SCIENCE

Earthquake ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ

● Shaking of the surface of the Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy
in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves.
● This energy release is caused by the movement of tectonic plates, volcanic
activity, or human-induced activities like mining or reservoir-induced
seismicity.

Faultㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ

● A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock.
● These fractures allow the blocks to move relative to each other.
● Faults are caused by tectonic forces that lead to the deformation of the
Earth's crust.
How Earthquakes Produce Faults
● Tectonic stresses cause rocks to deform elastically.
● When the stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, it causes the rocks to break
along a fault line.
● The sudden movement along the fault line releases energy in the form of
seismic waves, causing an earthquake.

Normal Fault ● Forms in response to extensional stresses

(tensional forces) in the Earth's crust.
● The hanging wall (the block of rock above the
fault plane) moves down relative to the
footwall (the block of rock below the fault
plane).
● Common in areas where the Earth's crust is
being pulled apart, like at divergent plate
boundaries.

Reverse Fault ● Forms in response to compressional stresses in

the Earth's crust.
● The hanging wall moves up relative to the
footwall.
● Common in areas where the Earth's crust is
being compressed, like at convergent plate
boundaries.
Strike-Slip Fault ● Forms in response to horizontal shearing
stresses in the Earth's crust.
● Blocks of rock move horizontally past each
other along the fault plane.
● Common in areas where the Earth's crust is
experiencing horizontal motion, like at
transform plate boundaries.

Stressㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ

● The force applied per unit area on a rock or any other solid material.
● It is measured in units of pressure (such as Pascals) and plays a crucial role in
the deformation of rocks and the formation of geological structures.

Types of Stress
Compressional Stressㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● Occurs when rocks are squeezed or compressed.
● Results in rock layers being pushed together, leading to folding and reverse
faulting.
● Commonly found in convergent plate boundaries where tectonic plates collide.

Tensional Stress ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ

● Occurs when rocks are pulled or stretched.
● Results in rock layers being pulled apart, leading to normal faulting and the
formation of rift valleys.
● Commonly found in divergent plate boundaries where tectonic plates move
away from each other.

Shear Stress ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ

● Occurs when rocks are pushed in opposite horizontal directions.
● Results in horizontal sliding and deformation along fault lines, leading to
strike-slip faulting.
● Commonly found in transform plate boundaries where tectonic plates slide
past each other horizontally.

Confining Stress (Lithostatic Stress)ㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ

● Uniform stress applied in all directions within the Earth's crust due to the
weight of overlying rocks.
● Does not cause deformation on its own but influences how rocks respond to
differential stress.
● Differential stress, which is the difference between confining stress and
tectonic stress, leads to deformation, faulting, and earthquakes.
Where an Earthquake starts ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
Epicenterㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● The point on the Earth's surface directly above the earthquake's focus
● It is the location vertically above the seismic source (hypocenter) where the
seismic waves produced by an earthquake first reach the Earth's surface.
● The epicenter is usually expressed in terms of geographical coordinates,
including latitude and longitude, indicating the point on the Earth's surface
where the earthquake's effects, such as shaking and damage, are most severe.

Hypocenter (Focus)ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ

● The hypocenter, also known as the focus, is the actual location within the
Earth where an earthquake originates.
● It is the point where the rocks break and seismic energy is released due to
tectonic forces, causing an earthquake.
● The hypocenter is located beneath the Earth's surface, and it is the source of
seismic waves that travel outward in all directions, causing the ground shaking
experienced during an earthquake.
Earthquakes are measured using instruments called seismographs. They detect and
record the vibrations caused by seismic waves as they travel through the Earth. The
measurement of earthquakes involves several key aspects:

Magnitude ㅤㅤ ㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ

● Measures the energy released at the source of the earthquake.
● It is usually reported on the Richter scale, it is logarithmic, meaning each
whole number increase in magnitude represents tenfold amplitude increase
and roughly 31.6 times more energy release.
Intensityㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● Masures the effects of an earthquake at specific locations.
● Intensity values vary from I (not felt) to XII (total destruction).
● Intensity assessment involves observing structural damage, ground shaking,
and human experiences in a given area.
PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale
Intensity Shaking Description
Scale

I Scarcely ● Not felt by people. Recorded by seismographs.

Perceptible

II Slightly Felt ● Felt by a few individuals indoors, especially on

upper floors of buildings. Not felt by people who
are outside.
III Weak ● Felt by people indoors, especially on upper floors
 of buildings. Often felt by people in motion.
● Vibrations similar to the passing of a light truck.
IV Light ● Felt by many people indoors and outdoors.
● Most sleeping people are awakened.
● Hanging objects swing considerably.
● Dishes, windows, and doors rattle.
V Moderate ● Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened.
● Some are frightened, especially indoors.
● People indoors may feel the movement.
● Hanging objects swing strongly.
● Small objects are shifted or overturned.
VI Rather ● Felt by everyone; many are frightened and run
Strong outdoors. Some heavy furniture is moved.
● A few instances of fallen plaster.
● Damage to poorly constructed buildings.
VII Strong ● Damage is negligible in buildings of good design
and construction. Everybody runs outdoors.
● Slight to moderate damage in well-built ordinary
buildings. Considerable damage in poorly
constructed buildings.
● Some chimneys are broken.
VIII Very Strong ● Damage is slight in buildings of good design and
construction. Moderate to heavy damage in
well-built ordinary buildings.
● Considerable damage in poorly constructed
buildings. Chimneys, factory stacks, columns,
monuments, and walls may fall.
IX Destructive ● Damage is considerable in specially designed
buildings. Well-designed buildings are shifted off
foundations.
● Buildings are shifted off foundations. Ground
cracks appear. Landslides are seen in hilly areas.
X Very ● Most buildings collapse.
Destructive ● Some well-built wooden buildings are destroyed.
● The ground cracks are numerous.
● Substantial landslides occur in hilly areas.
Fault Line ㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● Geological fractures where rock masses have displaced parts of the Earth’s
crust. Rapid movement of fault lines can generate powerful energy, triggering
strong earthquakes.
Active Fault Lines in the Philippines:
● Western Philippine ● South of Mindanao ● Marikina/Valley Fault
Fault Fault System
● Eastern Philippine ● Central Philippine
Fault Fault
Active Faultsㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● Structures where displacement is expected to occur continuously.
● Shallow earthquakes occur on active faults.
Inactive Faultsㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● Identifiable structures without recent seismic activity.
● If inactive for millions of years, considered safe to classify as inactive.
Tsunamis
● Large ocean waves generated by underwater seismic activity, such as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides.
● Earthquakes, especially those occurring underwater, can displace large
volumes of water, creating powerful waves that propagate across oceans,
leading to tsunamis.
Seismic Wavesㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● Generated by earthquakes, travel outward in all directions. The study of these
waves is known as seismology.
● Seismologists use seismic waves to understand earthquakes.
● Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth, often caused
by earthquakes or other geological phenomena.
Primary Waves ● They are longitudinal waves, meaning they
compress and expand the material they travel
through.
● Can travel through both solids and liquids. First
waves detected during an earthquake.
● P-waves cause the ground to move in the
same direction as the wave.

Secondary Waves ● Slower than P-waves. They are transverse

waves, moving particles perpendicular to the
direction of the wave.
● Can only travel through solids, not liquids or
gases. They cause the ground to move from
side to side, creating a shearing effect.
Surface Wavesㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● Surface waves are seismic waves that travel along the Earth's surface, causing
most of the damage during earthquakes.
Love Waves ● Moves in a horizontal, side-to-side motion.
They are guided by the Earth's surface and are
the fastest surface waves.
● Cause the ground to shake horizontally,
parallel to the Earth's surface.
Named after Augustus ● Responsible for significant damage to
Edward Hough Love. structures and buildings.

Rayleigh Waves ● Moves in an elliptical rolling motion, similar to

ocean waves. Slower than Love waves.
● Cause both vertical and horizontal ground
movement in an elliptical path.
● Responsible for the rolling motion felt during
Named after John William earthquakes and contribute to the overall
Strutt, Lord Rayleigh ground shaking.

Typhoon/Hurricaneㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ

● A severe tropical cyclone with strong winds and heavy rain, occurring in
various ocean basins around the world.
● The term "typhoon" is used in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, while
"hurricane" is used in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Oceans.
Formation of Typhoons:
● Typhoons form over warm ocean waters when the sea surface temperature is
at least 26.5°C (80°F).
● Heat from the warm water fuels the storm, causing air to rise and create low
pressure. As the air rises, it cools and condenses, forming clouds and releasing
latent heat, which further powers the storm.
Parts of a Typhoon
● Eye: The calm, circular area at the
center of the typhoon. Characterized by
light winds and often clear skies.
● Eyewall: A ring of intense
thunderstorms surrounding the eye.
● Contains the strongest winds and
heaviest rainfall in the typhoon.
● Rainbands: Bands of clouds and
thunderstorms that spiral outwards from
the eyewall. Produce heavy rainfall and
gusty winds.
Tropical Cyclonesㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● Intense circular storms that form over warm ocean waters and can cause
significant damage due to strong winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges.
Tropical ● Weakest form of a tropical cyclone with organized
Depression convection and a defined surface circulation.
● Wind Speed: Up to 61 km/h (38 mph)

Tropical ● A more organized system than a tropical depression, with a

Storm closed circulation and stronger winds.
● Wind Speed: 62-118 km/h (39-73 mph)

Severe ● Intense tropical storm with well-defined circulation and

Tropical strong winds.
Storm ● Wind Speed: 119-221 km/h (74-137 mph)

Typhoon (or ● The most severe form of a tropical cyclone, characterized

Hurricane) by intense winds, heavy rainfall, and storm surges.
● Wind Speed: 222 km/h (138 mph) and above

Super ● An exceptionally powerful and intense tropical cyclone with

Typhoon extremely high wind speeds.
● Wind Speed: Exceeding 241 km/h (150 mph)
PAGASA:
● Stands for the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical, and Astronomical
Services Administration. It is the national meteorological and hydrological
organization of the Philippines.
Public Storm Warning Signal:ㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● Public Storm Warning Signals are raised to warn the public of incoming
weather disturbances. When a tropical cyclone enters the PAR (Philippine
Area of Responsibility)
PSWS Lead Time Wind Speed Impacts of the Wind

1 36 30-60 No damage to very light damage

2 24 61-120 Light to moderate damage

3 18 121-170 Moderate to heavy damage

4 12 171-220 Heavy to very heavy damage

5 12 More than 220 Very heavy to widespread damage

Why is the Philippines prone to Typhoon visits?ㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● Geographical Location: Situated in the western Pacific Ocean, making it
vulnerable to typhoons forming in the Pacific basin.
● Warm Ocean Waters: Warm sea surface temperatures provide the necessary
heat energy for typhoon formation and intensification.
● Location Along Typhoon Tracks: Lies along the common pathways of tropical
cyclones, especially during the typhoon season.
● Topography: The country's mountainous terrain and numerous islands provide
less resistance to typhoon winds, allowing storms to maintain strength.
Beneficial Effects of Typhoonsㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● Replenishing Water Sources: Typhoons bring heavy rainfall, replenishing
reservoirs and aquifers, crucial for agriculture and human consumption.
● Biodiversity and Ecosystems: Typhoons contribute to the diversity of flora and
fauna, shaping ecosystems and maintaining biodiversity.
● Natural Fertilization: Storms deposit nutrients through rainwater, acting as
natural fertilizers for agricultural lands.

Impact of Landforms on Typhoons in the Philippines:

Northern and Northeastern Regions:
● Mountainous Terrain: Increases the likelihood of landslides and flash floods
due to heavy rainfall and steep slopes.
● Valleys and Plains: Vulnerable to river overflow and extensive flooding, leading
to agricultural damage and displacement of communities.
● Coastlines: High waves and storm surges pose a significant threat to coastal
communities, causing erosion and destruction of infrastructure.
Northwestern Regions:
● Mountain Ranges: Can enhance rainfall due to orographic lift, leading to
localized intense rainfall, landslides, and river overflow.
● Coastlines and Seas: Storm surges impact coastal areas, causing flooding and
damaging properties along the shoreline.
Eastern and Southeastern Regions:
● Mountainous Areas: Experience heavy rainfall, increasing the risk of
landslides, mudslides, and flash floods in the steep, hilly terrain.
● Coastlines and Pacific Ocean: Vulnerable to high waves & storm surges,
leading to coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion.
Central Regions:
● Flat Plains: Prone to extensive flooding due to heavy rainfall, affecting
agricultural lands and communities.
● River Systems: Rivers can overflow, causing widespread flooding in low-lying
areas, disrupting transportation and damaging crops.
Southern Regions and Islands:
● Mountain Ranges: Increased risk of landslides and flash floods in
mountainous areas, especially during intense rainfall associated with
typhoons.
● Islands: Vulnerable to storm surges, with coastal areas facing erosion,
saltwater intrusion, and damage to fishing communities.
Cometsㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● Small celestial bodies composed of ice, dust, and volatile gases. They orbit the
Sun in highly elliptical trajectories and often develop a bright, glowing coma
and a visible tail when they approach the Sun.
● Origin: Usually from Kuiper Belt ammonia), dust, and rocky material.
and Oort Cloud When comets approach the Sun,
● Shape: Comets can have irregular these volatile compounds
shapes due to their fragile and sublimate, creating the coma and
loosely bound structure. tail.
● Size Range: 1-10 (Nucleus) ● Orbit: Highly elliptical orbits. Their
● Chemical Composition: Composed orbits are often inclined and can be
of water ice, frozen gases (such as in any direction relative to the plane
carbon dioxide, methane, and of the solar system.
● Orbital Period: 75-100,000++
Examples:
Comet Halley ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● One of the most famous comets, visible from Earth approximately every 76
years. It is a periodic comet that belongs to the Halley-type family,
characterized by its relatively short orbital period and frequent appearances in
the inner solar system.
Comet Hale-Bopp ㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● One of the most widely observed comets of the 20th century. It was visible to
the naked eye for a record 18 months, making it exceptionally bright. It is a
long-period comet, indicating its orbital period is significantly longer than that
of Halley's Comet.

Asteroidㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ

● Rocky bodies that orbit the Sun, primarily found in the asteroid belt between
Mars and Jupiter. They vary in size from tiny fragments to large bodies several
hundred kilometers in diameter.
● Origin: Usually from Main Asteroid of the asteroid belt. Different types
Belt of asteroids have varying
● Shape: Asteroids can have various compositions, including silicates,
shapes due to their gravitational carbonaceous material, and metal.
interactions and collisions with ● Orbit: Rounded orbits. Most are
other objects. concentrated in the asteroid belt,
● Size Range: 1-10)++ but they can also be found in other
● Chemical Composition: Composed regions, such as near-Earth space
rock-forming minerals and metal. and even within the orbits of other
Some asteroids may contain water planets.
ice, particularly in the outer regions ● Orbital Period: 1-100
Examples:
Ceresㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● The largest object in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter and is
considered a dwarf planet. It was the first dwarf planet to be visited by a
spacecraft, NASA's Dawn mission, which orbited Ceres and studied its surface
features and composition.
Vestaㅤ ㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ
● One of the largest asteroids in the asteroid belt and was also visited by
NASA's Dawn spacecraft. It is unique due to its basaltic surface, which
indicates volcanic activity in its past. Vesta is sometimes referred to as a
protoplanet because of its large size and differentiated interior.

Meteoroidsㅤ ㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤㅤ ㅤㅤㅤㅤ

● Small rocky or metallic bodies in outer space, often fragments from asteroids
or comets.
● Meteors: Meteoroids that enter Earth's atmosphere and produce a bright
streak of light due to friction with the air; often referred to as "shooting stars."
● Meteorites: Meteoroids that survive the journey through Earth's atmosphere
and land on the surface of the Earth.
Types:
Chondrites
● Stony meteorites containing small spherical structures called chondrules.
They are the most common type of meteorites.
Achondrites
● Stony meteorites lacking chondrules, often originating from differentiated
bodies (bodies with distinct layers) like asteroids or planets.
Iron Meteorites
● Dense meteorites composed mostly of iron and nickel. They often have a
metallic appearance and are thought to come from the cores of differentiated
asteroids.
Stony-Iron Meteorites
● Meteorites that contain both silicate material and metallic material. They are
rare and are believed to originate from the boundary regions of differentiated
bodies.