A Methodology for Proper Waste Disposal, Treatment, and Management

Enhancing Sustainable Development in the Third World.

J.A. Ajobo and A.O. Abioye

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Osun State College of Technology,

Esa-Oke, Osun State, Nigeria.

E-mail: jamesajobo@[Link]
abbey4xmas@[Link]

ABSTRACT Landfill: Disposal of waste in a landfill involves

burying the waste and this remains a common
Waste management is the collection, transport, practice in most countries. Landfills were often
processing or disposal, managing and monitoring established in abandoned or unused quarries,
of waste materials. The term usually relates to mining voids or borrow pits. A properly designed
materials produced by human activity, and the and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and
process is generally undertaken to reduce their relatively inexpensive method of disposing of
effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. waste materials. Older, poorly designed or poorly
Waste management is a distinct practice from managed landfills can create a number of
resource recovery which focuses on delaying the adverse environmental impacts such as wind-
rate of consumption of natural resources. All blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation
waste materials, whether they are solid, liquid, of liquid leachate. Another common product of
gaseous or radioactive fall within the remit of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane and
waste management. carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic
waste and breaks down anaerobically. This gas
Waste management practices can differ for can create odor problems, kill surface vegetation
developed and developing nations, for urban and and is a greenhouse gas.
rural areas, and for residential and industrial
producers. Management of non-hazardous waste Design characteristics of a modern landfill include
residential and institutional waste in metropolitan methods to contain leachate such as clay or
areas is usually the responsibility of local plastic lining material. Deposited waste is
government authorities, while management for normally compacted to increase its density and
non-hazardous commercial and industrial waste is stability and covered to prevent attracting vermin
usually the responsibility of the generator subject (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also have
to local, national or international authorities. landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract
the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the landfill
The third world has a lot of benefits from waste if using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a
properly managed; this paper is an expository on gas engine to generate electricity.
the methodology to appropriate waste disposal,
treatment and overall management with sewage
being the emphasis due to its availability and easy Incineration: Incineration is a disposal method in
treatment and processing, hence, enhancing which solid organic wastes are subjected to
sustainability and development. combustion so as to convert them into residue
and gaseous products. This method is useful for
(Keywords: biological waste management, developing disposal of residue of both solid waste
world, sustainability, development, sewage, biosolids) management and solid residue from waste water
management. This process reduces the volumes
of solid waste to 20 to 30 percent of the original
INTRODUCTION volume. Incineration and other high temperature
waste treatment systems are sometimes
There are numerous current methodologies for described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators
waste disposal including the following:

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convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and maintaining ISO14001 accreditation. Companies
ash. are encouraged to improve their environmental
efficiencies each year by eliminating waste
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by through resource recovery practices, which are
individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is sustainability-related activities. One way to do
used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous this is by shifting away from waste management
waste. It is recognized as a practical method of to resource recovery practices like recycling
disposing of certain hazardous waste materials materials such as glass, food scraps, paper and
(such as biological medical waste). Incineration is cardboard, plastic bottles and metal.
a controversial method of waste disposal, due to
issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.
Biological Re-processing: Recoverable
Incineration is common in countries such as materials that are organic in nature, such as plant
Japan where land is more scarce, as these material, food scraps, and paper products, can
facilities generally do not require as much area as be recovered through composting and digestion
landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from- processes to decompose the organic matter. The
waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn resulting organic material is then recycled as
waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping
steam or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator purposes. In addition, waste gas from the
is not always perfect and there have been process (such as methane) can be captured and
concerns about pollutants in gaseous emissions used for generating electricity and heat
from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has (CHP/cogeneration) maximizing efficiencies. The
focused on some very persistent organic intention of biological processing in waste
compounds such as dioxins, furans, and PAHs, management is to control and accelerate the
which may be created and which may have natural process of decomposition of organic
serious environmental consequence matter.

Recycling: Recycling is a resource recovery Energy Recovery: The energy content of waste
practice that refers to the collection and reuse of products can be harnessed directly by using
waste materials such as empty beverage them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by
containers. The materials from which the items processing them into another type of fuel.
are made can be reprocessed into new products. Thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a
Material for recycling may be collected separately fuel source for cooking or heating and the use of
from general waste using dedicated bins and the gas fuel, to fuel for boilers to generate steam
collection vehicles, a procedure called curb-side and electricity in a turbine. Pyrolysis and
collection. In some communities, the owner of the gasification are two related forms of thermal
waste is required to separate the materials into treatment where waste materials are heated to
various different bins (e.g. for paper, plastics, high temperatures with limited oxygen availability.
metals) prior to its collection. In other The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel
communities, all recyclable materials are placed in under high pressure.
a single bin for collection, and the sorting is
handled later at a central facility. The latter
method is known as "single-stream recycling. Avoidance and Reduction Methods: An
important method of waste management is the
The most common consumer products recycled prevention of waste material being created, also
include aluminum such as beverage cans, copper known as waste reduction. Methods of avoidance
such as wire, steel from food and aerosol cans, include reuse of second-hand products, repairing
old steel furnishings or equipment, polyethylene broken items instead of buying new, designing
and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, products to be refillable or reusable (such as
paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines and cotton instead of plastic shopping bags),
light paper, and corrugated fiberboard boxes. encouraging consumers to avoid using
disposable products (such as disposable cutlery),
removing any food/liquid remains from cans and
Sustainability: The management of waste is a packaging, and designing products that use less
key component in a business' ability to

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material to achieve the same purpose (for Sewage treatment generally involves three
example, lightweighting of beverage cans). stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary
treatment.

SUSTAINABILITY, RECYCLING AND  Primary treatment consists of temporarily

TREATMENT OF SEWAGE holding the sewage in a quiescent basin
where heavy solids can settle to the bottom
Sewage while oil, grease and lighter solids float to the
surface. The settled and floating materials
Sewage treatment is the process of removing are removed and the remaining liquid may be
contaminants from wastewater and household discharged or subjected to secondary
sewage, both runoff (effluents), domestic, treatment.
commercial and institutional. It includes physical,
chemical, and biological processes to remove  Secondary treatment removes dissolved
physical, chemical and biological contaminants. and suspended biological matter. Secondary
Its objective is to produce an environmentally safe treatment is typically performed
fluid waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid by indigenous, water-borne micro-organisms
waste (or treated sludge) suitable for disposal or in a managed habitat. Secondary treatment
reuse (usually as farm fertilizer). Using advanced may require a separation process to remove
technology it is now possible to re-use sewage the micro-organisms from the treated water
effluent for drinking water. prior to discharge or tertiary treatment.

The objective of sewage treatment is to produce a  Tertiary treatment is sometimes defined as

disposable effluent without causing harm to the anything more than primary and secondary
surrounding environment, and prevent pollution. treatment in order to allow rejection into a
highly sensitive or fragile ecosystem
Sewage can be treated close to where the (estuaries, low-flow rivers, coral reefs,).
sewage is created, a decentralized system, or be Treated water is sometimes disinfected
collected and transported by a network of pipes chemically or physically (for example, by
and pump stations to a municipal treatment plant, lagoons and microfiltration) prior to discharge
a centralized system. Sewage collection and into a stream, river, bay, lagoon or wetland,
treatment is typically subject to local, state and or it can be used for the irrigation of a golf
federal regulations and standards. Industrial course, green way or park. If it is sufficiently
sources of sewage often require specialized clean, it can also be used for groundwater
treatment processes recharge or agricultural purposes.

Figure 1: Simplified Process Flow Diagram for a Typical Large-Scale Treatment Plant.

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 Figure 2: Process Flow Diagram for a Typical Treatment Plant via Subsurface Flow Constructed
Wetlands (SFCW).

Pre-Treatment sanitary sewer systems, the grit chambers may

not be necessary, but grit removal is desirable at
Pretreatment removes all materials that can be larger plants Grit chambers come in 3 types:
easily collected from the raw sewage before they horizontal grit chambers, aerated grit chambers
damage or clog the pumps and sewage lines of and vortex grit chambers.
primary treatment clarifiers. Objects that are
commonly removed during pretreatment include
trash, tree limbs, leaves, branches, and other Flow Equalization: Clarifiers and mechanized
large objects. secondary treatment are more efficient under
uniform flow conditions. Equalization basins may
The influent in sewage water passes through be used for temporary storage of diurnal or wet-
a bar screen to remove all large objects like cans, weather flow peaks. Basins provide a place to
rags, sticks, plastic packets etc. carried in the temporarily hold incoming sewage during plant
sewage stream. This is most commonly done with maintenance and a means of diluting and
an automated mechanically raked bar screen in distributing batch discharges of toxic or high-
modern plants serving large populations, while in strength waste which might otherwise inhibit
smaller or less modern plants, a manually cleaned biological secondary treatment (including
screen may be used. The raking action of a portable toilet waste, vehicle holding tanks, and
mechanical bar screen is typically paced septic tank pumpers). Flow equalization basins
according to the accumulation on the bar screens require variable discharge control, typically
and/or flow rate. The solids are collected and later include provisions for bypass and cleaning, and
disposed in a landfill, or incinerated. Bar screens may also include aerators. Cleaning may be
or mesh screens of varying sizes may be used to easier if the basin is downstream of screening
optimize solids removal. If gross solids are not and grit removal
removed, they become entrained in pipes and
moving parts of the treatment plant, and can
cause substantial damage and inefficiency in the Fat and Grease Removal: In some larger
process plants, fat and grease are removed by passing
the sewage through a small tank where skimmers
collect the fat floating on the surface. Air blowers
Grit Removal: Pretreatment may include a sand in the base of the tank may also be used to help
or grit channel or chamber, where the velocity of recover the fat as a froth. Many plants, however,
the incoming sewage is adjusted to allow the use primary clarifiers with mechanical surface
settlement of sand, grit, stones, and broken glass. skimmers for fat and grease removal.
These particles are removed because they may
damage pumps and other equipment. For small

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PRIMARY TREATMENT  Fixed-film or attached growth systems
include trickling filters, biotowers,
In the primary sedimentation stage, sewage flows and rotating biological contactors, where the
through large tanks, commonly called "pre-settling biomass grows on media and the sewage
basins", "primary sedimentation tanks" or passes over its surface. The fixed-film
"primary clarifiers". The tanks are used to settle principle has further developed into Moving
sludge while grease and oils rise to the surface Bed Biofilm Reactors (MBBR), and
and are skimmed off. Primary settling tanks are Integrated Fixed-Film Activated Sludge
usually equipped with mechanically driven (IFAS) processes. An MBBR system typically
scrapers that continually drive the collected requires smaller footprint than suspended-
sludge towards a hopper in the base of the tank growth systems.
where it is pumped to sludge treatment facilities.
Grease and oil from the floating material can  Suspended-growth systems include activated
sometimes be recovered for saponification. sludge, where the biomass is mixed with the
sewage and can be operated in a smaller
space than trickling filters that treat the same
SECONDARY TREATMENT amount of water. However, fixed-film
systems are more able to cope with drastic
Secondary treatment is designed to substantially changes in the amount of biological material
degrade the biological content of the sewage and can provide higher removal rates for
which are derived from human waste, food waste, organic material and suspended solids than
soaps and detergent. The majority of municipal suspended growth systems.
plants treat the settled sewage liquor using
aerobic biological processes. To be effective, Roughing filters are intended to treat particularly
the biota require both oxygen and food to live. strong or variable organic loads, typically
The bacteria and protozoa consume industrial, to allow them to then be treated by
biodegradable soluble organic contaminants (e.g. conventional secondary treatment processes.
sugars, fats, organic short-chain carbon Characteristics include filters filled with media to
molecules, etc.) and bind much of the less soluble which wastewater is applied. They are designed
fractions into floc. Secondary treatment systems to allow high hydraulic loading and a high level of
are classified as fixed-filmor suspended- aeration. On larger installations, air is forced
growth systems. through the media using blowers. The resultant
wastewater is usually within the normal range for
conventional treatment processes.

Figure 3: A Generalized Schematic of an Activated Sludge Process.

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A filter removes a small percentage of the process are sensitive to temperature and
suspended organic matter, while the majority of between 0 °C and 40 °C, the rate of biological
the organic matter undergoes a change of reactions increase with temperature. Most
character, only due to the biological oxidation and surface aerated vessels operate at between 4 °C
nitrification taking place in the filter. With this and 32 °C.
aerobic oxidation and nitrification, the organic
solids are converted into coagulated suspended
mass, which is heavier and bulkier, and can settle Filter Beds (Oxidizing Beds): In older plants
to the bottom of a tank. The effluent of the filter is and those receiving variable loadings, trickling
therefore passed through a sedimentation tank, filter beds are used where the settled sewage
called a secondary clarifier, secondary settling liquor is spread onto the surface of a bed made
tank or humus tank. up of coke (carbonized coal), limestone chips or
specially fabricated plastic media. Such media
must have large surface areas to support the
Activated Sludge: In general, activated sludge biofilms that form.
plants encompass a variety of mechanisms and
processes that use dissolved oxygen to promote The liquor is typically distributed through
the growth of biological floc that substantially perforated spray arms. The distributed liquor
removes organic material. Biological floc, as trickles through the bed and is collected in drains
mentioned above, is an ecosystem of living biota at the base. These drains also provide a source
that subsists on nutrients from the inflowing of air which percolates up through the bed,
primary settling tank (or clarifier) effluent. These keeping it aerobic. Biological films of bacteria,
mostly carbonaceous dissolved solids undergo protozoa and fungi form on the media’s surfaces
aeration to be broken down and biologically and eat or otherwise reduce the organic
oxidized or converted to carbon dioxide. Likewise, content. This biofilm is often grazed by insect
nitrogenous dissolved solids (amino larvae, snails, and worms which help maintain an
acids, ammonia, etc.) are also oxidized by the floc optimal thickness. Overloading of beds increases
to nitrites, nitrates, and, in some processes, the thickness of the film leading to clogging of the
to nitrogen gas through denitrification. filter media and ponding on the surface. Recent
advances in media and process micro-biology
design overcome many issues with trickling filter
Surface-Aerated Basins (Lagoons): Most designs.
biological oxidation processes for treating
industrial wastewaters have in common the use of
oxygen (or air) and microbial action. Surface- Biological Aerated Filters: Biological Aerated
aerated basins achieve 80 to 90 percent removal (or Anoxic) Filter (BAF) or Biofilters combine
of BOD with retention times of 1 to 10 days. The filtration with biological carbon
basins may range in depth from 1.5 to 5.0 metres reduction, nitrification or denitrification. BAF
and use motor-driven aerators floating on the usually includes a reactor filled with a filter media.
surface of the wastewater. The media is either in suspension or supported
by a gravel layer at the foot of the filter. The dual
In an aerated basin system, the aerators provide purpose of this media is to support highly active
two functions: they transfer air into the basins biomass that is attached to it and to filter
required by the biological oxidation reactions, and suspended solids.
they provide the mixing required for dispersing the
air and for contacting the reactants (that is, Carbon reduction and ammonia conversion
oxygen, wastewater and microbes). occurs in aerobic mode and sometime achieved
in a single reactor while nitrate conversion occurs
Typically, the floating surface aerators are rated to in anoxic mode. BAF is operated either in upflow
deliver the amount of air equivalent to 1.8 to or downflow configuration depending on design
2.7 kg O2/kW·h. However, they do not provide as specified by manufacturer.
good mixing as is normally achieved in activated
sludge systems and therefore aerated basins do
not achieve the same performance level as
activated sludge units. Biological oxidation

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 Figure 4: A Typical Surface-Aerated Basin (using motor-driven floating aerators).

Figure 5: Schematic of a Typical Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC). The Treated Effluent
Clarifier/Settler is not Included in the Diagram.

Secondary Sedimentation: The final step in the TERTIARY TREATMENT

secondary treatment stage is to settle out the
biological filter material through a secondary The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a
clarifier and to produce sewage water containing final treatment stage to further improve the
low levels of organic material and suspended effluent quality before it is discharged to the
matter. receiving environment (sea, river, lake, wetlands,
ground, etc.). More than one tertiary treatment
process may be used at any treatment plant. If
disinfection is practiced, it is always the final
process. It is also called "effluent polishing."

Filtration

Sand filtration removes much of the residual

suspended matter. Filtration over activated
carbon, also called carbon adsorption, removes
Figure 6: Secondary sedimentation tank at a rural residual toxins.
treatment plant.

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Lagooning Sometimes the conversion of toxic ammonia to
nitrate alone is referred to as tertiary treatment.
Lagooning provides settlement and further Many sewage treatment plants use centrifugal
biological improvement through storage in large pumps to transfer the nitrified mixed liquor from
man-made ponds or lagoons. These lagoons are the aeration zone to the anoxic zone for
highly aerobic and colonization by denitrification. These pumps are often referred to
native macrophytes, especially reeds, is often as Internal Mixed Liquor Recycle (IMLR) pumps.
encouraged. Small filter The bacteria Brocadia anammoxidans, is being
feeding invertebrates such as Daphnia and researched for it's potential in sewage treatment.
species of Rotifera greatly assist in treatment by It can remove nitrogen from waste water. In
removing fine particulates. addition the bacteria can perform the anaerobic
oxidation of ammonium and can produce the
rocket fuel hydrazine from waste water.
Nutrient Removal

Wastewater may contain high levels of the Phosphorus Removal

nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. Excessive
release to the environment can lead to a buildup Each person excretes between 200 and 1000
of nutrients, called eutrophication, which can in grams of phosphorus annually. Studies of United
turn encourage the overgrowth of weeds, algae, States sewage in the late 1960s estimated mean
and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). This may per capita contributions of 500 grams in urine and
cause an algal bloom, a rapid growth in the feces, 1000 grams in synthetic detergents, and
population of algae. The algae numbers are lesser variable amounts used as corrosion and
unsustainable and eventually most of them die. scale control chemicals in water supplies. Source
The decomposition of the algae by bacteria uses control via alternative detergent formulations has
up so much of the oxygen in the water that most subsequently reduced the largest contribution,
or all of the animals die, which creates more but the content of urine and feces will remain
organic matter for the bacteria to decompose. In unchanged. Phosphorus removal is important as
addition to causing deoxygenation, some algal it is a limiting nutrient for algae growth in many
species produce toxins that contaminate drinking fresh water systems. (For a description of the
water supplies. Different treatment processes are negative effects of algae, see Nutrient removal).
required to remove nitrogen and phosphorus. It is also particularly important for water reuse
systems where high phosphorus concentrations
may lead to fouling of downstream equipment
Nitrogen Removal such as reverse osmosis.

The removal of nitrogen is effected through the Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a
biological oxidation of nitrogen from ammonia process called enhanced biological phosphorus
to nitrate (nitrification), followed by denitrification, removal. In this process, specific bacteria, called
the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas. Nitrogen polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs),
gas is released to the atmosphere and thus are selectively enriched and accumulate large
removed from the water. quantities of phosphorus within their cells (up to
20 percent of their mass). When the biomass
Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic process, enriched in these bacteria is separated from the
each step facilitated by a different type of bacteria. treated water, these biosolids have a
−
The oxidation of ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2 ) is high fertilizer value. Once removed, phosphorus,
most often facilitated by Nitrosomonas spp. in the form of a phosphate-rich sludge, may be
("nitroso" referring to the formation of stored in a land fill or resold for use in fertilizer.
a nitroso functional group). Nitrite oxidation to
−
nitrate (NO3 ), though traditionally believed to be
facilitated by Nitrobacter spp. (nitro referring the Disinfection
formation of anitro functional group), is now
known to be facilitated in the environment almost The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of
exclusively by Nitrospira spp. waste water is to substantially reduce the number
of microorganisms in the water to be discharged
back into the environment for the later use of

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drinking, bathing, irrigation, etc. The effectiveness 4. Lewis, D.B.G. 1851. “A Short Description of the
of disinfection depends on the quality of the water plans of Captain James Vetch for the Sewerage of
being treated (e.g., cloudiness, pH, etc.), the type the Metropolis”.
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5. Stanbridge, H.H. 1976. “History of Sewage
(concentration and time), and other environmental Treatment in Britain”. Institute of Water Pollution
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light, or sodium hypochlorite. Chloramine, which is Colonial Times to the Present”. University of
Pittsburgh Press: Pittsburgh, PA. p. 110.
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persistence. After multiple steps of disinfection, Controversy and Conspiracy in Victorian England.
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Springer: Berlin, Germany. Retrieved 2013-02-07.
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SUGGESTED CITATION
High-density solids pumps are suitable for
reducing odors by conveying sludge through Ajobo, J.A. and A.O. Abioye. 2014. “A
hermetic closed pipework. Methodology for Proper Waste Disposal,
Treatment, and Management Enhancing
Sustainable Development in the Third World”.
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