MCT-113: MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Course Objectives:

The course will aim to impart knowledge about

the basics of engineering materials and many
of the latest manufacturing processes being
used in the industry. Other than manufacturing
processes, students will be introduced to
various machine tools and their operations.
Instructor:
Dr. Imran Ali
 Casting
 Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force
into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity.
 The term casting is also applied to the part that is made by this process. It is
one of the oldest shaping processes, dating back 6000 years.
 The principle of casting seems simple: melt the metal, pour it into a mold, and
let it cool and solidify
Classification of solidification processes.
• Casting includes both the casting of ingots and the casting of shapes.
• The term ingot is associated with the primary metals industries; a large
casting that is simple in shape
 Types of Casting

 1. Expendable-mold casting An expendable mold means that the mold in which the
molten metal solidifies must be destroyed in order to remove the casting.

 These molds are made out of sand, plaster, or similar materials, whose form is maintained by using
binders of various kinds.

2. A permanent mold Casting: is one that can be used over and over to produce many
castings.
• It is made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory material) that can withstand the
high temperatures of the casting operation.
• The mold consists of two (or more) sections that can be opened to permit removal of the
finished part.
Die casting is the most familiar process in this group.
 Capabilities and advantages of casting
• Create complex part geometries, including both external and internal
shapes.
• No further manufacturing operations are required to achieve the required
geometry and dimensions
• Other casting processes are near net shape, for which some additional
shape processing is required (usually machining) in order to achieve
accurate dimensions and details.
• To produce very large parts. Castings weighing more than 100 tons have
been made.
• Can be performed on any metal that can be heated to the liquid state.
• Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production
Disadvantages of Casting
 Different disadvantages for different casting processes:
Limitations on mechanical properties
Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish ; e.g., sand casting
Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
Environmental problems
Porosity
 OVERVIEW OF CASTING TECHNOLOGY
 Casting is usually carried out in a foundry.
 A foundry is a factory equipped for making molds, melting and handling
 The workers who perform the casting operations are called foundrymen
 CASTING PROCESSES
 The metal is first heated to a temperature high enough to completely transform it into a
liquid state. It is then poured, or directed into the cavity of the mold.
 The mold contains a cavity whose geometry determines the shape of the cast part.
 The actual size and shape of the cavity must be slightly oversized to allow for shrinkage
that occurs in the metal during solidification and cooling.
 Different metals undergo different amounts of shrinkage, so the mold cavity must be
designed for the particular metal to be cast
 Molds are made of a variety of materials, including sand, plaster, ceramic, and
metal.
 1. OVERVIEW OF Sand CASTING TECHNOLOGY

 In an open mold the liquid metal is simply poured until it fills the open cavity.

 In a closed mold a passageway, called the gating system, is provided to permit the molten
metal to flow from outside the mold into the cavity.
1.SAND-CASTING MOLDS
 Sand casting is by far the most important casting process.
 The mold consists of two halves: cope and drag
 The cope is the upper half of the mold, and the drag is the bottom half.
 1.1SAND-CASTING MOLDS
 These two mold parts are contained in a box, called a flask, which is also divided into two halves, one for
the cope and the other for the drag.

 The two halves of the mold separate at the parting line.

 The mold cavity is formed by means of a pattern, which is made of wood, metal, plastic, or other
material and has the shape of the part to be cast.

 The cavity is formed by packing sand around the pattern, about half each in the cope and drag,

• The pattern is usually made oversized to allow

for shrinkage of the metal as it solidifies and
cools.
• The sand for the mold is moist and contains a
binder to maintain its shape.
• Taper on patterns for ease of removal from the
sand mold.
 1.1. SAND-CASTING MOLDS
 The gating system in a casting mold is the channel by which molten metal flows into the cavity
from outside the mold.
 The gating system typically consists of a down sprue, through which the metal enters a runner
that leads into the main cavity.
 In addition to the gating system, any casting in which shrinkage is significant requires a riser
connected to the main cavity.
 Mold Cavity : Preparing a mold cavity of the desired shape with proper allowance for
shrinkage.

• The riser is a reservoir in the mold that

serves as a source of liquid metal for the
casting to compensate for shrinkage
during solidification.
 SAND CASTING TECHNOLOGY
 Melting processes: The metal must be heated to a temperature somewhat above its melting
point and then poured into the mold cavity to solidify.

 Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to a molten temperature sufficient for casting.

 The heat energy required is the sum of (1) the heat to raise the temperature to the melting point,
(2) the heat of fusion to convert it from solid to liquid, and (3) the heat to raise the molten metal
to the desired temperature for pouring.

 Pouring temperature is the temperature of the molten metal as it is introduced into the mold.

 There is a difference between the temperature at pouring and the temperature at which freezing
begins (the melting point for a pure metal or the liquidus temperature for an alloy).

 Pouring rate refers to the volumetric rate at which the molten metal is poured into the mold.

 If the rate is too slow, the metal will chill and freeze before filling the cavity. If the pouring rate
is excessive, turbulence can become a serious problem.
 SOLIDIFICATION TIME
 Total solidification time TTS = time required for casting to solidify after pouring
 TTS depends on size and shape of casting by relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule

n
V 
TST = Cm  
 A
where TST = total solidification time; V = volume of the casting; A = surface area of
casting; n = exponent with typical value = 2; and Cm is mold constant.
 Mold constant Cm depends on:
 Mold material
 Thermal properties of casting metal
 Pouring temperature relative to melting point
 Value of Cm for a given casting operation can be based on experimental data from
previous operations carried out using same mold material, metal, and pouring
temperature
 Sand CASTING TECHNOLOGY
 Solidification process: Solidification involves the transformation of the molten
metal back into the solid state.
 The solidification process differs depending on whether the metal is a pure
element or an alloy.

❑ Pure Metals A pure metal solidifies at a

constant temperature equal to its
freezing point, which is the same as its
melting point.

❑ The total solidification time is the time

taken between pouring and complete
solidification.
SHRINKAGE  Shrinkage occurs in three steps:
 1.2Casting Quality - Defects

1. Misruns - unfilled region exists

– insufficient fluidity of melt
– low pouring temperature
– slow pouring
– cross-section too thin

2. Cold shots –
Splattering during pouring forming solid
globules.
Redesign of pouring procedure or gating system
is needed.
 1.2Casting Quality - Defects
3. Shrinkage cavity –
depression or internal void caused by solidification
shrinkage. Solved by proper riser design.

4. Microporosity –
Network of small voids caused by localised
solidification shrinkage.
Caused by the freezing manner of the alloy

5.Hot tearing –
Occurs at location with high stress due to inability to
shrink naturally.
 Casting Quality - Defects

6. Sand blow - cavity caused by mold gas during pouring. Low permeability,
poor venting or high moisture content.

7. Pin holes - small gas cavities.

8. Sand wash - erosion of sand mold during pouring.

Casting Quality - Defects
10.Penetration - penetration of molten metal into the sand. Harder
packing of sand is needed.
11. Mold shift - shift of the cope relative to the drag.
12. Core shift - shift of the core, usually vertical.
13. Mold crack - mold strength insufficient, liquid metal form a fin of the
final casting.
 2. Lost Foam casting Process
 Type of temporary mold casting
 The expanded polystyrene casting process uses a mold of sand packed around a poly- styrene
foam pattern that vaporizes when the molten metal is poured into the mold.
 Other names, lost-foam process, lost-pattern process, evaporative-foam process
 The foam pattern includes the sprue, risers, and gating system, and cores
 Since the foam pattern itself becomes the cavity in the mold, The mold does not have to be
opened into cope and drag sections.
 3. PERMANENT-MOLD CASTING PROCESSES, Die Casting

 Die casting is a permanent-mold casting process in which the molten metal is

injected into the mold cavity under high pressure ( 7 to 350 Mpa)

 The pressure is maintained during solidification, after which the mold is

opened and the part is removed.

 Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name diecasting. Die
casting operations are carried out in special die casting machines.

 Molds used in die casting operations are usually made of tool steel, mold steel,
or maraging steel.

 Tungsten and molybdenum with good refractory qualities are also being used
to die cast steel and cast iron
3. PERMANENT-MOLD CASTING PROCESSES
3. PERMANENT-MOLD CASTING PROCESSES, Die
Casting
Pros:

• High production rates are possible.

• Economical for large quantities.
• Good surface finish.
• Thin sections are possible (down to 0.5 mm).
• Rapid cooling, fine grain, high strength.
Cons:
• melting point of metals.
• shape restriction.
 3.1Die Casting, hot- chamber casting:
 Cycle in hot- chamber casting:

 (1) with die closed and

plunger withdrawn, molten
metal flows into the chamber;

 (2) plunger forces metal

chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification; and

 (3) plunger is withdrawn, die is

opened, and solidified part is
ejected.
3.2. Die Casting, cold- chamber casting
 The molten metal is
poured into an unheated
chamber from an
external melting
container
 A piston is used to inject
the metal under high
pressure into the die
cavity.
 Injection pressures used
in these machines are
typically 14 to 140 MPa

Cold-chamber machines are typically used for casting aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys.
 4. Vacuum-Casting Process
 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a
bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion of the mod into the molten metal.
Source: After R. Blackburn.