BIOLOGY REVISION – REPRODUCTION

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction is a process which results in the production of genetically identical
offspring, known as clones. This only requires one parent, unlike sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproduction occurs predominantly in plants, although some animals such as
starfish also reproduce in this way.

Advantages of asexual reproduction:

Only one parent is required - this is helpful for organisms which live in desolate
environments where finding a mate is difficult.
Can reproduce quickly - large quantities of offspring can be produced quickly to
rapidly populate an area. This helps to dominate a habitat and prevent competition
from other species.
It takes less energy to reproduce asexually.

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:

Lack of diversity - all offspring is genetically identical.
Prone to extinction - as each organism produced is genetically identical, a disease
which harms one will be dangerous to all of them, thus it is easy for the whole
population to be destroyed by one pathogen.
Cannot adapt - organisms are adapted to one environment and cannot adapt to
changes. If the environment changes, e.g. the temperature rise, they are likely to be
killed.
Overpopulation - too many offspring may be produced, which causes overcrowding in
a habitat.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction requires two parents. The nuclei of two gametes, one from each
parent, fuse together to form a zygote. Each offspring is genetically different. The process
of the gametes fusing is called fertilization.

Most cells in the body are diploid cells, meaning that they have a full set of chromosomes,
whereas haploid cells (egg and sperm cells) only have half as many chromosomes. This means
that when two haploid gametes fuse during fertilisation, a complete set of chromosomes is
produced - half from the mother and half from the father. The nucleus of a zygote is therefore
diploid as it has a complete set of chromosomes

Advantages of sexual reproduction:

Wide diversity - each offspring is genetically unique.
Promotes survival - each organism is unique so disease cannot spread as easily.
Organisms can adapt - as each offspring is born with different genes, those with a
genetic advantage are more likely to survive and pass their positive traits on to their
offspring, whilst those with a genetic disadvantage are more likely to die without
producing offspring. This allows the species to evolve through natural selection.

Disadvantages of sexual reproduction:

Two parents are required - it may be difficult for some species to find mates, especially
when there is an imbalance of males and females in an area or if the species is
endangered.
Fewer offspring produced - it takes longer and requires more energy to produce
offspring, therefore it is less efficient than asexual reproduction.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

Plant reproductive system:
Sepals - protects unopened flowers.
Petals - flowering plants have petals which are brightly coloured to attract
pollinating insects to the plant. Insects are also attracted by scents and nectar in
the plant.
Anthers - produces male sex cells in the form of pollen. This pollen is then either
picked up by insects or blown off the plant and carried in the wind.
 Stigmas - the female part of the plant which collects pollen from insects or from the
air. In wind-pollinated plants, the stigmas and anthers hang out of the plant where
they are more exposed to the wind.
Ovaries - produces the female sex cells which are contained in the ovules.
Fertilization occurs when the nucleus of this fuses with a pollen cell nucleus.

Sexual reproduction in plants takes place in the flowers using pollen. Cross-pollination occurs
when grains of pollen are transferred from the anthers of one plant to the stigma of another
plant of the same species. Some flowers can produce male and female gametes, and thus
can self-pollinate by transferring pollen from their anther to their stigma. This is considered
as sexual reproduction as there is still a male and female gamete.

Cross-pollination vs self-pollination:
Cross-pollination results in more genetic diversity in a species, thus the species
can adapt and is more resilient to diseases.
Self-pollination uses less energy as the plant does not need to expend energy
in attracting pollinating insects.
Self-pollinating plants can spread to areas where the species does not currently exist
as other pollinators are not required. Cross-pollinating plants, however, are reliant on
pollinators.
Cross-pollination can only occur when the flowers are open.

Methods of pollination:
There are two methods of pollination in plants: insect pollination and wind pollination. In
insect pollination, insects are attracted to the plant, where pollen sticks to them. They then
move to another plant and drop the pollen, causing the second plant to be pollinated. In wind
pollination, the wind blows pollen off the first plant and carries it to the second plant. Pollen
that is carried by insects is adapted to be sticky and have hooks which attach to the insect.
Pollen carried by the wind does not need to stick to anything, thus is smooth. It is also very
light.

Fertilization:
1. Pollen grains land on a plant stigma.
2. If the pollen is of the same species, a pollen tube begins to grow.
3. The pollen moves down the pollen tube to the ovule.
4. Fertilization occurs when the nucleus from the pollen cell fuses with a nucleus in an
Ovule. This produces a zygote.

5. The zygote develops into an embryo plant.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

Male reproductive system:

Testes - there are two testicles. This is where sperm cells are produced, as well
as testosterone.
Scrotum - Contains the testicles.
Sperm ducts - Tubes that carry sperm from the testes to the urethra.
Prostate gland - Secretes nutritive fluid which combines with sperm to form semen.
Urethra - Tube which allows excretion of urine and semen from body.

Female reproductive system:

Ovaries - there are two ovaries. Their function is to develop egg cells. Woman have
Undeveloped egg cells from birth, whereas men produce new sperm throughout
their lives.

Oviducts - connect to each ovary and contain cilia to transport the egg cells through
the tube. This is where fertilization occurs.
Uterus - this is where the foetus develops.
Cervix - separates the vagina from the uterus, and also holds the baby in place
during pregnancy. The cervix is made of muscular tissue.
Vagina - Tube that leads from the cervix to outside of the body. Receives the
penis during intercourse.

FERTILIZATION

Fertilization occurs when a sperm cell and an egg cell fuse their nuclei together. Sperm
cells are male gametes produced in large numbers in the testes. They are adapted by
having a tail-like flagellum which allows movement to the egg cell. Sperm cells also
contain many mitochondria to produce energy for this movement. Eggs, in contrast, are
much larger than sperm and are unable to move themselves. They are instead
transported by cilia on the walls of the oviducts. When the sperm cell reaches the egg cell,
it must digest the wall of the cell so that it can fuse their nuclei. Once fertilization has
occurred, the zygote undergoes mitosis (cell-division) to produce many cells which make
up an embryo. The egg cell contains energy stores to allow this to happen. The embryo is
implanted into the wall of the uterus, where it grows.
Development of the foetus:
Key structures:

Umbilical cord - allows the exchange of substances between the foetus and the
mother through the cord.
Placenta - Connects to the foetus end of the umbilical cord and allows exchange
of substances. It also produces hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone.
Amniotic sac - Surrounds the foetus and produces amniotic fluid.
Amniotic fluid - protects the foetus.

The mother passes essential nutrients to the foetus through the umbilical cord, such as amino
acids, oxygen and glucose. These help build cells, and hence structures, in the foetus. In
addition, waste products diffuse out of the foetus to be excreted from the mother’s body.
This prevents a build-up of toxins which could harm the foetus. In addition, antibodies are
passed to the foetus, allowing it to develop a resistance to pathogens.

Throughout this exchange of substances, the blood of the foetus and mother do not mix;
instead, substances diffuse between them. This is to prevent diseases passing to the foetus
through the blood, although some toxins, such as nicotine from cigarettes, and pathogens
such as the rubella virus, can still pass from the mother to the foetus.

SEX HORMONES IN HUMANS

Two hormones are key to the development of secondary sexual characteristics during
puberty and the subsequent regulation of these characteristics:

Testosterone - Testosterone is produced in the testes of males, and in small

amounts in the ovaries of females. It is responsible for muscle development and the
deepening of the voice, amongst other things.
Oestrogen - made in the ovaries of females. It leads to the development of
widened hips, breasts, and plays a part in the menstrual cycle.

Menstrual cycle:
The menstrual cycle happens approximately every 28 days. During each cycle, an egg cell
is released from the ovaries. The uterus wall thickens by filling with blood capillaries in
preparation for a pregnancy, which would occur if the egg is fertilized. If this egg is not
fertilized, the egg dies and menstruation occurs, where the dead egg cell and old uterus
lining is expelled from the body in a period.
The menstrual cycle is regulated by four hormones:
FSH - Follicle stimulating hormone triggers the development of an egg cell in the
ovary, and also stimulates oestrogen production in the ovaries. This is produced in
the pituitary gland.
LH - Luteinizing hormone triggers an egg to be released, as well as
stimulating progesterone production in the ovaries.
Progesterone - Progesterone is responsible for maintaining the thick uterus lining
in the cycle and during pregnancy. It also decreases FSH production.
Oestrogen - Stimulates LH production, whilst decreasing FSH production.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Sexually transmitted infections, known as STIs, are infections that are transmitted via bodily
fluids during sexual intercourse or contact. The spread of STIs can be controlled by
abstaining from sexual contact, avoiding risky sexual practices and always using protection
such as condoms.

HIV
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is an example of an STI. HIV is present in the bodily
fluids of infected people, such as blood and semen, and can be transmitted during sexual
intercourse. In the blood, HIV attaches to lymphocytes (white blood cells) and enters the cell.
Here, it uses the cell to replicate itself and thus the cell cannot carry out its normal functions.

Consequently, HIV reduces the number of functioning lymphocytes, as well as reducing the
body’s ability to produce antibodies to fight off infection. HIV leads to AIDS, which makes the
person extremely susceptible to other pathogens as the white blood cells can no longer fight
off disease, which can be fatal.