Excretion

Mode of excretion
Toxicity
Type of of
Excretory Organis Method of Nitrogeno Example
Mode m Excretion us Waste Organisms
Excretion
Aquatic Fish, aquatic
Ammonotelis of Highly
organism invertebrate
m ammonia toxic
s s
(NH3)
Terrestri Conversion
Humans,
al of Moderatel
Ureotelism most
mammal ammonia y toxic
mammals
s to urea

Conversion
Birds, Birds,
of
Uricotelism reptiles, Least toxic reptiles,
ammonia
insects insects
to uric acid
Human Excretory
system
• A pair of kidneys
• A pair of ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
 • Renal Cortex: The outermost region of the kidney is called the renal

Structure of kidney cortex. It appears granulated due to numerous tiny structures called renal
corpuscles, which are responsible for filtration. The renal cortex
surrounds the inner regions of the kidney.
• Renal Medulla: The renal medulla is located deep within the kidney,
surrounding the renal cortex. It consists of triangular-shaped regions
called renal pyramids. The renal medulla contains tubules and blood
vessels responsible for urine concentration and transport.
• Renal Pelvis: The renal pelvis is a funnel-shaped structure that
collects urine from the nephrons, the functional units of the kidney. It is
located in the center of the kidney, where the renal pyramids converge.
The renal pelvis then leads to the ureter, which carries urine to the
bladder.
• Nephrons: Nephrons are the microscopic units within the kidney
responsible for urine formation. Each kidney contains millions of
nephrons. Each nephron consists of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule.
The renal corpuscle, located in the renal cortex, includes the glomerulus
(a tuft of capillaries) and Bowman's capsule (a cup-shaped structure
surrounding the glomerulus). The renal tubule extends from Bowman's
capsule and is divided into several segments (proximal convoluted
tubule, loop of Henle, and distal convoluted tubule) that perform
reabsorption and secretion processes.
• Renal Artery and Vein: The renal artery supplies oxygenated blood to
the kidneys, branching into smaller vessels within the renal cortex. Blood
is filtered within the glomerulus, and the filtered blood exits through the
renal vein, which carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart for
purification.
 Functions of kidney
• Filtration and Excretion: The kidneys filter waste products, toxins, and excess substances from the bloodstream to
produce urine. Through a complex process of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion, the kidneys remove metabolic
waste such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine, as well as excess ions and water. This helps maintain the balance of
electrolytes, fluids, and pH levels in the body.
• Regulation of Fluid and Electrolyte Balance: The kidneys play a vital role in regulating the body's fluid and
electrolyte balance. They adjust the excretion and reabsorption of ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and
phosphate to maintain proper levels in the bloodstream. By controlling the concentration of ions and water, the
kidneys help regulate blood pressure and prevent dehydration or overhydration.
• Acid-Base Balance: The kidneys help maintain the body's acid-base balance by excreting hydrogen ions (H+) and
reabsorbing bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). This process helps regulate the pH of the blood, preventing it from becoming
too acidic or alkaline. The kidneys work in coordination with the lungs and other buffer systems in the body to maintain
proper acid-base homeostasis.
• Blood Pressure Regulation: The kidneys play a crucial role in regulating blood pressure. They help control blood
volume by adjusting the reabsorption of water and sodium. When blood pressure drops, the kidneys release an
enzyme called renin, which triggers a cascade of events leading to the production of angiotensin II, a potent
vasoconstrictor that raises blood pressure. The kidneys also produce the hormone aldosterone, which acts on the
kidneys to increase sodium reabsorption and water retention, further influencing blood pressure.
• Erythropoiesis Regulation: The kidneys produce and release a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO), which
stimulates the production of red blood cells in the bone marrow. EPO helps maintain adequate oxygen-carrying
capacity in the blood. In cases of low oxygen levels, such as in anaemia or high altitudes, the kidneys increase EPO
production to stimulate red blood cell production.
Urine
formation
Process of urine
formation:
• Glomerular filtration
• Reabsorption
• Tubular secretion
Glomerular Filtration • Structure of the Glomerulus: The glomerulus consists of a
network of tiny blood vessels called capillaries. The capillaries
are uniquely structured with a high-pressure system to facilitate
filtration. They are surrounded by a cup-like structure called
Bowman's capsule, which collects the filtrate.
• Filtration Barrier: The walls of the glomerular capillaries
contain three layers that make up the filtration barrier: the
endothelium (inner layer), the basement membrane (middle
layer), and the podocytes (epithelial cells of Bowman's
capsule) on the outer layer. The three layers together form a
selectively permeable barrier.
• Filtration Process: Blood enters the glomerulus through the
afferent arteriole, which is wider than the efferent arteriole. The
high blood pressure in the glomerulus helps drive the filtration
process. As blood flows through the glomerular capillaries,
small molecules such as water, ions, glucose, amino acids, and
waste products (e.g., urea, creatinine) are forced out of the
capillaries and into the Bowman's capsule.
• Filtrate Formation: The filtrate, which consists of water and
dissolved substances, passes through the filtration barrier and
collects in the Bowman's capsule. The filtrate does not contain
large proteins or blood cells because they are too large to pass
through the filtration barrier. The process of filtration is mainly
driven by the pressure gradient between the blood in the
glomerular capillaries and the fluid in Bowman's capsule.
 Reabsorption
• Location of Reabsorption: Reabsorption primarily occurs in the renal tubules, which are
part of the nephrons, the functional units of the kidneys. The renal tubules consist of
several segments: the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), the loop of Henle, and the distal
convoluted tubule (DCT). The majority of reabsorption occurs in the PCT, while the loop of
Henle and DCT are involved in more specialized reabsorption processes.
• Mechanisms of Reabsorption: Reabsorption can occur through both active and passive
transport mechanisms, depending on the substances being transported. Active transport
requires the use of energy (usually in the form of ATP) to move substances against their
concentration gradient, while passive transport occurs down the concentration gradient
without the need for energy.
• Reabsorbed Substances: Various substances are reabsorbed during the process. These
include water, glucose, amino acids, ions (such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and
chloride), and certain waste products (such as urea). The reabsorption of these
substances is crucial for maintaining proper electrolyte balance, regulating blood volume,
and preventing the loss of valuable substances.
• Water Reabsorption: Water reabsorption is a significant aspect of reabsorption. It occurs
mainly through osmosis, driven by the concentration gradient created by solutes. The
reabsorption of water is influenced by the action of hormones such as antidiuretic hormone
(ADH), which increases the permeability of the collecting ducts to water, allowing for
increased water reabsorption and concentration of urine.
• Tubular Reabsorption Process: Reabsorption in the renal tubules involves the
movement of substances across the tubule epithelial cells. The substances pass through
the apical membrane (facing the tubule lumen), traverse the cytoplasm of the tubule cells,
and then move across the basolateral membrane (facing the interstitial fluid and blood
vessels) to enter the bloodstream.
• Selective Reabsorption: Reabsorption is a highly selective process, meaning that
different substances are reabsorbed to varying degrees depending on the body's needs.
For example, glucose and amino acids are almost completely reabsorbed, while the
reabsorption of ions is regulated to maintain proper electrolyte balance.
Tubular secretion
Micturition
• Storage Phase: During the storage phase, the bladder relaxes
and expands to accommodate urine. The bladder walls are lined
with smooth muscle fibres called the detrusor muscle. The
internal urethral sphincter, located at the junction of the bladder
and urethra, remains contracted to prevent urine from flowing
out.
• Initiation of Micturition: As the bladder fills with urine, stretch
receptors in the bladder walls send signals to the brain,
indicating the need to empty the bladder. The brain, specifically
the pontine micturition center in the brainstem, initiates the
micturition reflex.
• Voiding Phase: The micturition reflex leads to the activation of
parasympathetic nerves, which cause the detrusor muscle to
contract while simultaneously relaxing the internal urethral
sphincter. This coordinated action results in the expulsion of
urine from the bladder into the urethra.
• Voluntary Control: In addition to the micturition reflex, the
process of urination can also be voluntarily controlled. Signals
from the brain can override or delay the micturition reflex,
allowing individuals to control the timing and location of
urination. This control is mediated by the external urethral
sphincter, a skeletal muscle located around the urethra.
Voluntary relaxation of the external sphincter allows urine to flow