Forming by Liquid Solidification

(CASTING)
If liquid material is metal – metal casting
ceramic – ceramic casting
Glass - glass working
Plastics- Molding processes
Casting
Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or
other force into a mold where it solidifies in the
shape of the mold cavity
The term casting also applies to the part made in
the process
Steps in casting seem simple:
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze
 Capabilities and Advantages of
Casting
Can create complex part geometries
Can create both external and internal shapes
Some casting processes are net shape; others are
near net shape
Can produce very large parts
Some casting methods are suited to mass production
Disadvantages of Casting
Different disadvantages for different casting
processes:
 Limitations on mechanical properties
 Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish
for some processes; e.g., sand casting
 Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten
metals
 Environmental problems
Parts Made by Casting
Big parts
 Engine blocks and heads for automotive
vehicles, wood burning stoves, machine
frames, railway wheels, pipes, church bells, big
statues, pump housings
Small parts
 Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying
pans
All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and
nonferrous
Overview of Casting Technology
Casting is usually performed in a foundry
Foundry = factory equipped for making molds,
melting and handling molten metal, performing the
casting process, and cleaning the finished casting
Workers who perform casting are called foundrymen
Requirements of Casting Process
1. Making cavity of desired shaped and size (mold
preparation)
2. Melting of material
3. Pouring of molten material in cavity
4. Cooling and solidification of filled molten material
 1. Making Mold Cavity
Mold contains mold cavity whose geometry determines
part shape
 Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly
oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal during
solidification and cooling
 Molds are made of a variety of materials, including
sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal
 Mold cavity -- Open
-- Closed
Open Molds and Closed Molds

Figure 2 Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in

the shape of the desired part; and (b) closed mold, in which the
mold geometry is more complex and requires a gating system
(passageway) leading into the cavity.
Other Classification of Molds
1. Expendable mold processes – uses an expendable
mold which must be destroyed to remove casting
 Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar
materials, plus binders
2. Permanent mold processes – uses a permanent
mold which can be used over and over to produce
many castings
 Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic
refractory material)
Advantages and Disadvantages
More intricate geometries are possible with
expendable mold processes
Part shapes in permanent mold processes are
limited by the need to open the mold
Permanent mold processes are more economic in
high production operations
Sand Casting Mold

Figure 2 (b) Sand casting mold.

Sand Casting Mold Terms
Mold consists of two halves:
 Cope = upper half of mold
 Drag = bottom half
Mold halves are contained in a box, called a flask
The two halves separate at the parting line
If three parts of mold are used then the middle one is
called Cheek
Forming the Mold Cavity
Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a
pattern, which has the shape of the part
When the pattern is removed, the remaining
cavity of the packed sand has desired shape of
cast part
The pattern is usually oversized to allow for
shrinkage of metal during solidification and
cooling
Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder
to maintain its shape
Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity
The mold cavity provides the external surfaces of
the cast part
In addition, a casting may have internal surfaces,
determined by a core, placed inside the mold
cavity to define the interior geometry of part
In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand
Gating System
Channel through which molten metal flows into
cavity from outside of mold
Consists of a downsprue, through which metal
enters a runner leading to the main cavity
At the top of downsprue, a pouring cup is often
used to minimize splash and turbulence as the
metal flows into downsprue
Riser
Reservoir in the mold which is a source of liquid metal
to compensate for shrinkage of the part during
solidification
The riser must be designed to freeze after the main
casting in order to satisfy its function
2. Melting of Material
Heating furnaces are used to heat the metal to molten
temperature sufficient for casting
The heat required is the sum of:
1. Heat to raise temperature to melting point
2. Heat of fusion to convert from solid to liquid
3. Heat to raise molten metal to desired
temperature for pouring

H  V Cs (Tm  To )  H f  Cl (Tp  Tm )

3. Pouring the Molten Material in the cavity
Molten material flows into cavity through gating system.
Pouring is successful, if molten material flow into all
regions of the mold, most importantly the main cavity,
before solidifying
Factors that determine success
 Pouring temperature
 Pouring rate
 Turbulence
Pouring temperature

It is the temperature at which liquid material is

poured in cavity.
It is decided by the fluidity (inverse of viscosity)
of the material.
Liquid should remain in liquid state till the cavity is
completely filled.
Higher pouring temperature will cause oxide
formation, gas porosity and penetration of liquid
metal into the interstitial spaces between the
grains of sand forming the mold.
Spiral mold test for measuring fluidity of metal
Pouring Rate

It is the discharge rate.

If pouring rate is slow, solidification starts before
completely filled.
If pouring rate is high, it can damage the mold
cavity due to erosion. With high pouring rate,
turbulence of fluid may take place which can
further enhance the mold erosion.
4. Cooling and Solidification

Transformation of molten metal back into

solid state
Solidification differs depending on whether
the metal is
 A pure element (metal) or
 An alloy
Cooling Curve for a Pure Metal

Figure 4 Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting.

 Solidification of Pure Metals
Due to chilling action of mold wall, a thin skin
of solid metal is formed at the interface
immediately after pouring
Skin thickness increases to form a shell
around the molten metal as solidification
progresses
Rate of freezing depends on heat transfer into
mold, as well as thermal properties of the
metal
 Solidification of Alloys

Figure 6 (a) Phase diagram for a copper-nickel alloy system and

(b) associated cooling curve for a 50%Ni-50%Cu composition during casting
 Directional Solidification
Solidification front must be directed in such a way that
the solidification starts from remote area and
gradually towards the riser(s)
Riser
Liquid in riser must be in liquid state up to solidification.
It also compensate the liquid shrinkage and
solidification shrinkage. It also make the directional
solidification.
Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling

Figure 8 Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification and

cooling: (0) starting level of molten metal immediately after
pouring; (1) reduction in level caused by liquid contraction during
cooling (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity).
Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling

Figure 8 (2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity

caused by solidification shrinkage; (3) further reduction in height
and diameter due to thermal contraction during cooling of solid
metal (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity).
 Classification of Casting Processes
1. Expendable mold casting
1. Removable pattern
1. Sand mold casting (sand + binder)
2. Plaster mold casting (Plaster of Paris 50%+ sand 50 % or
Antioch Process)
3. Ceramic mold casting (ceramic powder + sand, used for
high melting temperature metals)
2. Disposable pattern
1. disposed in the form of liquid (lost wax casting)
2. disposed in the form of gas (lost foam casting)
2. Permanent mold casting
3. Special casting processes
 Sand Mold Casting
1. Green sand mold casting (75% sand + 20% clay + 5%
water)
a) Dry sand mold casting (It is made of green sand then it
is dried)
b) Skin dry sand mold casting (It is also made from green
sand but only small thickness of the face of the cavity is
dried)
2. Loam sand mold casting (fine size sand powder + 50
% clay)
3. CO2 molding casting
4. Vacuum Mold Casting or V-Process
5. Shell Mold Casting
 CO2 Mold Casting
Sand + Water Glass (Na2O x SiO2) + Water
Clay is replaced with liquid sodium silicate (water glass)
after passing CO2 it will become hard layer of Silica
gel.
Vacuum Mold Casting

11-06
Shell Mold Casting

11-05
 Plaster Mold Casting
Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster of
Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured over
plastic or metal pattern and allowed to set
 Wood patterns not generally used due to extended
contact with water
Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern, capturing its
fine details and good surface finish
Advantages are good accuracy and finish
Ceramic Mold Casting
Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is made
of refractory ceramic material that can withstand
higher temperatures than plaster
Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other
high-temperature alloys
Applications similar to those of plaster mold casting
except for the metals cast
Advantages are also similar i.e. good accuracy and
finish
 Permanent Mold Casting
Cavity is made in metallic piece (dies)
Requirements of dies are
• There should be negligible expansion
• It should be high temperature resistant
If pouring is based on gravity, it is known as gravity die
casting
If piston cylinder arrangement is used to create pressure
while pouring, it is known as pressure die casting
If filling of cavity is due to centrifugal force, it is called
centrifugal casting
If there is high pressure difference between cavity and
container, it is called low pressure casting. When
pressure in cavity becomes zero, it is called vacuum
casting
 Permanent Mold Casting
Slush casting
Hollow structures are made by this process
Molten material is poured in mold and after some
solidification is done, mold is inverted and the remaining
liquid is removed. A shell or hollow type structure is
formed in the mold
Permanent Mold Casting
 Advantages and Limitations
Advantages of permanent mold casting:
 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mold results in a finer grain structure, so castings
are stronger
Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold
 Applications of Permanent Mold
Casting
Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high
volume production and can be automated accordingly
Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and
certain castings for aircraft and missiles
Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper-base alloys, and cast iron
Special Casting Processes

• Continuous Casting
• Squeeze Casting
• Chilled Casting
Green Sand Mold Casting
Pattern
Types of Pattern
Green Sand Composition, Properties
and Testing
Molding Methods
Design of Pouring System
Cooling and Solidification

Transformation of molten metal back into

solid state
Solidification differs depending on whether
the metal is
 A pure element (metal) or
 An alloy
Cooling Curve for a Pure Metal

Figure 4 Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting.

 Solidification of Pure Metals
Due to chilling action of mold wall, a thin skin
of solid metal is formed at the interface
immediately after pouring
Skin thickness increases to form a shell
around the molten metal as solidification
progresses
Rate of freezing depends on heat transfer into
mold, as well as thermal properties of the
metal
Figure 5 Characteristic grain structure in a casting of a pure metal,
showing randomly oriented grains of small size near the mold wall, and
large columnar grains oriented toward the center of the casting.
 Solidification of Alloys

Figure 6 (a) Phase diagram for a copper-nickel alloy system and

(b) associated cooling curve for a 50%Ni-50%Cu composition during casting
Figure 7 Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting, showing
segregation of alloying components in center of casting.
Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling

Figure 8 Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification and

cooling: (0) starting level of molten metal immediately after
pouring; (1) reduction in level caused by liquid contraction during
cooling (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity).
Shrinkage in Solidification and Cooling

Figure 8 (2) reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity

caused by solidification shrinkage; (3) further reduction in height
and diameter due to thermal contraction during cooling of solid
metal (dimensional reductions are exaggerated for clarity).
 Directional Solidification
Solidification front must be directed in such a way that
the solidification starts from remote area and
gradually towards the riser(s)
Riser
Liquid in riser must be in liquid state up to solidification.
It also compensate the liquid shrinkage and
solidification shrinkage. It also make the directional
solidification.
Rate of Solidification
 Solidification Time
Solidification takes time
Total solidification time TTS = time required for casting to
solidify after pouring
TTS depends on size and shape of casting by
relationship known as Chvorinov's Rule
n
V 
TST  Cm  
 A
where TST = total solidification time; V = volume of
the casting; A = surface area of casting; n = exponent
with typical value = 2; and Cm is mold constant.
Mold Constant in Chvorinov's Rule
Mold constant Cm depends on:
 Mold material
 Thermal properties of casting metal
 Pouring temperature relative to melting point
Value of Cm for a given casting operation can be
based on experimental data from previous
operations carried out using same mold
material, metal, and pouring temperature, even
though the shape of the part may be quite
different
What Chvorinov's Rule Tells Us
A casting with a higher volume-to-surface area
ratio cools and solidifies more slowly than one
with a lower ratio
 To feed molten metal to main cavity, TST for
riser must greater than TST for main casting
Since mold constants of riser and casting will be
equal, design the riser to have a larger
volume-to-area ratio so that the main casting
solidifies first
 This minimizes the effects of shrinkage
Solidification Shrinkage
Occurs in nearly all metals because the solid
phase has a higher density than the liquid
phase
Thus, solidification causes a reduction in volume
per unit weight of metal
Exception: cast iron with high C content
 Graphitization during final stages of freezing
causes expansion that counteracts
volumetric decrease associated with phase
change
 Shrinkage Allowance
Patternmakers account for solidification shrinkage and
thermal contraction by making mold cavity oversized
Amount by which mold is made larger relative to final
casting size is called pattern shrinkage allowance
Casting dimensions are expressed linearly, so
allowances are applied accordingly
 Directional Solidification
To minimize damaging effects of shrinkage, it is
desirable for regions of the casting most distant from
the liquid metal supply to freeze first and for
solidification to progress from these remote regions
toward the riser(s)
 Thus, molten metal is continually available from
risers to prevent shrinkage voids
 The term directional solidification describes this
aspect of freezing and methods by which it is
controlled
 Achieving Directional Solidification
Desired directional solidification is achieved using
Chvorinov's Rule to design the casting itself, its orientation
in the mold, and the riser system that feeds it
Locate sections of the casting with lower V/A ratios away
from riser, so freezing occurs first in these regions, and the
liquid metal supply for the rest of the casting remains open
Chills - internal or external heat sinks that cause rapid
freezing in certain regions of the casting
External Chills

Figure 9 (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the

molten metal in a thin section of the casting; and (b) the likely
result if the external chill were not used.
Riser Design and Placement
 Riser Design
Riser is waste metal that is separated from the casting
and re-melted to make more castings
To minimize waste in the unit operation, it is desirable for
the volume of metal in the riser to be a minimum
Since the geometry of the riser is normally selected to
maximize the V/A ratio, this allows riser volume to be
reduced to the minimum possible value
Riser Placement for Plates
Riser Placement for Bars
Effect of Chills on Riser Placement
Effect of Chills on Riser Placement
 Other Expendable Mold Processes
• Shell Mold Casting
• CO2 Mold Casting
• Vacuum Mold Casting (V-Process)
• Expanded Polystyrene Process (Lost Foam)
• Investment Casting (Lost Wax)
• Plaster Mold Casting
• Ceramic Mold Casting
Shell Molding
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of shell molding:
 Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish
 Good dimensional accuracy
 Mold collapsibility minimizes cracks in casting
 The process can be mechanized for mass production
Disadvantages:
 More expensive metal pattern
 Difficult to justify for small quantities
 CO2 Mold Casting
Sand + sodium silicate or Water Glass (Na2O x SiO2) +
Water
Clay is replaced with liquid sodium silicate (water glass)
after passing CO2 it will become hard layer of Silica
gel.
 Vacuum Molding
Uses sand mold held together by vacuum pressure
rather than by a chemical binder
The term "vacuum" refers to mold making rather than
casting operation itself
Developed in Japan around 1970
Vacuum Molding
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of vacuum molding:
 Easy recovery of the sand, since no binders
 Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning
 Since no water is mixed with sand, moisture-related
defects are absent
Disadvantages:
 Slow process
 Not readily adaptable to mechanization
Expanded Polystyrene Process (Lost
Foam Process)
Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene
foam pattern which vaporizes when molten metal is
poured into mold
Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative-foam process, and full-mold process
Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating
system, and internal cores (if needed)
Expanded Polystyrene Process
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of expanded polystyrene process:
 Simplifies and speeds mold-making
 Complex shapes can be made
Disadvantages:
 A new pattern is needed for every casting
 Economic justification of the process is highly
dependent on cost of producing patterns
Applications:
 Mass production of castings for automobile
engines
 Automated and integrated manufacturing systems
are used to make the polystyrene foam patterns
and then feed them to the downstream casting
operation
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax
Process)
A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory
material to make mold, after which wax is melted
away prior to pouring molten metal
"Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of
"invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to
coating of refractory material around wax pattern
It is a precision casting process - capable of producing
castings of high accuracy and intricate detail
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of investment casting:
 Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
 Close dimensional control and good surface finish
 Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
 Additional machining is not normally required - this
is a net shape process
Disadvantages
 Many processing steps are required
 Relatively expensive process
Investment Casting

A one-piece compressor stator with 108 separate airfoils

made by investment casting (photo courtesy of Howmet
Corp.).
 Plaster Mold Casting
Mold is made of Plaster of Paris (made from
gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is poured over
plastic or metal pattern and allowed to set
 Wood patterns not generally used due to extended
contact with water
Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern, capturing its
fine details and good surface finish
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of plaster mold casting:
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Capability to make thin cross-sections (due to
slow cooling up to 0.6 mm)
Disadvantages:
 Mold must be baked to remove moisture, which
can cause problems in casting
 Mold strength is lost if over-baked
 Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures,
so limited to lower melting point alloys
Applications:
 Gears, valves, fittings, tooling, and ornaments
 Ceramic Mold Casting
Mold is made of refractory ceramic material that can
withstand higher temperatures than plaster
Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other
high-temperature alloys
Applications- to make tooling, especially drop
forging dies, injection moulding dies, die casting
dies, glass moulds, stamping dies and extrusion dies
Advantages good accuracy and finish

Two types – Shaw Process and Unicast process

 Ceramic Mold Casting (Shaw Process)
Refractory consists of hydrolyzed ethyl silicate, alcohol, and
a gelling agent
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes
Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a
new mold is required for every casting
In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
The processes include:
 Basic permanent mold casting (Gravity Die
casting)
 Die Casting
 Centrifugal casting
Permanent Mold Casting
 Advantages and Limitations
Advantages of permanent mold casting:
 Good dimensional control and surface finish
 More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mold results in a finer grain structure, so castings
are stronger
Limitations:
 Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
 Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
 High cost of mold
 Applications of Permanent Mold
Casting
Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high
volume production and can be automated accordingly

Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies, and

certain castings for aircraft and missiles

Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,

copper-base alloys and cast iron
 Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten
metal is injected into mold cavity under high pressure

Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is

opened and part is removed

Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the

name die casting

Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is

what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes
Die Casting Machines
Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves
and keep them closed while liquid metal is forced
into cavity
Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine
Hot-Chamber Die Casting
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid
metal under high pressure (7 to 35 MPa) into the die

High production rates - 500 parts per hour

Applications limited to low melting point metals that do

not chemically attack plunger and other mechanical
components

Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead and magnesium

Cold-Chamber Die Casting
Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from
external melting container, and a piston injects
metal under high pressure (14 to 140 MPa) into die
cavity

High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber

machines because of pouring step

Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium

alloys

Advantages of hot-chamber process favor its use on

low melting-point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
 Molds for Die Casting
Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel
Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities)
used to die cast steel and cast iron
Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent
sticking
Advantages and Limitations
Advantages of die casting:
 Economical for large production quantities
 Good accuracy and surface finish
 Thin sections are possible (down to 0.5 mm)
 Rapid cooling provides small grain size and
good strength to casting
Disadvantages:
 Generally limited to metals with low melting
points
 Part geometry must allow removal from die
Variations of Permanent Mold Casting

• Slush Casting
• Low-Pressure Casting
• Vacuum Casting
Slush Casting

• Pouring liquid metal in the permanent mold and

inverting it after partial solidification on the surface
the mould

• Outer surface of the casting is smoother than the

inner surface of the casting

• Toys, jewelry, statues and idols etc.

Low-Pressure Casting
Vacuum Casting
Vacuum Casting
Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of die
cavity
The group includes:
 True centrifugal casting
 Semicentrifugal casting
 Centrifuge casting
 True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a
tubular part
In some operations, mold rotation commences after
pouring rather than before
Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to radially symmetric forces
If l > 4d horizontal centrifugal casting
If l < 2d vertical centrifugal casting
If 2d < l < 4d inclined centrifugal casting
True Centrifugal Casting (Horizontal)
True Centrifugal Casting (Vertical)
True Centrifugal Casting (Vertical)
Horizontal Centrifugal Casting
mv 2
F where R is inside radius of the mold
R
N 
2

mv 2 v2
R  
GF=  ; GF   30 
Rmg Rg g
30 2 gGF
N
 D
F= Centrifugal force
GF=G-Factor = centrifugal force/ weight (60 to 80)

Vertical Centrifugal Casting

30 2 gL
N
 Rt2  Rb2
 Semi-centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather
than tubular parts
Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed
metal
Rotation speed is maintained to obtain G-Factors of about
15
Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections
than at center of rotation
Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion where
quality is lowest
Examples: wheels and pulleys
Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away from
axis of rotation, so that molten metal poured into
mold is distributed to these cavities by centrifugal
force
Used for smaller parts
Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other
centrifugal casting methods
Centrifuge Casting
Special Casting Processes

• Continuous Casting
• Squeeze Casting
• Chilled Casting
Continuous Casting
 Squeeze Casting

This process combines the advantages of casting

and forging
Chilled Casting
The mold is suddenly cooled to achieve required
properties of the casting
Metal mold with water jacket is an example of this
type of casting
 Additional Steps After Solidification
• Trimming
• Removing the core
• Surface cleaning
• Inspection
• Repair, if required
• Heat treatment
 Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting-line flash,
fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal from the
cast part
Hammering, shearing, hack-sawing, band-sawing,
abrasive wheel cutting, or various torch cutting
methods are used
Removing the Core
If cores have been used, they must be removed
Cores fall out of casting as the binder deteriorates
Cores are removed by shaking casting, either manually
or mechanically
In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
 Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and
otherwise enhancing appearance of surface
Cleaning methods: tumbling, air-blasting with
coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing,
buffing and chemical pickling

Heat Treatment
Reasons for heat treating a casting:
 For subsequent processing operations such
as machining
 To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service
Casting Defects
Inspection of Castings
Non-Destructive tests (NDT) are essential for
creating a confidence when using a cast product.
Types of inspections are
Visual inspection - to detect obvious defects such as
misruns, cold shuts, obvious shifts, omission of
cores and surface cracks. Cracks may also be
detected by the quality of tone when it is hit with a
mallet.
Pressure test – Used for pressure vessels.
Water, oil or compressed air is filled an the casting
is submerged in a soap solution, when any leak
will be evident by the bubbles that come out.
Inspection of Castings
Magnetic Particle Inspection – To check very small
cracks at or just below the surface of
ferromagnetic material.
Ferromagnetic field is induced through the section
under inspection. The powdered ferromagnetic
material is spread out onto the surface.
The powdered particles accumulate on the
disrupted magnetic field, outlining the boundary of
a discontinuity.
Dye Penetrant Inspection – To detect invisible
surface defects in a non magnetic casting.
Fluorescent material is sprayed or dipped then
wiped, dried and viewed in darkness.
Inspection of Castings
Radiographic examination – X- rays and gamma rays
are used. With gamma rays more than one film
can be exposed simultaneously. Defects such as
voids, non-metallic inclusions, porosity, cracks and
tears can be detected.
Ultrasonic Inspection – Oscillator sends signal
through the casting. Signal is reflected on
encountering a discontinuity. The time interval of
reflection determines the location of discontinuity.
The method is not suitable for a material with a
high damping capacity such as Cast Iron (it
weakens the signal).