buildings

Article
Enhancing Energy Efficiency in Buildings through PCM
Integration: A Study across Different Climatic Regions
Mustafa Jaradat 1 , Hazaa Al Majali 1 , Codruta Bendea 2, * , Constantin C. Bungau 3, * and Tudor Bungau 4

1 Department of Energy Engineering, German Jordanian University, Amman Madaba Street, P.O. Box 35247,
Amman 11180, Jordan; [email protected] (M.J.); [email protected] (H.A.M.)
2 Department of Energy Engineering, Faculty of Energy Engineering and Industrial Management, University of
Oradea, 410087 Oradea, Romania
3 Department of Architecture and Constructions, Faculty of Constructions, Cadaster and Architecture,
University of Oradea, 410058 Oradea, Romania
4 Civil Engineering, Faculty of Constructions, Cadaster and Architecture, University of Oradea, 410058 Oradea,
Romania; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (C.B.); [email protected] (C.C.B.)

Abstract: In the quest for sustainable and energy-efficient building solutions, the incorporation
of phase change materials (PCMs) into building envelopes emerges as a groundbreaking strategy.
PCMs, renowned for storing and releasing thermal energy during phase transitions, stand as a
promising avenue to curtail energy consumption while enhancing thermal performance. This study
rigorously explores the potential energy savings and thermal comfort benefits achievable through
PCM integration into building envelopes. Multiple energy simulations are conducted on a residential
building model in diverse locations, including Irbid, Amman, and Aqaba in Jordan, and the city of
Oradea in Romania, utilizing the EnergyPlus simulation tool embedded in DesignBuilder software
v7.0.2.006. The results reveal that BioPCM® , derived from renewable biomass, significantly elevates
thermal performance owing to its heightened latent heat of fusion. Optimal outcomes materialize
with a PCM melting point of 23 ◦ C, a configuration closer to the interior surface, and a thickness of
37.1 mm. The study underscores the superior performance in moderate climates (Irbid and Amman)
compared to hot-dry climates (Aqaba) and cold-wet climates (Oradea, Romania). Financially and
Citation: Jaradat, M.; Al Majali, H.; environmentally, incorporating PCM in Amman demonstrates potential annual energy savings of
Bendea, C.; Bungau, C.C.; Bungau, T.
5476.14 kWh, translating to a cost reduction of 1150 USD/year, and a decrease in GHG emissions
Enhancing Energy Efficiency in
by 2382.31 kgCO2 eq. The estimated payback period for PCM incorporation in external walls is four
Buildings through PCM Integration:
years, robustly emphasizing the feasibility and multifaceted benefits of this energy-efficient solution.
A Study across Different Climatic
Regions. Buildings 2024, 14, 40.
Keywords: phase change materials (PCMs); BioPCM® ; thermal performance; energy simulation;
https://doi.org/10.3390/
buildings14010040
building energy modeling (BEM); sustainable building design; energy use intensity (EUI)

Academic Editor: Antonio Caggiano

Received: 24 November 2023

Revised: 11 December 2023 1. Introduction
Accepted: 19 December 2023 Sustainable development encompasses a range of goals and strategies, such as environ-
Published: 22 December 2023 mental conservation, energy efficiency, and the adoption of green building concepts [1,2].
This holistic approach includes efficient energy production [3], improved insulation in
thermal energy transport and distribution networks [4], and measures to reduce consumer
demand without compromising comfort. As the global emphasis on sustainable construc-
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
tion intensifies, the integration of innovative technologies, like phase change materials
This article is an open access article
(PCMs), becomes crucial.
distributed under the terms and This paper explores the energy-saving potential and thermal comfort benefits of
conditions of the Creative Commons incorporating PCMs in building envelopes in Jordan and Romania. Additionally, it lays
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the groundwork for future investigations into the application of PCM technology in the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ diverse building landscape of Romania. Given Romania’s rich architectural heritage and
4.0/). varying climatic conditions, it presents an intriguing context for integrating innovative

Buildings 2024, 14, 40. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14010040 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/buildings

 Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 27

Buildings 2024, 14, 40 2 of 27

diverse building landscape of Romania. Given Romania’s rich architectural heritage and
varying climatic conditions, it presents an intriguing context for integrating innovative
buildingsolutions
building solutions[1,2].
[1,2]. Upcoming
Upcoming research
research willwill
focusfocus on Romania’s
on Romania’s specific
specific building
building types,
types, including
including residential,
residential, commercial,
commercial, and institutional
and institutional structures,
structures, adapting
adapting PCM tech-
PCM technology
nology
to to local architectural
local architectural and climatic
and climatic needs. needs.

1.1.
1.1.Residential
ResidentialSector
SectorininJordan
Jordan
The building
The building sector plays aapivotal
plays pivotalrole
roleininglobal
globalenergy
energy consumption,
consumption, accounting
accounting for
for approximately
approximately 40%40%of of energydemand
energy demandininEurope
Europeand andAustralia
Australia and
and around 39% in in the
the
United
UnitedStates
States[5].
[5].In
InJordan,
Jordan,thetheimpact
impactof ofresidential
residentialbuildings
buildingsisisparticularly
particularly significant,
significant,
contributing
contributing to 21.5% of final energy consumption and 48% of total electricity consump-
to 21.5% of final energy consumption and 48% of total electricity consump-
tion
tion[6,7].
[6,7].With
Withprojections
projectionsindicating
indicatingaasustained
sustainedincrease
increasein
inenergy
energydemand,
demand,thetheneed
needfor
for
effective
effective interventions in the residential sector is crucial. These interventions are key
interventions in the residential sector is crucial. These interventions are keytoto
achieving
achievingsignificant
significanteconomic,
economic,social,
social,and
andenvironmental
environmentalbenefits.
benefits.Figure
Figure11illustrates
illustratesthe
the
electrical
electricalenergy
energyconsumption
consumptionby bysector
sectorininJordan
Jordanfor forthe
theyear
year2021
2021[7].
[7].

Figure1.1.Electrical
Figure Electricalenergy
energyconsumption
consumptionportions
portionsby
bysector
sectorininJordan,
Jordan,2021.
2021.

Urbanization,population
Urbanization, populationgrowth,
growth,and andrising
risingliving
livingstandards
standardsare areprimary
primarydrivers
driversofof
theincreasing
the increasingenergy
energydemands
demandsin inJordan’s
Jordan’sresidential
residentialsector
sector[8].
[8].The
Theurban
urbanpopulation
populationin in
Jordanreached
Jordan reached93.2%93.2%inin2021,
2021,with
withover
over 90%
90% ofof Jordanians
Jordanians residing
residing in in urban
urban areas,
areas, nota-
notably
in Amman, which houses more than 43% of the country’s population
bly in Amman, which houses more than 43% of the country’s population [9]. This rapid [9]. This rapid
urbanization,
urbanization,largely
largelydriven
driven byby
migration
migration fromfromrural areas
rural seeking
areas better
seeking opportunities
better and
opportunities
services, has a has
and services, profound impact
a profound on energy
impact consumption.
on energy consumption.In particular, the urban
In particular, subsector
the urban sub-
issector
responsible for 84%for
is responsible of residential energy consumption
84% of residential energy consumption in Jordan in [6].
Jordan [6].
Furthermore,
Furthermore, the high high proportion
proportionofoftimetimespent
spent indoors
indoors by by individuals,
individuals, often
often ex-
exceed-
ceeding 90%, emphasizes the significant role of buildings in overall
ing 90%, emphasizes the significant role of buildings in overall energy consumption pat- energy consumption
patterns [10].
terns [10]. Space
Space heating
heating andcooling
and coolingalone
aloneaccount
accountfor for61%
61% ofof household energyenergy use useand
and
approximately 14% of global energy demand [11]. The building sector
approximately 14% of global energy demand [11]. The building sector is, thus, a leading is, thus, a leading
contributor
contributorto toglobal
globalenergy
energyconsumption.
consumption.Predictions
Predictionssuggest
suggestthat thatenergy
energyconsumption
consumption
for
forspace
spaceheating
heatingand andcooling
coolingcould
couldaccount
accountfor forabout
about37% 37%of oftotal
totalglobal
globalenergy
energydemand
demand
by 2050 [12]. Therefore, optimizing building envelopes and implementing
by 2050 [12]. Therefore, optimizing building envelopes and implementing more efficient more efficient
HVAC
HVACsystems
systemsare arevital
vitalstrategies
strategiesforforensuring
ensuringindoor
indoorthermal
thermalcomfort
comfortwhilewhilereducing
reducing
energy
energy consumption for these purposes. Regarding building envelopes, ref.[13]
consumption for these purposes. Regarding building envelopes, ref. [13]critically
critically
reviewed
reviewedclimate-adaptive
climate-adaptivebuilding
building envelopes
envelopes andandbiomimetic
biomimetic solutions,
solutions, analyzing
analyzingvarious
vari-
adaptive and biomimetic envelope examples.
ous adaptive and biomimetic envelope examples.
1.2. Building Envelopes in Jordan
1.2. Building Envelopes in Jordan
The building envelope acts as the interface between indoor and outdoor environments,
The building envelope acts as the interface between indoor and outdoor environ-
crucially regulating heat flow from inside to outside in winter and vice versa in summer.
ments, crucially regulating heat flow from inside to outside in winter and vice versa in
Essential for achieving energy-efficient thermal performance, modifications to the building
summer. Essential for achieving energy-efficient thermal performance, modifications to
envelope adjust heating and cooling loads to meet internal thermal requirements. Com-
the building envelope adjust heating and cooling loads to meet internal thermal
ponents of the building envelope encompass external walls, roof, floor, external windows,
and doors.
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 27

Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 27

requirements. Components of the building envelope encompass external walls, roof, floor,
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 external windows, and doors. 3 of 27
requirements.
The building envelope’s heat transfer often results in substantial heat loss floor,
Components of the building envelope encompass external walls, roof, or gain,
external
prompting windows,
scholarsand doors.on energy-saving technologies. These include optimizations
to focus
The building
The
in insulation building envelope’s
envelope’s
materials heat transfer
heat transfer often
[14], low-emittance often
windowsresults
results in substantial
in
[15], substantial
hollow windows heat loss
heat loss or gain,
or
[16], gain,
Trombe
prompting
prompting scholars
scholars to
to focus
focus onon energy-saving
energy-saving technologies.
technologies. These
These
walls [17], thermally activated building systems [18], and enhancements to building codes include
include optimizations
optimizations in
in insulation
insulation materials
materials [14],
[14], low-emittance
low-emittance windows
windows [15],
[15], hollow
hollow
[19]. While developed countries have adopted concepts like nearly zero-energy buildings, windows
windows [16],
[16], Trombe
Trombe
walls
walls [17], thermally
thermallyactivated
activatedbuilding
building systems
systems [18],
[18], andand enhancements
enhancements to building
to building codes
many developing nations, particularly in the MENA region, lack such standards, espe-
codes [19]. developed
[19]. While While developed
countries countries
have adopted have adopted
concepts concepts
like nearly like nearly zero-energy
zero-energy buildings,
cially for hot and tropical climates [20]. In Jordan, building insulation codes are defined
buildings, many developing
many developing nations, particularly
nations, particularly in the MENA in the MENA
region, lackregion, lack such espe-
such standards, stan-
by the
dards,
National
especially
Building Council under the National Building Law [21], ensuring speci-
cially for hot andfor hot and
tropical tropical
climates climates
[20]. [20]. building
In Jordan, In Jordan, buildingcodes
insulation insulation codes
are defined
fied
are requirements and regulations for construction theactivities, from permitting [21],to surveil-
by defined by theBuilding
the National National Building
Council Council
under the under
National National Law
Building Building
[21],Lawensuring ensur-
speci-
lance
ing phases.
fiedspecified requirements
requirements and regulations
and regulations for construction
for construction activities,activities, from permitting
from permitting to surveil- to
Among
surveillance
lance the common typical externally insulated wall structures in residential build-
phases.phases.
ings in Jordan
Among
Among theare
the those illustrated
common
common typical in Figure
typical externally
externally 2. Basically,
insulated
insulated wall walls consist
wall structures
structures in of five main
in residential
residential layers
build-
build-
arranged
ings in from
Jordan the
are outer
those layer (right
illustrated in side)
Figure as follows:
2. Basically,hard stone,
walls concrete,
consist
ings in Jordan are those illustrated in Figure 2. Basically, walls consist of five main layers of five thermal
main insula-
layers
tion (mainly
arranged
arranged fromextruded
from the
theouter
outerpolystyrene),
layer
layer (right hollow
(right side)
side) as blocks, hard
as follows:
follows: and cement
hard stone, plaster. thermal
stone, concrete,
concrete, thermal insula-
insula-
tion
tion(mainly
(mainlyextruded
extrudedpolystyrene),
polystyrene),hollow hollowblocks,
blocks,and andcement
cementplaster.
plaster.

Figure 2. Typical externally insulated wall construction design in Amman [22].

Figure2.2.Typical
Figure Typicalexternally
externallyinsulated
insulatedwall
wallconstruction
constructiondesign
designininAmman
Amman[22].
[22].

According
According to
According to the
to the JordanNational
the Jordan
Jordan NationalBuilding
National Building
Building Council,
Council,
Council, the
the
the maximum
maximum
maximum allowable
allowable
allowable walls’
walls’
walls’
overall
overallheat
overall heat transfer coefficient (U-value)
coefficient(U-value)
transfer coefficient according
(U-value)according
accordingtoto tothe
the
the codes
codes
codes is
is 0.57
is 0.570.57
W/m W/m
W/m
2 ·K
2 ·K[20].
2·K [20]. TheThe
[20].
overall
The heat
overall
overall transfer
heat heat coefficient
transfer
transfer (U-value)
coefficient
coefficient is
(U-value)
(U-value) the rate
is theisrate of
theofrate heat
heatofflow flow
heatthroughthrough
flow through a unit
a unit area area
a unitof of
building
area
building envelope
of building
envelope material
envelope
material or
materialassembly, including
or assembly,
or assembly, including its
including boundary
its boundaryits boundary films,
films, per per
films,unit
unitper of temper-
unit of
of temper-
ature 2 ·K).Un-
aturedifference between the inside
inside andoutside
outside air,andand it it
is is expressed in inin(W/m 2·K).
temperature difference
difference betweenbetween
the the inside
and and outside
air, air, and it is expressed
expressed (W/m (W/m2·K). Un-
fortunately,
fortunately, most
Unfortunately, most
most of thethe
of of
the external
external
external wallsininin
walls
walls Jordanian
Jordanian
Jordanian buildings
buildings
buildings areare either
either
either uninsulated
uninsulated
uninsulated or or
poorly
or insulated,
poorly insulated,
poorly insulated, as shown
as shown inin Figure
Figure 3a,b,
3a,b, which
which
shown in Figure 3a,b, which illustrates realillustrates
illustrates real
real examples
examples of of
the the
most
the most most
common
common constructed
commonconstructed walls
walls in
constructed walls in residential
in residential buildings
residentialbuildings in Jordan
buildingsininJordanJordan [23].
[23].[23].

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3. Real examples of constructed walls in residential buildings in Amman, Jordan. (a) Uninsu-
lated wall; (b) poorly insulated wall; (c) fully insulated wall.
 Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 27
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 27

Figure 3. Real examples of constructed walls in residential buildings in Amman, Jordan. (a) Unin-
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 sulated3.wall;
Figure Real(b) poorly insulated
examples wall; walls
of constructed (c) fully
in insulated
residentialwall.
buildings in Amman, Jordan. (a) 4Unin-
of 27
sulated wall; (b) poorly insulated wall; (c) fully insulated wall.
1.3. Building Envelopes in Romania
1.3. Building Envelopes
Envelopes in
in Romania
Romania
The contemporary
1.3. Building residential infrastructure in Romania primarily originates from
the era
Thespanning
The contemporaryfrom 1960
contemporary to 1989,
residential
residential marked by the
infrastructure
infrastructure absence of
in Romania
in Romania widespread
primarily
primarily adoption
originates
originates from
from of
effective
the
the era thermal from
spanning
era spanning insulation
from 1960
1960 tostrategies.
to 1989, A substantial
marked
1989, marked by the proportion
absence
by the absence of of the housing
widespread
of widespread stock falls
adoption
adoption of
of
within the
effective
effective age bracket
thermal
thermal of 15strategies.
insulation
insulation to 55 years,
strategies. A characterized
A substantial
substantial by insufficient
proportion
proportion of the
of thermalstock
the housing
housing insulation
stock falls
falls
and notable
within
within the agestructural
the age bracket of
bracket deterioration.
of 15 to
15 to 55
55 years,
years,The age-dependent
characterized
characterized composition
by insufficient
by insufficient of the insulation
thermal
thermal Romanian
insulation
residential
and
and notableinventory
notable structuralisdeterioration.
structural graphically depicted
deterioration. in Figure 4 [24].
The age-dependent composition of the the Romanian
Romanian
residential inventory
residential inventory isis graphically
graphically depicted
depicted inin Figure
Figure 44 [24].
[24].

Figure 4. Distribution of Romanian residential buildings based on construction periods, adapted

from [24].
Figure
Figure 4. Distribution of Romanian
4. Romanian residential
residential buildings
buildings based
based on
on construction
construction periods,
periods, adapted
adapted
from [24].
from [24].
The energy consumption distribution in the annual energy balance of a medium-
sized
Theapartment
The energy constructed distribution
energyconsumption
consumption between 1970
distribution and
in in
thethe 1985
annual isenergy
annual shown in Figure
balance
energy of a5.medium-sized
balance When
of consid-
a medium-
apartment constructed between 1970 and 1985 is shown in Figure 5. When
ering the entire housing stock in Romania, the efficiency of heat utilization for heating,
sized apartment constructed between 1970 and 1985 is shown in Figure considering
5. When the
consid-
entire housing
hot water,
ering stock in
and cooking
the entire Romania,
housingreaches the
stock inonly efficiency
43% of the
Romania, of heat
the efficiency utilization
total supplied for heating,
heatutilization
of heat quantity [24]. hot water,
It is evi-
for heating,
and
dent
hot cooking
water, reaches
that space
and only
heating
cooking 43% of thethe
constitutes
reaches only total
43% ofsupplied
the total heat
predominant finalquantity
supplied energy [24].
heatconsumerIt is [24].
quantity evident
It is that
in Romanian evi-
space
dent heating
buildings.
that constitutes
space heating the predominant
constitutes the final
predominant energy consumer
final energy in Romanian
consumer in buildings.
Romanian
buildings.

Figure5.5.Breakdown
Figure Breakdownofofenergy
energyconsumption
consumptionininaaresidential
residentialapartment,
apartment,adapted
adaptedfrom
from[24].
[24].
Figure 5. Breakdown of energy consumption in a residential apartment, adapted from [24].
Until 1984, various types of walls were employed in civil buildings, resulting in
distinct thermal performances contingent on wall composition. Figure 6 illustrates the
primary design types utilized for the envelope walls of buildings constructed before 1984.
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 27
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5

Buildings 2024, 14, 40 Until 1984, various types of walls were employed in civil buildings, resulting in5dis- of 27
Until 1984, various types of walls were employed in civil buildings, resulting in
tinct thermal performances contingent on wall composition. Figure 6 illustrates the pri-
tinct thermal performances contingent on wall composition. Figure 6 illustrates the
mary design types utilized for the envelope walls of buildings constructed before 1984. A
mary design types utilized for the envelope walls of buildings constructed before 198
A comparative
comparative analysis
analysis of of
thethe minimum heat
minimum flow resistancesmandated
mandatedand andthe
theactual
actualheat
heat
comparative analysis ofheat flow
the minimumresistances
heat flow resistances mandated and the actual
flowresistances
flow resistancesofofthese
theseexterior
exteriorwall
walltypes
typesindicates
indicatesthat
thatthe
thelatter
latterfell
fellshort
shortof
ofmeeting
meeting
flow resistances of these exterior wall types indicates that the latter fell short of mee
theprescribed
the prescribedthermal
thermalinsulation
insulationstandards.
standards.The Thewalls
wallsexhibited
exhibitedresistances
resistancestotoheat
heatflow
flow
the prescribed thermal
2 ·K/Winsulation standards. The walls exhibited resistances to heat
within the range
within the range of
of 0.54
0.54 to
to 0.97
0.97 m
m2 ·K/W [24].
[24].
within the range of 0.54 to 0.97 m ·K/W [24].
2

Figure
Figure6.6.Architectural
Figureconstruction
Architectural specifications
6. construction
Architectural forspecifications
construction
specifications walls implemented
for walls until
for walls
implemented 1984, 1984,
adapted
implemented
until from
until 1984, adapted
adapted
[24].
from [24]. [24].

Following1984,
Following 1984, theemphasis
the emphasis
Following 1984,on on
the energy
emphasis
energy conservation prompted
on energyprompted
conservation conservation aprompted
a shiftshift in design
in designa shift
so- in design
solutions for exterior walls in residential buildings. The newly adopted solutions resulted
lutions for exterior walls in residential buildings. The newly adopted solutions resulted in resulte
lutions for exterior walls in residential buildings. The newly adopted solutions
in surpassing
surpassing thethe minimum
surpassing
minimum resistances
the minimum
resistances mandated forfor
resistances
mandated envelopeelements.
mandated
envelope elements.
for envelopeFigure 77provides
provides
elements.
Figure Figure 7 prov
detaileddesign
detailed design specifications
detailed designfor
specifications for exterior
specifications
exterior walls
for
walls utilized
exterior
utilized inutilized
walls
in residential
residential buildings
in residential
buildings since since
sincebuildings
1985
1985 [23].
[23]. [23].

Figure 7. construction
Architectural
Figure7.7.Architectural Architectural specifications
construction specifications
for walls for walls implemented
implemented after
after 1984, 1984, adapted
adapted
Figure construction specifications for walls implemented after 1984, adapted from
[24].
from [24].
[24].

Forbuildings For buildingsafter

buildingsconstructed
constructed constructed after 1984,
1984,notable
notable notable
proposed proposed
solutions weresolutions
givenfor were
for en-given fo
For after 1984, proposed solutions were given en-
hancingheat hancing
heatflow heat
flowresistance flow
resistancethat resistance
that surpassed that
surpassed the surpassed
the required the required
required minimum. minimum.
minimum. However,
However,practicalHowever,
practical prac
hancing
implementationwasimplementation
wasinconsistent,was inconsistent,
inconsistent,leading
leadingto leading
todeficiencies to
deficienciesin deficiencies
inenvelope in envelope
envelopeelements elements
elementsconcerning
concerning concer
implementation
energy efficiencyenergy efficiencyCommonly
and comfort. and comfort. Commonly
used used thermal
thermal insulation insulation
materials materials
included cellu-included
energy efficiency and comfort. Commonly used thermal insulation materials included cel-
lular autoclaved
lar autoclaved concrete concrete
and mineral and
wool, mineral
each with wool,
diverseeach with diversecharacteristics.
hygro-thermal hygro-thermal charact
lular autoclavedtics.
concrete and mineral
Polystyrene, wool,expensive
considered each with atdiverse hygro-thermal
the time, characteris-
was less utilized. Consequently, i
Polystyrene, considered expensive at the time, was less utilized. Consequently, it can be in-
tics. Polystyrene, considered expensive at the time, was less utilized. Consequently, it can
ferred that, for a majority of post-1984 buildings, the envelope elements in contact with the
exterior fail to meet thermal and hygro-thermal requirements, necessitating comprehensive
rehabilitation with implications for hygro-thermal comfort and energy conservation.
 be inferred that, for a majority of post-1984 buildings, the envelope elements in contact
with the exterior fail to meet thermal and hygro-thermal requirements, necessitating com-
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 prehensive rehabilitation with implications for hygro-thermal comfort and energy conser-
6 of 27
vation.

1.4. PCM Contribution to Sustainability

1.4. PCM Contribution to Sustainability
PCMs
PCMshavehavebeen
beenproven
provento tohave
haveremarkable
remarkablepotential
potentialinindifferent
differentheat
heattransfer
transferandand
energy
energystorage
storageapplications.
applications.Studies
Studieshave
haveinvestigated
investigatedthe thepotential
potentialof ofPCMs
PCMsas asthermal
thermal
storage
storagemedia
mediain inrefrigeration
refrigerationand andair-conditioning
air-conditioningsystems
systems[25],
[25],heat
heatstorage
storagetanks
tanks[26],
[26],
solar distillers [27], and solar cookers [28]. They are often used as heat
solar distillers [27], and solar cookers [28]. They are often used as heat sink media sink media in elec-
in
tronic devices
electronic [29] and
devices photovoltaic
[29] and modules
photovoltaic modules[30].[30].
Furthermore, PCMs
Furthermore, are utilized
PCMs as in-
are utilized as
sulation materials
insulation in shipping
materials in shippingcontainers
containers[31],[31],
for heat dissipation
for heat in electrical
dissipation distribution
in electrical distribu-
transformers [32], and
tion transformers [32],efficiently incorporated
and efficiently with buildings’
incorporated envelope
with buildings’ as thermal
envelope mass
as thermal
storage.
mass storage.
The
Theintegration
integrationof ofPCMs
PCMs into
into construction
constructionmaterials
materialsenhances
enhancesthermal
thermalregulation,
regulation,
promoting energy efficiency and comfort in buildings, as shown
promoting energy efficiency and comfort in buildings, as shown in Figure in Figure 8. This sustain-
8. This sus-
able approach aligns with the social, economic, and environmental
tainable approach aligns with the social, economic, and environmental dimensions dimensions of devel-of
opment. In the In
development. social realm,realm,
the social PCMsPCMsreducereduce
heating and cooling
heating demands,
and cooling ensuring
demands, pro-
ensuring
longed indoor
prolonged comfort.
indoor Environmentally,
comfort. Environmentally, theythey
harness solarsolar
harness energy, reducing
energy, reliance
reducing on
reliance
non-renewable
on non-renewable sources and and
sources decreasing
decreasingpollutant emissions.
pollutant Economically,
emissions. PCMs
Economically, cut en-
PCMs cut
ergy expenses, showcasing potential in optimizing energy consumption,
energy expenses, showcasing potential in optimizing energy consumption, enhancing enhancing com-
fort, and supporting
comfort, and supportingsustainable development
sustainable development goalsgoals
[33]. [33].

Incorporationof
Figure8.8.Incorporation
Figure ofPCMs
PCMsin
inbuildings
buildingsand
andits
itscontribution
contributionto
tosustainability
sustainability[33].
[33].

Severalstudies
Several studieshighlight
highlightthe
thepotential
potentialofofPCMs
PCMstotomoderate
moderateindoor
indoortemperature
temperaturefluc-
fluc-
tuations by storing and releasing latent heat. In [34], a comprehensive review considered
tuations by storing and releasing latent heat. In [34], a comprehensive review considered
thermo-physical properties and applications of PCMs in buildings. Al-Yasiri and Szabo
thermo-physical properties and applications of PCMs in buildings. Al-Yasiri and Szabo
extensively analyzed PCM benefits in building envelopes, emphasizing reduced energy
extensively analyzed PCM benefits in building envelopes, emphasizing reduced energy
consumption and enhanced comfort [10]. Combining PCMs with materials like aerogels,
consumption and enhanced comfort [10]. Combining PCMs with materials like aerogels,
as explored in [35], offers a promising retrofitting solution for existing building envelopes.
as explored in [35], offers a promising retrofitting solution for existing building envelopes.
This research underscores the significance of PCM integration in sustainable building
This research underscores the significance of PCM integration in sustainable building de-
design, providing insights into material and configuration optimization for effective ther-
sign, providing insights into material and configuration optimization for effective thermal
mal management. Rahemipoor et al. [36] explored an innovative approach by integrating
management. Rahemipoor et al. [36] explored an innovative approach by integrating
macro-encapsulated PCMs into a 3D-printed geopolymer paste (GPP) derived from fly ash,
macro-encapsulated PCMs into a 3D-printed geopolymer paste (GPP) derived from fly
revealing its effectiveness in building envelopes for optimal thermal performance.
ash, revealing its effectiveness in building envelopes for optimal thermal performance.
Studies demonstrate concentrated applications of PCMs in regions with diverse cli-
Studies demonstrate concentrated applications of PCMs in regions with diverse cli-
mate conditions, capitalizing on their energy-saving potential. Lamrani et al. conducted
mate conditions,evaluations
comprehensive capitalizingofon
PCMtheir energy-saving
integration potential.
in building wall Lamrani et al.emphasizing
construction, conducted
comprehensive evaluations of PCM integration in building wall construction,
its impact on energy efficiency across various climatic zones [37]. Facundo et al. presented
an optimization-based method for designing passive latent energy storage using PCMs
with different melting temperatures, emphasizing the importance of aligning PCM melting
temperature with indoor thermal comfort [38]. Köse and Manioğlu assessed the perfor-
mance of a building envelope constructed with PCMs concerning orientation in different
climatic regions. They find that increasing PCM thickness gradually decreases energy loads,
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 7 of 27

and PCM performance varies based on facade orientation, with superior performance on
western and eastern facades [39].
A review by Dehong et al. advocated biobased PCMs as promising alternatives to
paraffin PCMs due to their derivation from renewable sources, like plants and animal fats,
coupled with excellent heat storage properties [40]. Qu et al. conducted a multi-factor
analysis on thermal comfort and energy-saving potential in PCM-integrated buildings,
achieving a notable 34.8% energy reduction using BioPCM23 in external walls [41]. Ab-
dullah et al. demonstrated a 15.6% energy saving with WinCo Enerciel PCM, highlighting
the efficiency of PCMs with lower thermal conductivity, higher latent heat of fusion, and
phase change temperatures closer to room temperature [42]. Kishore et al. investigated
PCM contributions in thermal load modulation through numerical simulations, revealing a
potential 70% reduction in wall-related heat gain during peak hours without a significant
cumulative increase [43]. Kylili and Fokaides reviewed the life cycle assessment (LCA) of
PCMs for building applications, concluding that PCMs are more environmentally friendly
compared to conventional thermal insulating materials [44].
Incorporating PCMs into building envelopes proves highly effective in enhancing
energy efficiency, notably reducing cooling and heating loads, particularly during peak
demand periods. Zhou and Razaqpur conducted a comparison between a traditional
building envelope and one with PCM integration, revealing a 20% overall thermal efficiency
improvement [45]. The PCM-incorporated envelope demonstrated even thermal load
regulation, reducing heat loss during PCM solidification by 29%. Similarly, Fagehi and
Hadidi investigated PCM-integrated building envelopes in NEOM, Saudi Arabia, resulting
in an impressive 11,681 kWh reduction in annual energy consumption compared to a
reference building with conventional insulation [46].
In addition to PCMs, the optimization of energy efficiency in building infrastructure
can be effectively accomplished through the implementation of the nearly zero energy
buildings (NZEBs) concept [47,48], distinguished by their superior energy performance
and substantially reduced overall energy consumption. Concurrently, the integration of
the technology transfer paradigm, operationalized within the framework of the triple-helix
model involving governmental bodies, the construction sector, and academic institutions,
emerges as a pivotal strategy [49,50]. This collaborative approach facilitates the seamless
exchange and application of advanced technologies, fostering a synergistic environment
for innovation and sustainable energy practices within the construction domain [51,52].
This paper extends beyond existing studies by covering a wide geographical scope,
analyzing diverse climatic regions across Jordan rather than limiting the focus to specific
areas in Amman. This comprehensive approach facilitates a detailed analysis of PCM
applications in various environmental conditions. A critical component of the study is the
careful selection of PCM materials and a thorough analysis of their performance, offering
new insights into the effectiveness of PCMs in different climates. Additionally, the study
encompasses a comparative analysis with regions beyond Jordan, notably including ex-
tended simulations for Oradea, Romania. This inclusion provides a global perspective and
validates the broader applicability of the findings. The research also places a strong empha-
sis on sustainability by focusing on eco-friendly PCM materials, contributing significantly
to the conversation on sustainable building practices.

2. Materials and Methods

This section provided a comprehensive overview of the methodology, beginning with
the selection of the location and detailing the specifications of the baseline building model.
The development of PCM-integrated models was then described. A significant focus of
this section was on the procedural details of conducting annual energy simulations. These
simulations were critical for analyzing the latent heat effects of PCMs on building envelopes,
offering insights into their potential impact on energy efficiency.
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 8 of 27

2.1. Location Selection

According to the literature examined in the literature review section, the performance
of PCMs is sensitive to many factors, including their type, latent heat of fusion, melting
point, PCM layer configuration with respect to the other components inside the external
walls, the PCM layer thickness, and the outside climatic conditions, including the ambient
air temperature, the sky clearness, and the solar radiation of any particular location. There-
fore, the PCM-incorporated building envelope predominantly depends upon the climate of
the site where the building is situated.
To evaluate the site-specific performance of PCM in detail, three locations were se-
lected in Jordan based on the three types of climates prevailing in the country, namely,
the capital city of Amman (31◦ 57′ 47.3688′′ N, 35◦ 55′ 49.2924′′ E) for temperate climate,
Irbid governorate (32◦ 33′ 5.2020′′ N, 35◦ 51′ 5.3244′′ E) for Mediterranean climate, Aqaba
governorate (29◦ 31′ 36.01′′ N, 35◦ 00′ 28.01′′ E) for hot and dry climate, and the city of Oradea
in Romania (47◦ 4′ 0′′ N, 21◦ 51′ 0′′ E) for cold and wet climate. Table 1 shows the average
daytime and nighttime temperature during summer and winter for the selected locations.

Table 1. Average daytime and nighttime ambient temperature for the selected locations [53].

Average Temperature [◦ C]
Summer Winter
Location
June to September December to March
Daytime Nighttime Daytime Nighttime
Amman 33 21 17 6
Irbid 32 20 15 5
Aqaba 38 25 24 14
Oradea 24 15 2.5 −3

2.2. Procedure for the Simulation Process (Workflow)

The workflow diagram in Figure 9 illustrates the entire simulation process, encom-
passing tasks, such as data collection, building information modeling (BIM), gbXML file
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 27
exportation, building energy modeling (BEM), model manipulation, PCM incorporation,
simulation, and post-processing.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Flowchart
Flowchart of
of the
the adopted
adopted methodology
methodology for
for the
the simulation
simulation process.
process.

2.3. Building Information Modeling (BIM)

The baseline building model, with conventional insulation, was developed using Au-
todesk Revit after evolving the 2D CAD drawing file to 3D BIM object, with a total floor
area of 205.87 m2 and a net conditioned area of 184.96 m2.
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 9 of 27

A two-story residential building model in Jordan was created using Autodesk Revit
and DesignBuilder software, transitioning from a 2D Cad file to a 3D building model in Au-
todesk Revit. DesignBuilder, chosen for its comprehensive material library, particularly for
PCMs, supplements Autodesk Revit’s absence of predefined PCM options. DesignBuilder,
a Building Energy Performance Simulation (BEPS) tool, offers a user-friendly interface,
a diverse range of building components and construction materials, and integrates with
EnergyPlus simulation tool for energy simulations, daylighting analysis, and thermal load
calculations. DesignBuilder’s compatibility with industry standards and software, such as
Autodesk Revit (v23.0.11.19), streamlines the workflow, facilitating automatic data export
Figure 9. Flowchart
through of the adopted
Green Building methodology
XML (gbXML) forThe
files. the simulation process.
gbXML file, an open-source schema,
contains crucial building information.
2.3. Building Information Modeling (BIM)
2.3. Building Information
The baseline Modeling
building model,(BIM)
with conventional insulation, was developed using Au-
TheRevit
todesk baseline
after building
evolving model, with drawing
the 2D CAD conventionalfile toinsulation, was developed
3D BIM object, with a totalusing
floor
Autodesk Revitmafter
area of 205.87 2 andevolving the 2D CAD
a net conditioned drawing
area filem
of 184.96 to2. 3D BIM object, with a total floor
area of
Figures m2and
205.8710 and11a show
net conditioned
the groundareaandoffirst-floor
184.96 mplans2.
including rooms’ spaces di-
Figures
vision of the10 and 11building,
studied show therespectively.
ground andAll first-floor
spaces wereplans identified
including inrooms’ spaces
the software
division of the studied building, respectively. All spaces were identified
based on American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers in the software
based
ASHRAE on American
standards Society of Heating,
integrated Refrigerating
in [54], considering the and Air-Conditioning
occupancy type of eachEngineers
space in-
ASHRAE standards integrated in [54], considering the occupancy
side the building, as illustrated in Table 2, which summarizes the sensible type of each
andspace inside
latent heat
the building,
gains, as illustrated
the lighting and powerin Table
load2,densities,
which summarizes the sensible
the infiltration flow rate,and latent
and heat gains,
the occupancy
the lighting and power load densities, the infiltration flow rate, and the occupancy schedule.
schedule.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Ground-floor
Ground-floor plan.
plan.

In the context of this study, the building is characterized as a well-sealed construction,

featuring an average infiltration flow rate of 0.19 L/s·m2 , as detailed in Table 2. Converting
this value to 0.23 air changes per hour (ACH), considering a floor height of three meters, is
noteworthy. Subsequently, spaces were categorized into thermal zones based on HVAC
system characteristics and space boundary conditions. The modeling process for the
reference design was facilitated within the Revit BIM environment, utilizing user-friendly
tools that allow for the creation of custom object families by modifying default libraries.
Analytical surfaces, space types, and solar analysis were the primary objects employed in
energy modeling.
Buildings 2024,14,
Buildings2024, 14,40
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 27
10 of 27

Figure11.
Figure 11.First-floor
First-floorplan.
plan.

Table2.
Table 2. Conditioned
Conditionedspaces
spacescharacteristics (occupancy
characteristics schedule
(occupancy − residential/24
schedule h), adapted
− residential/24 from
h), adapted
[54].
from [54].
Sensible Latent Lighting Power Infiltration
Sensible Latent Lighting Power
Room Destination Heat Gain Air Flow
Infiltration Air
Room Destination Heat Gain Load 2Density [W/m2Flow
] 2
[W/Person]
Load Density [W/m ] [L/s ·
[L/s·m]2]
m
[W/Person]
Bedrooms 73.27 45.43 11.95 5.81
Bedrooms 73.27 45.43 11.95 5.81
Living room 80.59 80.59 22.60 5.81
Living room 80.59 80.59 22.60 5.81
Corridor 73.27 58.61 11.84 5.81
Corridor 73.27 58.61 11.84 5.81 0.19
Guest room 73.27 45.43 11.84 5.81 0.19
Guest room 73.27 Kitchen 45.43 73.27 11.84 58.61 5.81
12.92 16.15
Kitchen 73.27 Dressing room
58.61 73.27 12.92 58.61 6.03
16.15 5.81
Dressing room 73.27 58.61 6.03 5.81
In the context of this study, the building is characterized as a well-sealed construc-
tion, featuring an average infiltration flow rate of 0.19 L/s·m2, as detailed in Table 2. Con-
Moreover,
verting Autodesk
this value to 0.23Revit employs
air changes thehour
per cumulative
(ACH), insolation
consideringmethod
a floortoheight
conduct
of solar
three
analysis on the building, considering solar information from sunrise to sunset
meters, is noteworthy. Subsequently, spaces were categorized into thermal zones based throughout
the
on year,
HVAC based on available
system weather
characteristics anddata
space forboundary
the specified location.
conditions. TheIn modeling
Amman city, for
process
example, the results reveal that solar radiation reaches 1818 kWh/m 2 on the roof and certain
for the reference design was facilitated within the Revit BIM environment, utilizing user-
sections of the southern façade, while the remainder of the building receives approximately
friendly tools that allow for the creation of custom object families by modifying default
980 kWh/m2 , as illustrated in Figure 12.
libraries. Analytical surfaces, space types, and solar analysis were the primary objects em-
Regarding the thermal properties of the external building elements, such as walls,
ployed in energy modeling.
floors, and roofs, they were assessed by calculating their U-values and thermal capacities,
Moreover, Autodesk Revit employs the cumulative insolation method to conduct so-
considering the materials used in their construction. Accordingly, the characteristics of the
lar analysis on the building, considering solar information from sunrise to sunset through-
main envelope components for the reference building model are summarized in Table 3.
out the year, based on available weather data for the specified location. In Amman city,
Since this paper focuses on the use of PCMs integrated into the exterior walls for
for example, the results reveal that solar radiation reaches 1818 kWh/m2 on the roof and
thermal energy storage in terms of energy efficiency, Table 4 summarizes the thermal
certain sections of the southern façade, while the remainder of the building receives ap-
properties of the external2wall layers arranged from the exterior to the interior side, along
proximately 980 kWh/m , as illustrated in Figure 12.
with Figure 13, which visually reveals the layers of the exterior wall for the reference
building model.
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 27
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 11 of 27

Figure12.
Figure Solaranalysis
12.Solar analysisofofthe
thebuilding
buildingmodel
modelininAmman
Ammancity.
city.

Regarding
Table the thermal
3. Characteristics properties
of the reference of theenvelope
building externalcomponents,
building elements, such
adapted from as walls,
[54].
floors, and roofs, they were assessed by calculating their U-values and thermal capacities,
Overallused
considering the materials HeatinTransfer
their construction. Accordingly, the Thermal
characteristics
Thermal Resistance Mass of
Component Thickness [cm] Coefficient (U-Value) 2 2
the main envelope components 2for the reference building model
(R-Value) [m ·K/W] are summarized
[kJ/m ·K]in Table
[W/m ·K]
3.
External Wall 42.5 0.534 1.7756 476.49
Internal Wall Table 3.
20Characteristics of the reference
2.109 components, adapted from
building envelope0.476 [54].
249.06
Roof 42 0.520 1.9747 471.14
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Thermal Resistance (R- Thermal Mass
Component
Floor Thickness [cm]63 0.9052·K] 1.104 958.63
(U-Value) [W/m Value) [m2·K/W] [kJ/m 2·K]

External Wall 42.5 0.534 1.7756 476.49

Internal Wall 20 2.109 0.476 249.06
Table 4. Thermal properties of the exterior wall layers, adapted from [54].
Roof 42 0.520 1.9747 471.14
Floor 63 0.905
Exterior Side 1.104 958.63
Thickness Thermal Conductivity Specific Heat Density
Material Since
[cm] this paper focuses
[W/mon·K]the use of PCMs [J/g ·◦ C]
integrated into the exterior
[kg/m3walls
] for
Limestone thermal
5.00energy storage in terms
2.900 of energy efficiency,
0.840Table 4 summarizes the thermal
2750.00
properties of the external wall layers arranged from the exterior to the interior side, along
Concrete 20.00 1.046 0.657 2300.00
with Figure 13, which visually reveals the layers of the exterior wall for the reference
Extruded polystyrene 5.00 model.
building 0.035 1.470 23.00
Hollow brick 10.00 0.540 0.840 1550.00
Plaster Table2.50
4. Thermal properties of the exterior
0.510 wall layers, adapted
0.960 from [54]. 1120.00
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 27
Interior Side Exterior Side
Thickness Thermal Conductivity Specific Heat Density
Material
[cm] [W/m·K] [J/g·°C] [kg/m3]
Limestone 5.00 2.900 0.840 2750.00
Concrete 20.00 1.046 0.657 2300.00
Extruded polystyrene 5.00 0.035 1.470 23.00
Hollow brick 10.00 0.540 0.840 1550.00
Plaster 2.50 0.510 0.960 1120.00
Interior Side

Figure13.
Figure 13.Visual
Visualillustration
illustrationof
ofthe
theexterior
exteriorwall
walllayers
layersfor
forthe
thereference
referencebuilding
buildingmodel.
model.

2.4. Building Energy Model (BEM)

BEM was initially constructed using AutoDesk Revit, leveraging features for the au-
tomatic generation of analytical spaces and surfaces. These objects encapsulate infor-
mation inputted during modeling and are subsequently compiled in the gbXML file. The
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 12 of 27

Figure 13. Visual illustration of the exterior wall layers for the reference building model.

2.4. Building Energy

2.4. Building Energy Model
Model (BEM)
(BEM)
BEM
BEM waswas initially
initially constructed
constructedusing
usingAutoDesk
AutoDeskRevit,
Revit,leveraging
leveragingfeatures
featuresforforthe
theauto-
au-
matic
tomatic generation
generation of analytical spaces
of analytical and and
spaces surfaces. TheseThese
surfaces. objects encapsulate
objects information
encapsulate infor-
inputted during modeling
mation inputted and are and
during modeling subsequently compiled
are subsequently in the gbXML
compiled file. Thefile.
in the gbXML energy
The
model underwent scrutiny to ensure proper boundary conditions for spaces
energy model underwent scrutiny to ensure proper boundary conditions for spaces and and surfaces.
Subsequently, another energy
surfaces. Subsequently, anothermodel
energywas established
model for the building
was established by importing
for the building the
by import-
gbXML file into DesignBuilder software, as illustrated in Figure 14. The
ing the gbXML file into DesignBuilder software, as illustrated in Figure 14. The BEM BEM model was
then
model primed
was thenfor modifications to the building
primed for modifications envelope,
to the buildingreplacing
envelope,conventional insula-
replacing conven-
tion material
tional (extruded
insulation material polystyrene) with suitablewith
(extruded polystyrene) phase change
suitable materials
phase changein materials
the exteriorin
wall layers. This modification aims to scrutinize and compare the effects
the exterior wall layers. This modification aims to scrutinize and compare the effects on the thermal
on
performance of the studied building.
the thermal performance of the studied building.

Figure 14. Building model as illustrated in DesignBuilder software.

Figure 14. Building model as illustrated in DesignBuilder software.

Furthermore, the
Furthermore, the HVAC
HVAC system
system was
was schematically
schematically defined
defined as
as energy
energy object
object included
included
in the
in the BEM
BEM model
model by
by means
means of of the
the HVAC
HVAC plant
plant templates
templates in
in DesignBuilder
DesignBuilder software.
software. The
The
HVAC system used in the building is VRF–air cooled–heat recovery–DOAS
HVAC system used in the building is VRF–air cooled–heat recovery–DOAS system, with system, with
all conditioned
all conditioned spaces
spaces in
in the
the building
building grouped
grouped inin one
one thermal
thermal HVAC
HVAC zone.
zone.
Moreover, a dedicated outdoor-air system (DOAS) was
Moreover, a dedicated outdoor-air system (DOAS) was employed employed with a variable
with re-
a variable
frigerant flow (VRF) system. In this configuration, the DOAS manages air ventilation,
refrigerant flow (VRF) system. In this configuration, the DOAS manages air ventilation,
while the VRFVRF system
system handles
handles cooling
cooling and heating
heating tasks.
tasks. This integrated
integrated approach
approach en-en-
efficiency and temperature control, ultimately optimizing the overall
hances ventilation efficiency overall
performance of the HVAC system. Figure 15 provides an overview of the HVAC system
utilized in the building, with all energy-related data incorporated into the pre-defined
template within DesignBuilder software. These data are instrumental in the subsequent
energy analysis and simulation, encompassing various energy consumption sources.

2.5. Evaluation Criteria

The reference energy model used for comparison with PCM-integrated building
models aimed to assess energy-saving measures. This study explores the latent heat effect
of PCMs within the building envelope, particularly in external walls, through annual energy
simulations with and without PCM incorporation. The investigation aims to determine
optimal PCM specifications under varying Jordanian climatic conditions as well as in
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 27
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 13 of 27

performance of the HVAC system. Figure 15 provides an overview of the HVAC system
Oradea. The parameters examined include finding the ideal melting point, PCM type,
utilized in the building, with all energy-related data incorporated into the pre-defined
configuration within external wall layers, layer thickness, and performance across different
template within DesignBuilder software. These data are instrumental in the subsequent
climates. Multiple quantitative simulations were conducted for each category to identify
energy analysis and simulation, encompassing various energy consumption sources.
optimal values for significant energy savings.

Figure 15. Schematic

Figure 15. Schematic representation
representation of
of the
the VRF–air
VRF–air cooled–heat
cooled–heat recovery–DOAS
recovery–DOASHVAC
HVACsystem.
system.
2.5.1. PCM Melting Point
2.5. Evaluation Criteria
This paper delves into assessing the thermal and energy performance based on PCM
The reference
integration energy
with different modelpoints
melting used (21
for◦ C,
comparison
23 ◦ C, 25 ◦with
C, 27 PCM-integrated building
◦ C, and 29 ◦ C). The evalu-
models aimed to assess energy-saving
® measures. This study explores the
ation focuses on BioPCM , with fixed parameters, such as layer configuration, thickness, latent heat effect
of PCMs
and weather within the
data, forbuilding
Ammanenvelope,
city. particularly in external walls, through annual en-
ergy simulations with and without PCM incorporation. The investigation aims to deter-
mine PCM
2.5.2. optimal PCM specifications under varying Jordanian climatic conditions as well as
Type
in Oradea.
This paper parameters
The considers the examined include finding
careful selection of PCMthe ideal
types melting
based point, PCM
on factors, type,
like appli-
configuration within external wall layers, layer thickness, and performance
cation, operating temperature range, thermal stability, and cost. The evaluation focuses across differ-
entthree
on climates. Multiple quantitative
commercially available PCM simulations
productswere conducted
pre-defined for each categorysoftware
in DesignBuilder’s to iden-
tify optimal
database: values®for
BioPCM significant
, InfiniteR PCM, energy savings.
and WinCo EnerCiel PCM.
BioPCM, derived from renewable biomass sources, is an environmentally friendly alter-
2.5.1. PCM
native Melting Point
to traditional PCMs, being non-toxic and biodegradable. InfiniteR PCM, composed
of inorganic compounds
This paper likeassessing
delves into salt hydrates, exhibits
the thermal a high
and heat
energy of fusion, enabling
performance based on signifi-
PCM
cant thermalwith
integration energy storagemelting
different during points
phase transition. WinCo
(21 °C, 23 °C, Enerciel
25 °C, 27 °C,PCM,
and 29a non-toxic and
°C). The eval-
environmentally
uation focuses onfriendly
BioPCM option,
®, withutilizes eutectic mixtures,
fixed parameters, such asspecifically polyethylene
layer configuration, glycol,
thickness,
offering
and weathersuitable latent
data, heat capacity
for Amman city. and melting temperatures for various thermal energy
storage applications. Table 5 summarizes the specifications and thermal properties of the
studied
2.5.2. PCM PCM products.
Type
This paper considers the careful selection of PCM types based on factors, like appli-
2.5.3. PCM Layer Configuration
cation, operating temperature range, thermal stability, and cost. The evaluation focuses
The PCM
on three layer configuration
commercially effectproducts
available PCM depends pre-defined
on the external weather conditions
in DesignBuilder’s along
software
with the internal set point for the HVAC system inside the building. While the literature
database: BioPCM®, InfiniteR PCM, and WinCo EnerCiel PCM.
suggests this effect depends on external weather conditions and internal HVAC set points,
BioPCM, derived from renewable biomass sources, is an environmentally friendly
the focus here is on evaluating the best PCM configuration among external wall layers.
alternative to traditional PCMs, being non-toxic and biodegradable. InfiniteR PCM, com-
Specifically, this study explores a single PCM layer in three positions: closer to the interior
posed of inorganic compounds like salt hydrates, exhibits a high heat of fusion, enabling
side, in the middle, and closer to the exterior side of the external wall. All the other
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 14 of 27

parameters will remain fixed during the evaluation process, with the only variable being
the position of the PCM layer among other external wall layers. Figure 16 illustrates the
PCM-incorporated external wall layers with the tested PCM configurations.

Table 5. Specifications and thermal properties of the studied PCM types, adapted from [54].
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 27
PCM TYPE
BioPCM® InfiniteR PCM WinCo Enerciel PCM
SPECS
Source significant thermal energyOrganics Inorganics
storage during phase transition. WinCo Enerciel PCM,Eutectic mixture
a non-
Melting point [◦ C] toxic and environmentally
21, 23,friendly
25, 27, option,
29 utilizes
18, eutectic mixtures,
21, 23, 25, 27, 29 specifically polyeth-
21, 23, 29
ylene glycol, offering suitable latent heat capacity and melting temperatures for various
Latent heat of fusion [J/g] 250
thermal energy storage applications. Table 5 summarizes 200the specifications and thermal
175
properties of the studied PCM
Liquid 1970products. 2000 2200
Specific heat [J/kg·K]
Solid5. Specifications and thermal
Table 4500properties of the studied PCM
3140types, adapted from [54].2500

Thermal conductivity PCMLiquid

TYPE 0.15 0.54 0.148
BioPCM® InfiniteR PCM WinCo Enerciel PCM
[W/m·K]SPECS Solid 2.5 1.09 1.8
Source Organics Inorganics Eutectic mixture
Liquid 850 929 832
Melting[kg/m
Relative density 3]
point [°C] 21, 23, 25, 27, 29 18, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29 21, 23, 29
Latent heat of fusion [J/g] Solid 250 1400 200 1540 175 1170
Sheet thickness [cm] Liquid 1970
1, 2.1, 3.7 2000 2, 4 2200 0.3
Specific heat [J/kg·K]
Solid 4500 3140 2500
Micro-encapsulated
Containment
Thermal conductivity Liquid Macro-encapsulated
0.15 Macro-encapsulated
0.54 0.148
(interior coating)
[W/m·K] Solid 2.5 1.09 1.8
Liquid 850 929 832
Relative density [kg/m3]
2.5.4. PCM
SolidLayer Thickness
1400 1540 1170
Sheet thickness [cm] PCM layer thickness1, 2.1,
is3.7 2, 4
considered a particularly important factor0.3for adjusting diurnal
temperature variation inside the buildings. Therefore, findingMicro-encapsulated (inte-
the optimal thickness for the
Containment Macro-encapsulated Macro-encapsulated
rior coating)
PCM layer inside the external wall is crucial. In this regard, the evaluation process includes
investigating the external wall with different PCM layer thicknesses while fixing all other
2.5.3. PCM Layer Configuration
measures to focus on finding the optimal PCM sheet thickness that will achieve the best
The PCM layer configuration effect depends on the external weather conditions along
results forthethe
with specific
internal application.
set point However,
for the HVAC system the PCM
inside products,
the building. which
While were previously
the literature
specified in Section
suggests this effect2.5.2 come
depends onin macro-encapsulated
external weather conditions panels that have
and internal HVACspecific thicknesses.
set points,
For instance, BioPCM
the focus here is on ®evaluating
comes inthe different
best PCMsizes of macro-encapsulated
configuration among external wall PCM panels with
layers.
threeSpecifically, this study explores
available thicknesses a single
of 11.2 mm,PCM20.8layer
mm, in and
three37.1
positions:
mm.closer
These to panels
the interior
can even be
side, within
installed in the middle,
the walland closer to the
assembly exterior
during theside of the external
construction phasewall.
orAll
canthe
beother pa- attached
directly
rameters will remain fixed during the evaluation process, with the only variable being the
to the wall during the retrofitting phase using adhesive or fasteners, depending on the
position of the PCM layer among other external wall layers. Figure 16 illustrates the PCM-
manufacturer’s
incorporated recommendations.
external wall layers with the tested PCM configurations.

(a) (b)

Figure 16. Cont.

 Buildings 2024, 14, 40 15 of 27
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 27

(c)
Figure 16. BioPCM® M91/Q23-incorporated external wall layers with the tested PCM configuration,
(a) closer to the interior side, (b) in the middle, and (c) closer to the exterior side of the external wall.

2.5.4. PCM Layer Thickness

PCM layer thickness is considered a particularly important factor for adjusting diur-
nal temperature variation inside the buildings. Therefore, finding the optimal thickness
for the PCM layer inside the external wall is crucial. In this regard, the evaluation process
includes investigating the external wall with different PCM layer thicknesses while fixing
all other measures to focus on finding the optimal PCM sheet thickness that will achieve
the best results for the specific application. However, the PCM products, which were pre-
viously specified in Section 2.5.2 come in macro-encapsulated panels that have specific
thicknesses. For instance, BioPCM® comes in different sizes of macro-encapsulated PCM
panels with three available thicknesses of 11.2 mm, 20.8 mm, and 37.1 mm. These panels
can even be installed within the (c) wall assembly during the construction phase or can be
directly attached
Figure to®the
16. BioPCM wall during the retrofitting phase using adhesive or fasteners, de-
® M91/Q23-incorporated external wall layers with the tested PCM configuration,
Figure
(a) 16. BioPCM
closer to the M91/Q23-incorporated
interior external
side, (b) inrecommendations.
the middle, and wall
(c) closer layers
to the with
exterior the
side of tested PCMwall.
the external configuration,
pending on the manufacturer’s
(a) closer to the interior side, (b) in the middle, and (c) closer to the exterior side of the external wall.
2.5.4. PCM Layer Thickness
3. 3.
Results
Resultsand Discussion
and Discussion
PCM layer thickness is considered a particularly important factor for adjusting diur-
3.1. Baseline
3.1. Baseline Building Modelinside the buildings. Therefore, finding the optimal thickness
Building variation
nal temperature Model
for the PCM layer inside were
the external wall is on
Energy
Energy simulations
simulations were conducted
conducted oncrucial.
this
this In
modelthis regard,
model the evaluation
in different
in different process
locations,
locations, particularly,
particularly,
includes investigating the external wall with different PCM layer thicknesses while fixing
Amman,
Amman, Irbid,
Irbid, Aqaba,
Aqaba,toand and Oradea, to use them as a comparison reference with energy
all other measures focusOradea, to the
on finding useoptimal
them PCM
as a sheet
comparison
thickness reference with energy
that will achieve
results
resultsthe obtained
obtained from
from
best results
the PCM-incorporated
thespecific
for the PCM-incorporated building
building
application. However,
models.
models.
the PCM
Figure
Figure
products, which
17
17were shows
shows the per-
pre-the per-
centage
centage distribution
distribution
viously inofthe
specified of theelectrical
Sectionelectrical energy
energy
2.5.2 come consumptionin
consumption
in macro-encapsulated inpanels
the baseline
the baseline
that havebuilding
specific model
building model in
in Amman,
Amman, Irbid,
thicknesses. Aqaba,
Irbid,For and
instance,
Aqaba, Oradea.
andBioPCM
Oradea.® comes in different sizes of macro-encapsulated PCM

panels with three available thicknesses of 11.2 mm, 20.8 mm, and 37.1 mm. These panels
can even be installed within the wall assembly during the construction phase or can be
directly attached to the wall during the retrofitting phase using adhesive or fasteners, de-
pending on the manufacturer’s recommendations.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Baseline Building Model
Energy simulations were conducted on this model in different locations, particularly,
Amman, Irbid, Aqaba, and Oradea, to use them as a comparison reference with energy
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW results obtained from the PCM-incorporated building models. Figure 17 shows the per- 16 of 27
centage distribution of the electrical energy consumption in the baseline building model
in Amman,
Amman Irbid, Aqaba, and Oradea. Irbid

Amman Irbid

Aqaba Oradea

Figure
Figure17.17.
Percentage
Percentagedistribution of of
distribution thethe
electrical energy
electrical consumption
energy in in
consumption thethe
baseline building
baseline building
model in Amman city, Irbid city, Aqaba city, and Oradea
model in Amman city, Irbid city, Aqaba city, and Oradea city.city.

For thethe
For city ofof
city Amman,
Amman,the baseline
the baselinebuilding
buildingmodel
modelwith
withextruded
extrudedpolystyrene
polystyreneinsu-
insula-
lation
tion exhibits annual electricity consumption
consumption of of 9283.38
9283.38kWh
kWhforforheating,
heating,7574.54
7574.54kWh
kWhfor
for cooling, 6465.58 kWh for interior lighting, and 3871.55 kWh for other electrical loads
such as plugs and equipment. For Irbid city, the baseline building model incorporating
extruded polystyrene insulation demonstrates annual electricity consumption of 11,420.19
kWh for heating and 6926.15 kWh for cooling. For Aqaba, the baseline building model
with extruded polystyrene insulation exhibits annual electricity consumption of 3626.72
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 16 of 27

cooling, 6465.58 kWh for interior lighting, and 3871.55 kWh for other electrical loads such
as plugs and equipment. For Irbid city, the baseline building model incorporating extruded
polystyrene insulation demonstrates annual electricity consumption of 11,420.19 kWh for
heating and 6926.15 kWh for cooling. For Aqaba, the baseline building model with ex-
truded polystyrene insulation exhibits annual electricity consumption of 3626.72 kWh for
heating and 12,501.29 kWh for cooling. For Oradea city, the baseline building model, with
mineral wool fibers as insulation medium, demonstrates annual electricity consumption of
20,251.03 kWh for heating and 2620.26 kWh for cooling.
Additionally, the electrical energy intensity or the energy use intensity (EUI) for the
baseline building model was calculated by dividing the total electricity consumption by the
conditioned and total floor areas of the building. Energy use intensity (EUI) refers to the
amount of electrical energy consumed per unit of area or a specific activity. This measure
is used to assess the efficiency of electrical energy use in various contexts including the
buildings sector.
Accordingly, monitoring the energy use intensity (EUI) is crucial to track progress in
buildings’ energy efficiency and sustainability goals. Therefore, lower EUI is desirable as
it signifies a more efficient use of energy resources, which can contribute to energy cost
savings and reduced greenhouse gas emissions. In this regard, the following tables demon-
strate the electrical energy intensity and the HVAC electricity intensity per conditioned
and total floor areas for the baseline building model in the specified location; the results are
listed in Table 6.

Table 6. Energy use intensity (EUI) for the baseline building model in Amman, Irbid, Aqaba, and
Oradea.

Amman Irbid Aqaba Oradea

Baseline Building Model Energy Use Intensity [kWh/m2 /Year]
Energy Intensity per Conditioned Floor Area 147.03 155.08 143.09 181.40
Energy Intensity per Total Floor Area 132.10 139.33 128.55 162.97
HVAC Energy Intensity per Conditioned Floor Area 91.14 99.19 87.20 123.66
HVAC Energy Intensity per Total Floor Area 81.89 89.12 78.34 111.10

The ideal value for EUI in a residential building depends on a few factors, including
the climate, the type of building, and the occupants’ lifestyle. According to the Building
Energy Efficiency Standard (BEES), the average value of the EUI for residential buildings is
115.14 kWh/m2 /year [55].
Accordingly, the EUI values per total floor area of the baseline building model, as
illustrated in the above tables, are 132.10, 139.33, 128.55, and 162.97 (kWh/m2 /year) for
Amman, Irbid, Aqaba, and Oradea, respectively. Although the resulted EUI values are
slightly higher than the average value, these values are to be modified by means of phase
change materials.

3.2. PCM-Incorporated Building Model

The annual energy simulation results for the PCM-incorporated building models are
presented in this section Finding the optimal melting point for PCM typically involves
investigating the thermal and energy performance of the building after integrating phase
change materials with different phase transition temperatures.

3.2.1. Optimal Melting Point

The simulation results for the comparison of heating and cooling loads between the
baseline building model, featuring extruded polystyrene insulation, and PCM-incorporated
building models with varied phase transition temperatures reveal substantial energy-saving
potential. For the PCM with a melting point of 21 ◦ C, heating and cooling loads experienced
 The simulation results for the comparison of heating and cooling loads between the
baseline building model, featuring extruded polystyrene insulation, and PCM-incorpo-
rated building models with varied phase transition temperatures reveal substantial en-
Buildings 2024, 14,ergy-saving
40 potential. For the PCM with a melting point of 21 °C, heating and cooling 17 of 27
loads experienced reductions of 31.30% and 18.22%, respectively. At a melting point of 23
°C, the reductions were 34.38% for heating and 23.33% for cooling. Similarly, for the PCM
◦ C, the reductions
with a meltingreductions
point of 25 of °C,
31.30% and 18.22%,
reductions were respectively.
31.56% forAt a melting
heating andpoint of 23for
17.06% cooling.
were
The PCM with a melting34.38% point of 27 °C demonstrated reductions of 24.90% for with
for heating and 23.33% for cooling. Similarly, for the PCM a melting
heating
point of 25 ◦ C, reductions were 31.56% for heating and 17.06% for cooling. The PCM with
and 11.44% for cooling. Lastly, the ◦PCM with a melting point of 29 ºC resulted in an 11.75%
a melting point of 27 C demonstrated reductions of 24.90% for heating and 11.44% for
reduction for heating and a 4.91% reduction for cooling. Overall, incorporating PCMs into
cooling. Lastly, the PCM with a melting point of 29 ºC resulted in an 11.75% reduction
building envelopes
for heating and aa 4.91%
exhibits consistent
reductiontrend forof significant
cooling. reductions
Overall, in both
incorporating PCMs heating
into building
and cooling loads across different melting points, highlighting the potential for substantial
envelopes exhibits a consistent trend of significant reductions in both heating and cooling
energy savings.loads across different melting points, highlighting the potential for substantial energy
As directly observed from the simulation results, the PCM with a phase transition
savings.
temperature of 23 As °C directly
reachedobserved fromenergy-saving
the highest the simulationrate
results, the PCMwith
compared withthea phase transition
baseline
temperature of 23 ◦ C reached the highest energy-saving rate compared with the baseline
simulation results and the other melting points. As illustrated in Figure 18, the total en-
simulation results and the other melting points. As illustrated in Figure 18, the total energy-
ergy-saving rate achieved by incorporating PCM with a melting point 23 °C is 18.23%,
saving rate achieved by incorporating PCM with a melting point 23 ◦ C is 18.23%, compared
compared with the energy-saving rates of 15.76%, 15.53%, 11.69%, and 5.38% for melting
with the energy-saving rates of 15.76%, 15.53%, 11.69%, and 5.38% for melting points of
points of 21 °C,
2125 °C,
◦ C, 25 27
◦ C,°C,
27 ◦and 29 29
C, and °C,◦ C,
respectively.
respectively.

Figure 18. Annual electrical energy consumption chart for PCM-incorporated building with melting
point 23 ◦ C compared with the baseline building model.

Figure 19 shows an HVAC energy comparison chart for the different melting points
of PCM. It is worth mentioning that since the indoor set point temperature for the HVAC
system used in the energy simulation of the building was 23 ◦ C, these results comply with
the literature [38,45], as they proved that the optimal PCM melting point should be close to
the indoor set point of the HVAC system.
Another observation was noticed from the energy simulation results; PCMs can
perform better in reducing the heating load more than the cooling load. For the PCM with a
melting point of 23 ◦ C as an example, the energy-saving rate for heating is −34.38%, while
for cooling, the energy-saving rate is −23.33%. This might be caused by the fact that in
Jordan, the daily temperature fluctuation during the winter season is higher than that in
summer, resulting in a higher effect of the latent heat of fusion for these materials.
 Figure 19 shows an HVAC energy comparison chart for the different melting points
of PCM. It is worth mentioning that since the indoor set point temperature for the HVAC
system used in the energy simulation of the building was 23 °C, these results comply with
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 the literature [38,45], as they proved that the optimal PCM melting point should be 18
close
of 27
to the indoor set point of the HVAC system.

Figure
Figure19.
19.HVAC
HVACenergy
energycomparison
comparisonchart
chartfor
forthe
thetested
testedPCMs
PCMswith
withdifferent
differentmelting
meltingpoints.
points.

3.2.2.Another
PCM Type Evaluation
observation was noticed from the energy simulation results; PCMs can per-
form better in reducing
Investigating the mostthe heating
suitable load
PCMmore thanbuilding
type for the cooling load. For
application the PCM
includes with a
evaluating
melting point of 23 °Cavailable
three commercially as an example, the energy-saving
PCM products rate for heating
that are pre-defined is −34.38%,
in the while
DesignBuilder
for cooling, the energy-saving rate is ®
−23.33%. This might
software database, namely, BioPCM , InfiniteR PCM, and WinCo EnerCiel PCM. Thebe caused by the fact that in
Jordan,
annual the dailysimulation
energy temperature fluctuation
results for the during
building the winter
after season is higher
incorporating than that
the specified in
PCM
summer,
productsresulting
underscore in athehigher effect of the
energy-saving latent heat
potential of fusion forthese
of incorporating thesePCM materials.
products into
building envelopes. In comparing the baseline building model with extruded polystyrene
3.2.2. PCM to
insulation Type
theEvaluation
building after incorporating three commercially available PCM products,
significant reductions in electrical energy consumption ®
Investigating the most suitable PCM type for buildingwere observed.
application For BioPCM
includes evaluat-
M91/Q23,
ing the PCM-incorporated
three commercially available PCM building
productsdemonstrated a 34.38%in
that are pre-defined reduction in heating
the DesignBuilder
and a 23.33%
software reduction
database, namely, in cooling,
BioPCM resulting in an
®, InfiniteR overall
PCM, and18.23%
WinCoreduction
EnerCielin totalThe
PCM. end-use
an-
energy. InfiniteR PCM23 showed even more substantial reductions,
nual energy simulation results for the building after incorporating the specified PCM with a 37.21% decrease
in heatingunderscore
products and a 14.74% thedecrease in cooling,
energy-saving contributing
potential to a total end-use
of incorporating theseenergy reduction
PCM products
of 16.81%. WinCo Enerciel PCM 23 exhibited an 11.58% reduction
into building envelopes. In comparing the baseline building model with extruded in heating and an poly-
8.89%
reduction in cooling, leading to a 6.43% decrease in total end-use energy.
styrene insulation to the building after incorporating three commercially available PCM
As directly
products, observed
significant reductionsfrominthe simulation
electrical energyresults, the building
consumption wereincorporated
observed. ForwithBi-
BioPCM ® M91/Q23 reached the highest energy-saving rate compared with the baseline
oPCM M91/Q23, the PCM-incorporated building demonstrated a 34.38% reduction in
®
simulation results and the other PCM types. The total energy-saving rate achieved by
heating and a 23.33% reduction in cooling, resulting in an overall 18.23% reduction in total
incorporating a single layer of BioPCM® M91/Q23 to the external wall of the proposed
end-use energy. InfiniteR PCM23 showed even more substantial reductions, with a 37.21%
building model is 18.23%, compared with energy-saving rates of 16.81% and 6.43% for
decrease in heating and a 14.74% decrease in cooling, contributing to a total end-use
InfiniteR PCM23 and WinCo Enerciel PCM 23, respectively. Figure 20 shows the HVAC
energy comparison chart for the tested types of PCM.

3.2.3. Optimal PCM Configuration

Evaluating the best PCM configuration among the external wall layers is carried out
by investigating a single PCM layer in the middle, closer to the interior side, and closer
to the exterior side of the external wall. In the comparison between the baseline building
model with extruded polystyrene and the building after incorporating a single sheet of
BioPCM® at different positions within the external wall, notable reductions in electrical
energy consumption were observed. Placing the PCM in the middle of the external wall
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 27

energy reduction of 16.81%. WinCo Enerciel PCM 23 exhibited an 11.58% reduction in

Buildings 2024, 14, 40 heating and an 8.89% reduction in cooling, leading to a 6.43% decrease in total end-use 19 of 27
energy.
As directly observed from the simulation results, the building incorporated with Bi-
oPCM ® M91/Q23
resulted in a 34.38%reached the highest
reduction in heatingenergy-saving
and a 23.33%rate compared
reduction with thecontributing
in cooling, baseline sim- to
ulation
an 18.23%results
totaland the other
end-use PCM
energy types. The
reduction. total energy-saving
Positioning rate achieved
the PCM closer by incor-
to the interior side
led to even
porating greater
a single reductions,
layer of BioPCMwith a 38.79% to
® M91/Q23 decrease in heating
the external and
wall of thea proposed
24.76% decrease
building in
cooling,isresulting
model in a substantial
18.23%, compared with20.14% total end-use
energy-saving rates energy reduction.
of 16.81% and 6.43%Similarly, placing
for InfiniteR
the PCMand
PCM23 closer to theEnerciel
WinCo exteriorPCM
side resulted in a 32.53%
23, respectively. reduction
Figure in heating
20 shows and a energy
the HVAC 16.18%
reduction in cooling, contributing to a
comparison chart for the tested types of PCM. 15.61% total end-use energy reduction.

Figure
Figure 20.
20. HVAC
HVAC energy
energy comparison
comparison chart for the tested PCM products.

3.2.3.As clearlyPCM
Optimal observed from the simulation results, the building incorporated with
Configuration
BioPCM ® closer to the interior surface of the external wall reached the highest energy-
Evaluating the best PCM configuration among the external wall layers is carried out
saving
by rate compared
investigating with
a single PCM thelayer
baseline
in thesimulation results
middle, closer to and the other
the interior PCM
side, andconfigura-
closer to
tions, as illustrated in Figure 21. These results comply with the literature
the exterior side of the external wall. In the comparison between the baseline building [37,39], as they
proved that the optimal PCM layer configuration should be closer to the interior surface of
model with extruded polystyrene and the building after incorporating a single sheet of
the external wall. Figure 22 illustrates an HVAC energy comparison chart for the tested
BioPCM® at different positions within the external wall, notable reductions in electrical
PCM configurations.
energy consumption were observed. Placing the PCM in the middle of the external wall
resulted in a 34.38%
3.2.4. Optimal reduction
PCM Panel in heating and a 23.33% reduction in cooling, contributing
Thickness
to an 18.23% total end-use energy reduction. Positioning the PCM closer to the interior
Finding the optimal thickness for the PCM layer inside the external wall includes
side led to even greater reductions, with a 38.79% decrease in heating and a 24.76% de-
investigating the external wall with different PCM panel thicknesses, particularly 11.2 mm,
crease in cooling, resulting in a substantial 20.14% total end-use energy reduction. Simi-
20.8 mm, and 37.1 mm, while fixing all other measures to focus on finding the optimal
larly, placing the PCM closer to the exterior side resulted in a 32.53% reduction in heating
thickness of the incorporated PCM panel that will achieve the best results for the specific
and a 16.18% reduction in cooling, contributing to a 15.61% total end-use energy reduc-®
application. In evaluating the impact of different thicknesses of a single sheet of BioPCM
tion.
on the baseline building model with extruded polystyrene, the findings highlight the
As clearly observed from the simulation results, the building incorporated with Bi-
significance of PCM thickness in achieving optimal energy-saving results.
oPCM Thecloser
®
resultsto the interior
indicate thatsurface of thethe
increasing external wallofreached
thickness the highestBioPCM
the incorporated energy-saving
® panel
rate
contributes to greater reductions in electrical energy consumption. For a thickness as
compared with the baseline simulation results and the other PCM configurations, of
illustrated
11.2 mm, the in Figure 21. These results
PCM-incorporated comply
building with demonstrated
model the literature [37,39],
a 28.50%as reduction
they proved in
that the and
heating optimal PCMreduction
a 14.28% layer configuration should beincloser
in cooling, resulting a totaltoend-use
the interior
energy surface of the
reduction of
external
13.71%. A wall. Figureof2220.8
thickness illustrates
mm ledan toHVAC energy comparison
more substantial reductions, chart
withfor the tested
a 31.93% PCM
decrease
configurations.
in heating and a 19.19% decrease in cooling, contributing to a 16.25% total end-use energy
reduction. Further increasing the thickness to 37.1 mm resulted in even greater reductions,
with a notable 38.79% decrease in heating and a 24.76% decrease in cooling, achieving a
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 20 of 27

Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20.14% total end-use energy reduction, as shown in Figure 23. Figure 24 20
significant of 27
shows
Buildings 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 27
an HVAC energy comparison chart for the tested PCM layer thicknesses.

Figure 21.
Figure 21. Annual
Annual electrical
electrical energy
energy consumption
consumption chart
chart for
for the
the building
building incorporated
incorporated with
with BioPCM
BioPCM®®
Figure
layer 21. Annual
closer to the electrical
interior energy
surface of consumption
the external chartcompared
wall for the building
with theincorporated
baseline with BioPCM®
model.
layer
layercloser
closerto
tothe
theinterior
interiorsurface
surfaceofofthe
theexternal
externalwall
wallcompared
comparedwithwiththe
thebaseline
baselinemodel.
model.

Figure 22. HVAC energy comparison chart for the tested PCM configurations.
Figure22.
Figure 22.HVAC
HVACenergy
energycomparison
comparisonchart
chartfor
forthe
thetested
testedPCM
PCMconfigurations.
configurations.
3.2.4. Optimal PCM Panel Thickness
3.2.4.Simulation
Optimal PCMresults revealed
Panel that the highest energy-saving rate was achieved in Am-
Thickness
Finding the
man (20.14%), optimal
followed bythickness
Irbid for theAqaba
(19.78%), PCM(7.50%),
layer inside the external
and Oradea (5.64).wall includes
Finding the optimal thickness for the PCM layer inside the external wall includes
investigating the
These results external wall with different PCM panel thicknesses, particularly 11.2
investigating the comply
externalwith
wallthe factdifferent
with that PCMs PCMcanpanel
perform better in moderate
thicknesses, particularlyclimate
11.2
mm, 20.8
conditions, mm, and
likeand 37.1
in Amman mm, while
and fixing
Irbid, all other
significantly measures to focus
more thantotheir on finding the opti-
mm, 20.8 mm, 37.1 mm, while fixing all other measures focusperformance
on finding the in very
opti-
mal thickness
hot-dry climateof the incorporated
conditions PCM city
like in Aqaba panel that
and will achieve
cold-wet the
climate best results
conditions likefor
in the spe-
Oradea
mal thickness of the incorporated PCM panel that will achieve the best results for the spe-
cific application. In evaluating the impact of different thicknesses of a single sheet of Bi-
cific application. In evaluating the impact of different thicknesses of a single sheet of Bi-
oPCM®® on the baseline building model with extruded polystyrene, the findings highlight
oPCM on the baseline building model with extruded polystyrene, the findings highlight
the significance of PCM thickness in achieving optimal energy-saving results.
the significance of PCM thickness in achieving optimal energy-saving results.
Buildings 2024,
Buildings 2024, 14,
14, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 21 of
21 of 27
27

Buildings 2024, 14, 40 21 of 27

The results
The results indicate
indicate that
that increasing
increasing the
the thickness
thickness of of the
the incorporated
incorporated BioPCM
BioPCM®® panelpanel
contributes to greater reductions in electrical energy consumption.
contributes to greater reductions in electrical energy consumption. For a thickness of 11.2For a thickness of 11.2
mm,
city.
mm,Thisthe PCM-incorporated
is due to the fact that
the PCM-incorporated building
average
building model demonstrated
dailydemonstrated
model temperaturesaare a 28.50% reduction
closerreduction
28.50% to the PCMin heating
phase
in heating
and a 14.28%
transition reduction
temperature ofin23 ◦ C. Thisresulting
cooling, proximity in a total end-use
facilitates a energy
greater reduction
latent heat of of
the 13.71%.
fusion
and a 14.28% reduction in cooling, resulting in a total end-use energy reduction of 13.71%.
A thickness
thickness
effect,
A of 20.8
stabilizing
of 20.8building
mm led
mm led to
to more
more substantial
substantial
temperatures reductions,
and reducing
reductions, HVAC with system
with aa 31.93%
31.93%energy
decrease in heat-
usage
decrease in heat-
for
ing
indoorand a 19.19%
climate decrease
control. in cooling,
Furthermore, contributing
the energy use to a 16.25%
intensity total
(EUI)
ing and a 19.19% decrease in cooling, contributing to a 16.25% total end-use energy reduc- end-use
of energy
PCM-incorporated reduc-
tion. Further
tion. Further
buildings increasing
wasincreasing
notably lowerthe thickness
the thickness
than that oftobaseline
to 37.1 mm
37.1 mmmodels
resulted
resulted within even
in even greater reductions,
conventional
greater reductions,
insulation in with
all
with
locations,
a notable demonstrating
38.79% decrease a substantial
in heating reduction
and a 24.76% in total end-use
decrease in energy.
cooling,
a notable 38.79% decrease in heating and a 24.76% decrease in cooling, achieving a signif- Table 7
achievingcompares
a signif-
the EUI
icant
icant and HVAC
20.14%
20.14% total electricity
total end-use intensity
end-use energy
energy for PCM-incorporated
reduction,
reduction, as shown
as shown in and baseline
in Figure
Figure building
23. Figure
23. Figure models
24 shows
24 shows an
an
in Amman,
HVAC Irbid,
energy Aqaba,
comparison and Oradea.
chart for the tested PCM
HVAC energy comparison chart for the tested PCM layer thicknesses. layer thicknesses.

Figure23.
Figure
Figure 23.Annual
23. Annualelectrical
Annual electricalenergy
electrical energyconsumption
energy consumptionchart
consumption chartfor
chart forthe
for thebuilding
the buildingincorporated
building incorporatedwith
incorporated with37.10
with 37.10mm
37.10 mm
mm
layer
layer thickness
thickness of
of BioPCM
BioPCM
®M91/Q23 compared with the baseline model.
®® M91/Q23 compared with the baseline
layer thickness of BioPCM M91/Q23 compared with the baseline model.model.

Figure 24. HVAC energy comparison chart for the tested PCM layer thicknesses.
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 22 of 27

Table 7. Energy use intensity (EUI) of the PCM-incorporated building compared with the baseline
building in Amman, Irbid, Aqaba, and Oradea.

Baseline Building Model PCM-Incorporated Building Model

Energy Intensity
Energy Use Intensity [kWh/m2 /Year]
PCM-Incorporated building model in Amman
Energy intensity per conditioned floor area 147.03 117.42
Energy intensity per total floor area 132.10 105.50
HVAC energy intensity per conditioned floor area 91.14 61.53
HVAC energy intensity per total floor area 81.89 55.28
PCM-Incorporated building model in Irbid
Energy intensity per conditioned floor area 155.08 124.41
Energy intensity per total floor area 139.33 111.77
HVAC energy intensity per conditioned floor area 99.19 68.52
HVAC energy intensity per total floor area 89.12 61.56
PCM-Incorporated building model in Aqaba
Energy intensity per conditioned floor area 143.09 132.36
Energy intensity per total floor area 128.55 118.91
HVAC energy intensity per conditioned floor area 87.20 76.47
HVAC energy intensity per total floor area 78.34 68.70
PCM-Incorporated building model in Oradea
Energy intensity per conditioned floor area 181.40 171.50
Energy intensity per total floor area 162.97 154.08
HVAC energy intensity per conditioned floor area 123.66 113.76
HVAC energy intensity per total floor area 111.10 102.20

As illustrated in Table 7, a considerable reduction in the EUI could be achieved by

incorporating PCM in the building envelope. Moreover, in Amman, as demonstrated in
Table 7, the EUI value for the building after incorporating PCM with optimal specifications
and properties could reach 117.42 kWh/m2 /year, which is close enough to the average
ideal value for green buildings of 115.14 kWh/m2 /year stated by the Building Energy
Efficiency Standard (BEES).

3.3. Validation of the Results

The study’s findings were further validated and enriched through a comparison with
the conclusions of a reference paper [56] that focused on the use of environmentally friendly
phase change materials (BioPCMs). This reference study conducted an in-depth analysis
of the energy reduction capabilities of various BioPCMs, each with distinct enthalpy–
temperature curves, and examined their effectiveness across a spectrum of metabolic rates.
Key aspects of the reference study [55] include the following:
Selection of BioPCMs: The study utilized BioPCM M182/Q21, BioPCM M182/Q23,
BioPCM M182/Q25, and BioPCM M182/Q27. Each of these BioPCMs has a unique
enthalpy–temperature curve, which was crucial in determining their effectiveness in reduc-
ing energy consumption.
Heating and Cooling Needs: The first two BioPCMs (M182/Q21 and M182/Q23)
were particularly effective, fully meeting the building’s heating requirements. They also
contributed to cooling, with impact rates of 23.4% and 22.1% energy reduction, respectively.
The findings from the reference paper corroborate and expand upon the results of the
study, offering a broader context and a deeper understanding of the efficacy of BioPCMs
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 23 of 27

in energy conservation. The comprehensive analysis in the reference study reinforces

the conclusion that integrating BioPCMs into building envelopes can significantly boost
energy efficiency. This comparison validates the methodology and results of the study
and highlights the potential of BioPCMs in real-world applications. It emphasizes their
adaptability to different human occupancy conditions and their capability to effectively
balance heating and cooling demands.

4. Financial and Environmental Analysis

4.1. Financial Feasibility
To assess the financial viability of incorporating the PCM in the studied building model
described so far, we first need to determine the initial cost of incorporating these materials
including the installation cost in the external walls. Afterwards, we need to subtract it
from the cost of incorporating the conventional insulation material in the baseline building
model, which is a 2.5 cm panel of XPS extruded polystyrene. The annual energy cost saving
is then calculated by multiplying the yearly energy savings by the electricity tariff in Jordan.
Finally, the expenses and the energy cost savings are utilized to estimate the payback
period, to determine whether the application of PCMs in buildings is financially viable.
Accordingly, the price of a 3.7 cm panel thickness of BioPCM® M91/Q23 including the
installation cost in the external walls of the building is 36.65 $/m2 . The total gross area of
the external walls is 179.60 m2 . Therefore, the total cost of incorporating the external walls
of the building with BioPCM® M91/Q23 is USD 6582.54. Additionally, the cost of installing
a 2.5 cm panel of extruded polystyrene in the external walls of the building is 11.28 USD/m2 .
Therefore, the total cost of incorporating the extruded polystyrene insulation in the external
walls of the building is USD 2025.40. Subtracting USD 6582.54 from USD 2025.40 will result
in USD 4557.15 as a net expense.
The energy use intensity difference per total floor area for Amman city, as illustrated
in Table 7, is 26.6 kWh/m2 /year. Therefore, the annual energy savings for the PCM-
incorporated building after multiplying 26.6 kWh/m2 /year by the total floor area of the
building will result in 5476.14 kwh energy saved per year. This is translated to approxi-
mately USD 1150 saved annually at an electricity tariff of 0.21 USD/kWh [57]. The payback
period is then estimated by dividing the initial cost of incorporating BioPCM® M91/Q23
in the external walls of the building by the annual energy-saving amount, resulting in a
payback period of 4 years, affirming the financial feasibility of PCM application and its
economic benefits.
In Oradea, the price of electrical energy is approximately USD 0.3 per kWh. For
heating, the city utilizes a district heating system that supplies thermal energy at USD
86 per Gcal (equivalent to USD 0.074 per kWh) [58], posing a question about the cost-
effectiveness of PCM use considering the 5.64% energy savings observed in simulations.
Notably, the heating energy price is subsidized by the City Council of Oradea, which
influences the economic feasibility of PCM integration.

4.2. Environmental Viability

Incorporating PCMs into building envelopes, particularly BioPCMs, has the poten-
tial to mitigate temperature fluctuations, enhancing thermal comfort and contributing to
sustainability goals by reducing energy consumption and carbon emissions. BioPCMs are
environmentally friendly materials derived from renewable biomass sources, exhibiting
non-toxic and recyclable properties. Unlike conventional insulation materials, BioPCMs
do not generate emissions during manufacturing. To assess the energy-related environ-
mental impact, the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions equivalent to a kilowatt-hour (kWh)
of electricity in Jordan (435 g of CO2 e) are considered [59]. The emissions factor is based
on the current electricity generation mix, primarily comprising natural gas and oil, with
growing prospects for renewable sources like solar and wind power. The reduction in GHG
emissions resulting from energy savings can be estimated using the formula: GHG reduced
emissions (kg CO2 e) = kWh of electricity saved × 0.435 kg CO2 e per kWh. For Amman,
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 24 of 27

with an annual energy saving of 5476.58 kWh/year, this corresponds to an estimated

reduction of 2382.31 kg of equivalent carbon dioxide emissions per year (kgCO2 e/year).

5. Conclusions
This paper presents a comprehensive study on the integration of bio-based phase
change materials (BioPCMs) into building envelopes, aimed at enhancing energy efficiency
in residential buildings in Jordan and the city of Oradea in Romania. The key findings,
arranged according to their importance, are as follows:
• Incorporating BioPCMs led to a significant reduction in energy consumption, with a
34.38% decrease in heating and a 23.33% decrease in cooling energy compared to the
baseline model at a melting point of 23 ◦ C.
• The modeling and simulations revealed that BioPCMs significantly improved thermal
performance, leading to more efficient heating and cooling in buildings.
• BioPCMs offer considerable environmental benefits, including non-toxicity, recycla-
bility, reduced manufacturing emissions, and a notable reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions, estimated at an annual decrease of 2382.31 kg of equivalent carbon dioxide.
• The BioPCM® M91/Q23 configuration demonstrated economic viability, with an
estimated payback period of just four years.
• The simulation results showed the highest energy-saving rate in Amman (20.14%),
followed by Irbid (19.78%), Aqaba (7.50%), and Oradea (5.64%).
• In moderate climates, like Amman and Irbid, where average temperatures align
closely with the PCM’s phase transition temperature of 23 ◦ C, PCMs showed enhanced
performance, resulting in greater thermal stability compared to very hot-dry climates
like Aqaba and cold-wet climates like Oradea.
• The close alignment of average daily temperatures with the PCM’s phase transition
temperature in moderate climates led to decreased energy consumption by HVAC
systems for maintaining indoor thermal comfort.
• Through all studied locations, the PCM-incorporated building models demonstrated
a lower EUI compared to baseline models with conventional insulation, reflecting a
substantial reduction in total end-use energy.
This paper conclusively demonstrates that integrating phase change materials (PCMs)
into building envelopes significantly reduces energy consumption. This key outcome
underlines the potential of PCM technology as an effective solution for enhancing building
energy efficiency, particularly in the context of climate change and the growing need for
sustainable energy practices in the building sector.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.J. and H.A.M.; data curation, M.J. and C.C.B.; formal
analysis, H.A.M. and C.B.; funding acquisition, C.B.; investigation, M.J., H.A.M., C.C.B. and T.B.;
methodology, M.J. and H.A.M.; project administration, C.B.; supervision, C.B.; validation, T.B.;
visualization, C.C.B.; writing—original draft, M.J., H.A.M. and C.B.; writing—review and editing,
C.C.B. and T.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research and APC were funded by the Romanian Ministry of National Education
and Scientific Research, through National Council for Higher Education Funding, Contract No.
CNFIS-FDI-2023-F-0426 with University of Oradea.
Data Availability Statement: Data provided in this article are supported by experimental results and
by the mentioned references.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank to the University of Oradea, Oradea, Romania,
and the German Jordanian University, Amman, Jordan for the facilities and support provided.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or
in the decision to publish the results.
Buildings 2024, 14, 40 25 of 27

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