition at Altitude

• Effect of training at altitude on VO2 max varies

among athletes
– Due to degree of saturation of hemoglobin
• Some athletes can improve VO2 max by training at
altitude, others cannot
– May be due to training state before arriving at
altitude
• Some athletes have higher VO2 max upon return to
low altitude, while others do not
– Could be due to “detraining” effect
 Cannot train as intensely at altitude
 Altitude

The Winning Edge 24.1

Live High, Train Low
• Live at high altitude
– Elicits an increase in red blood cell mass
 Via EPO
 Leads to increase in VO2 max
– ≥22 hr/day at 2,000–2,500 m required
 Or simulated altitude of 2,500–3,000 m for 12–16 hr/day
– Intermittent hypobaric hypoxia
 For example, 3 hr/day, 5 days/wk at 4,000–5,000 m
• Train at low altitude
– Maintain high interval training velocity
– Some athletes still experience hemoglobin
desaturation
 Altitude

The Winning Edge 24.1

Live High, Train Low
• Traditionally, increased RBC mass leads to
increased VO2 max
• Some studies have shown improved VO2 max
without increased RBC mass
– With intermittent hypoxia
– Potential mechanisms:
 Improved mitochondrial function
 Increased buffering capacity
• This is an area of active debate and research
 Altitude

In Summary

 When athletes train at altitude, some experience a

greater decline in VO2 max than others. This may be due
to differences in the degree to which each athlete
experiences a desaturation of hemoglobin. Remember,
some athletes experience desaturation during maximal
work at sea level.
 Some athletes show an increase in VO2 max while
training at altitude, whereas others do not. This may be
due to the degree to which the athlete was trained before
going to altitude.
 Altitude

In Summary

 In addition, some athletes show an improved VO2 max

upon return to sea level, whereas others do not. Part of
the reason may be the altitude at which they train. Those
who train at high altitudes may actually “detrain” due to
the fact that the quality of their workouts suffers at the
high altitudes. To get around this problem, one can
alternate low-altitude and sea-level exposures.
 Heat

Heat

• Hyperthermia
– Elevated body temperature
• Heat-related problems
– Heat syncope
– Heat cramps
– Heat exhaustion
 May require medical attention
– Heat stroke
 Medical emergency
• Treatment
– Cold water immersion is the most rapid way to lower
body temperature
 Heat

Heat-Related Problems
 Heat

Factors Related to Heat Injury

• Fitness
– Higher fitness related to lower risk of heat injury
 Tolerate more work in heat
 Acclimatize faster
 Sweat more
– Fit individuals still have risk of heat injury
• Acclimatization
– Exercise in the heat for 10–14 days
 Low intensity, long duration (<50% VO2 max, 60–100 min)
 Moderate intensity, short duration (75% VO2 max, 30–35 min)
– Lower body temperature and HR response
– Best protection against heat stroke and exhaustion
 Heat

Factors Related to Heat Injury

• Hydration
– Inadequate hydration increases risk of heat injury
– No differences among water, electrolyte drinks, or
carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks
• Environmental temperature
– Convection and radiation dependent on gradient
between skin and air temperature
– High temperature may result in heat gain
• Clothing
– Expose as much skin as possible
– Chose materials that “wick” sweat away from skin
 Heat

Factors Related to Heat Injury

• Humidity (water vapor pressure)

– Evaporation is dependent on gradient between skin
and air
– Relative humidity is a good index of water vapor
pressure
• Metabolic rate
– Core temperature is proportional to work rate
 High work rate increases metabolic heat production
• Wind
– Wind will increase heat loss by convection and
evaporation
 Heat

Factors Affecting Heat Injury

Figure 24.6
 Heat

Effect of Different Types of Uniforms on

Body Temperature

Figure 24.7
 Heat

Implications for Fitness

• Know signs/symptoms of heat illness

– Cramps, lightheadedness, etc.
• Exercise in cooler part of the day
• Gradually increase exposure to heat/humidity to
acclimatize
• Drink water before, during, and after exercise
• Wear light clothing
• Monitor HR and alter exercise intensity
– Stay within target heart rate zone
 Heat

Implications for Performance

• Emphasis on pre-season conditioning

– Improve fitness and promote acclimatization
• Safety during events in high heat/humidity
– Cooler time of day, season of the year
– Frequent water stops
 Encourage drinking of 150–300 ml water every 15 minutes
– Identification of those with heat illness
– Coordinate proper treatment
 First aid, ambulance services, hospitals
– Competitor education
 Provide information about heat illness
 Heat

Environmental Heat Stress

• Wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT)

– Dry bulb temperature (Tdb)
 Air temperature in shade
– Black globe temperature (Tg)
 Radiant heat load in direct sunlight
– Wet bulb temperature (Twb)
 Index of ability to wick sweat
 Most important in determining overall heat stress

WBGT = 0.7Twb + 0.2Tg + 0.1Tdb

• Risk of heat stress depends on WBGT

 Heat

Risk of Exercise-Related Heat Stroke

(EHS)
• WBGT ≤50.0°F (≤10.0°C)
– Risk of hypothermia; EHS can occur
• WBGT 50.0–65.0°F (10.0–18.3°C)
– Low risk of hypo- and hyperthermia; EHS can occur
• WBGT 65.1–72.0°F (18.4–22.2°C)
– Caution: moderate risk of heat illness
• WBGT 72.1–78.0°F (22.3–25.6°C)
– Extreme caution: risk of hyperthermia increased for all
• WBGT 78.1–82.0°F (25.7–27.8°C)
– Extreme caution: high risk for unfit, non-acclimatized
• WBGT >82.0°F (>18.3°C)
– Extreme risk of hyperthermia; cancel or postpone
event
 Heat

In Summary

 Heat injury is influenced by environmental factors such

as temperature, water vapor pressure, acclimatization,
hydration, clothing, and metabolic rate. The fitness
participant should be educated about the signs and
symptoms of heat injury; the importance of drinking
water before, during, and after the activity; gradually
becoming acclimated to the heat; exercising in the cooler
part of the day; dressing appropriately; and checking the
HR on a regular basis.
 Heat

In Summary

 Road races conducted in times of elevated heat and

humidity need to reflect the coordinated wisdom of the
race director and medical director to minimize heat and
other injuries. Concerns include running the race at the
correct time of the day and season of the year, frequent
water stops, traffic control, race monitors to identify and
stop those in trouble, and communication between race
monitors, medical director, ambulance services, and
hospitals.
 The heat stress index includes dry bulb, wet bulb, and
globe temperatures. The wet bulb temperature, which is
a good indicator of the water vapor pressure, is more
important than the other two in determining overall heat
stress.
 Cold

Cold

• Hypothermia
– Core temperature below 35°C (95°F)
 2°C drop associated with maximal shivering
 4°C drop associated with ataxia and apathy
 6°C drop associated with unconsciousness
 Further drop associated with ventricular fibrillation, reduced
brain blood flow, asystole, death
– Heat loss exceeds heat production
 Conduction, convection, radiation, evaporation
• Important to protect against heat loss
– Maintain core temperature
 Cold

Factors Affecting Hypothermia

Figure 24.8
 Cold

Environmental Factors

• Temperature
– Gradient for convective heat loss
• Vapor pressure
– Low water vapor pressure encourages evaporation
• Wind
– Rate of heat loss influenced by wind speed
– Windchill index
 “Effective” temperature
• Water immersion
– Rate of heat loss 25x greater than air of same
temperature
 Cold

Wind Chill Chart

 Cold

Effect of Water Temperature on Survival

Figure 24.9
 Cold

In Summary

 Hypothermia is influenced by natural and added

insulation, environmental temperature, vapor pressure,
wind, water immersion, and heat production.
 The wind chill index describes how the wind lowers the
effective temperature at the skin such that convective
heat loss is greater than what it would be in calm air at
that same temperature.
 Water causes heat to be lost by convection twenty-five
times faster than it would be by exposure to air of the
same temperature.
 Cold

Insulating Factors

• Subcutaneous fat
– Especially effective in cold water
• Clothing
– Clo units
 1 clo is insulation needed to maintain core temperature at
rest at 21°C, 50% RH, and 6 m•min–1 wind
 Increased clothing required in cold, wet, windy conditions
 Dry clothing more effective than wet
• Amount of insulation required is lower during
exercise
 Cold

Heat Production

• Heat production increases upon exposure to cold

– Inverse relationship between VO2 and body fatness
 Earlier onset of shivering in lean men
 Resting VO2 and core temperature maintained in “fat” men
in cold water
 Increased VO2 and decreased core temperature in “thin”
men
• Fuel use
– Fat is primary fuel for shivering
– Shivering can lead to muscle glycogen depletion
 Cold

Descriptive Characteristics Influencing

Responses to Cold Exposure
• Gender
– At rest, women show faster reduction in body
temperature then men
– In cold water, decrease in body temperature similar
in men and women
– Differences can be explained by body composition
and anthropometry
• Age
– Older (>60 years) less tolerant to cold
– Children experience faster fall in body temperature
 Cold

Changes in Insulation Requirement at

Different Temperatures and Activities

Figure 24.10
 Cold

In Summary

 Subcutaneous fat is the primary “natural” insulation and

is very effective in preventing rapid heat loss when a
person is exposed to cold water.
 Clothing extends this insulation, and the insulation value
of clothing is described in clo units, where a value of 1
describes what is needed to maintain core temperature
while sitting in a room set at 21°C and 50% RH with an
air movement of 6 m•sec–1.
 Cold

In Summary

 The amount of insulation needed to maintain core

temperature is less when one exercises because the
metabolic heat production helps maintain the core
temperature. Clothing should be worn in layers when
exercising so one can shed one insulating layer at a time
as body temperature increases.
 Heat production increases on exposure to cold, with an
inverse relationship between the increase in VO2 and
body fatness. Women cool faster than men when
exposed to cold water, exhibiting a longer delay in the
onset of shivering and a lower VO2, despite a greater
stimulus to shiver.
 Cold

Dealing with Hypothermia

• Effects of hypothermia
– Reduced coordination
– Slurred speech
– Impaired judgment
• Treatment of hypothermia
– Get person out of cold, wind, and rain
– Remove all wet clothing
– Provide warm drinks and dry clothing
– Put person into sleeping bag
 With another person, if semiconscious
– Find a source of heat
 Cold

In Summary

 If a person becomes hypothermic, get the person out of

the wind, rain, and cold; remove wet clothing and put on
dry clothing; use a sleeping bag for warmth; and if it is an
extreme case, remove clothing from the person and have
another person in the sleeping bag to provide warmth;
finally, provide some source of heat.
 Air Pollution

Air Pollution

• Variety of gases and particulates

• Have detrimental effect on health and performance
– Decrease capacity to transport oxygen
– Increase airway resistance
– Alter perception of effort
• Physiological response depends on:
– Amount or “dose” received
 Concentration in air
 Duration of exposure
 Volume of air inhaled
– Increases during exercise
 Air Pollution

Air Pollution

• Particulate matter
– Promote pulmonary infection
– Elevate blood pressure, reduce fibrinolysis, reduce
vasodilation
– Cause oxidative stress and DNA damage
• Ozone
– Decreases VO2 max and respiratory function
• Sulfur dioxide
– Causes bronchoconstriction in asthmatics
• Carbon monoxide
– Binds to hemoglobin and reduces oxygen transport
– Affects submaximal exercise and VO2 max
 Air Pollution

Effect of Carbon Monoxide on VO2 Max

Figure 24.11
 Air Pollution

Preventing Air Pollution Problems

• Reduce exposure time

– Effects are dose-dependent
• Stay away from “bolus” amounts of pollutants
– Smoking areas, high-traffic areas, urban areas
• Do not exercise during most polluted parts of day
– 7–10 a.m., 4–7 p.m.
• Monitor the air quality index (AQI)
– Measure of five pollutants
 Ozone, particulate matter, CO, SO2, and NO2
– AQI scale runs from 0–500
 Air Pollution

Air Quality Index

Figure 24.12
 Air Pollution

In Summary

 Air pollution can affect performance. Exposure to ozone

decreases VO2 max and respiratory function, while sulfur
dioxide causes bronchoconstriction in asthmatics.
 Carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin and reduces oxygen
transport in much the same way that altitude does.
 To prevent problems associated with pollution of any
type, reduce exposure time; stay away from “bolus”
amounts of the pollutant; and schedule activity at the
least polluted part of the day.
 The Air Quality Index should be monitored to determine if
conditions are safe for exercising outdoors.