Water Treatment
Drinking water treatment (surface and ground water)
Main goal:
Prevention of disease
➢Surface Water Treatment Primary goal:
• Remove suspended material (turbidity) and color
• Eliminate pathogenic organisms
(Coagulation and flocculation is the based treatment technologies)
➢Ground water treatment Primary goal:
• Remove hardness,
• Eliminate pathogenic organisms.
(Chemical precipitation is the based treatment technologies)
Typical surface water treatment plant
CHARACTERISTICS OF PARTICLES
Electrical Properties
• The most important electrical property of the colloidal and
suspended particles is their surface charge.
• This charge causes the particles to remain in suspension
without aggregating for long periods of time.
• the particles cannot be removed by sedimentation in a
reasonable amount of time.
Electrical Double Layer
• A colloidal dispersion in solution does not have a net charge. This is
because the negatively charged particles accumulate positive
counter ions on and near the particle surface. Thus, a double layer
forms.
• The adsorbed layer of cations (known as the Helmholtz layer or the
Stern layer) is bound to the particle surface by electrostatic and
adsorption forces.
• It is about 0.5 nanometers (nm) thick.
• The double layer (Helmholtz plus diffuse) has a net negative charge
over the bulk solution.
• Particle Stability. Particles in natural waters remain stable
when there is a balance between the electrostatic force of the
charged particles and attractive forces known as van der Waals
forces.
• Because the particles have a net negative charge, the principal
mechanism controlling stability is electrostatic repulsion.
COAGULATION THEORY
Coagulants: Inorganic coagulants used for the treatment of
potable water exhibit the following characteristics:
• They are nontoxic at the working dosage.
• They have a high charge density.
• They are insoluble in the neutral pH range.
Coagulation process important mechanisms:
1. Charge neutralization:
Positive ions added to the
water making them less stable
in terms of their charges. Such
an increase in colloidal
instability makes the particles
more likely to collide with each
other and form larger particles.
.
2. Bridging : the colloidal
particles stick together by
virtue of the macromolecules
formed by the coagulant. The
macromolecules (or polymers)
have positive charge sites, by
which they attach themselves
to colloids, bridging the gap
between adjacent particles
and creating larger particles.
Rapid Mixing
• Rapid mixing with coagulant addition to water:
1. neutralize surface charges
2. collapse the surface layer around the particles
3. allow the particles to come together and agglomerate
4. allow formation of floc that can readily settle
Flocculation
• Smoluchowski (1917) observed that small particles undergo
random Brownian motion due to collisions with fluid molecules
and that these motions result in particle to particle collisions.
• Langelier (1921) observed that stirring water containing
particles created velocity gradients that brought about particle
collisions.
• These observations provide the basis for describing the
mechanisms of flocculation.
Flocculation
It is the agglomeration of destabilized particles into a large size
particles known as flocs which can be effectively removed by
sedimentation or flotation. It needs gentle mixing. To enhance the
agglomeration, organic polymers (flocculent) are added.
Rapid Mixing Units
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Flocculation Units
• Paddle units rotate slowly,
usually <1 rpm
• Velocity of water: 0.5 - 1.5 ft/sec
• Detention time of at least 20 min
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Determining optimum pH and Coagulant Dose
• Jar tests are used to choose the best coagulant and estimate the
minimum dose. Typically, the test is run with six containers holding
samples of the water to be treated.
• Each container receives a different chemical or chemical dose, and
after being mixed, the settling characteristics of the solids are
observed. The chemical and minimum dose that provide adequate
solids removal are chosen.
Optimum pH
• a laboratory procedure to determine the optimum pH and the
optimum A jar test simulates the coagulation and flocculation
processes
• Fill the jars with raw water sample (500 or 1000 mL) – usually 6
jars
• Adjust pH of the jars while mixing using H2SO4 or NaOH/lime
(pH: 5.0; 5.5; 6.0; 6.5; 7.0; 7.5)
• Add same dose of the selected coagulant (alum or iron) to
each jar (Coagulant dose: 5 or 10 mg/L).
• Rapid mix each jar at 100 to 150 rpm for 1 minute. The rapid mix
helps to disperse the coagulant throughout each container
• Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 30 rpm and continue mixing
for 15 to 20 mins. This slower mixing speed helps promote floc
formation by enhancing particle collisions, which lead to larger
flocs
• Turn off the mixers and allow flocs to settle for 30 to 45 mins
Measure the final residual turbidity in each jar Plot residual
turbidity against pH
Optimum pH
Optimum Coagulant Dose
➢ Repeat all the previous steps
➢ This time adjust pH of all jars at optimum (6.3 found from first test)
while mixing using H2SO4 or NaOH/lime
➢ Add different doses of the selected coagulant (alum or iron) to each
jar (Coagulant dose: 5; 7; 10; 12; 15; 20 mg/L)
➢ Rapid mix each jar at 100 to 150 rpm for 1 minute. The rapid mix
helps to disperse the coagulant throughout each container
➢ Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 30 rpm for 15 to 20 mins
➢ Turn off the mixers and allow flocs to settle for 30 to 45 mins
➢ Measure the final residual turbidity in each jar Plot residual turbidity
against coagulant dose.
Optimum Coagulant Dose
2. Sedimentation:
➢ Flocs settle out and is scraped and vacuumed off the
bed of large sedimentation tanks.
➢ Clarified water drains out of the top of these tanks in
a giant decanting process.
➢ For settling tank design and details, refer to Pre-
requisite course notes (particulate separation).
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3. Filtration
• Removal of those particles that are too small to be effectively
removed during sedimentation
• Sedimentation effluent: 1 - 10 JTU
• Desired effluent level: <0.3 JTU
• Slow sand filters
• Rapid sand filters
Either slow or rapid filtration (depends on size of plant / volume of water
considerations).
• Rapid-sand filters
• force water through a 0.45-1 m layer of sand (dp=0.4-1.2mm) and
work faster, needing a smaller area. But they need frequent back-
washing
• Slow-sand filters
• (dp=0.15-0.35mm) require a much larger area but reduce
bacteriological and viral levels to a greater degree. The top 1 inch
must be periodically scraped off and the filter occasionally back- 52
washed
Typical Gravity Filter
Water level during filtering
Water level during backwash 0.5 m Wash-water trough
Freeboard, 0.6 m
Sand, 0.65 m
Gravel, 0.5 m
Underdrain System
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Rapid Sand Filter
The rapid sand filter becomes
clogged, resulting in greater head
loss through the filter, so it must
be cleaned. This cleaning is
performed hydraulically by a
process called backwashing (10-
15) min
Rapid Filter Media
Single media: sand
Dual media: anthracite coal and
sand
Multimedia: anthracite coal, sand
and garnet
4. Disinfection:
Water completely free of suspended sediment is
treated with a powerful oxidizing agent usually
chlorine, chlorine then ammonia (chloramine), or
ozone.
• A residual disinfectant is left in the water to
prevent reinfection.
• Chlorine can form harmful byproducts and has
suspected links to stomach cancer and
miscarriages.
• Many agencies now residually disinfect with
Chloramine.
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Disinfection:
• Disinfection is typically the last step in a water /
wastewater treatment system
• Residual chlorine is needed in distribution system after
water / wastewater treatment
• In addition to disinfection, chlorine also has the
following functions:
• taste and odor control as an oxidizing agent
• oxidation of Fe2+ and Mn2+ ingroundwater
• ammonium removal in domestic waste treatment
• slime, biofouling control
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Disinfectants
1. Gaseous Cl2
o Most commonly used
oAdvantage: provide residual chlorine for the
protection from bacterial growth in distribution
system
oDisadvantage: The formation of disinfection by-
products (trihalomethanes) presents a health risk
2. Chlorine dioxide (ClO2):
oNo disinfection by-products such as
trihalomethanes
3. Ca(ClO)2: Safer than Cl2
4. Ozone: generated on site
5. UV lamps 56
O3
Chlorination
Systems
Cl2
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Chemistry of Chlorine in Water
Cl2 + H2O → H+ + Cl- + HOCl
• HOCl is a weak acid with Ka = 4.5x10-4 (HOCl = H+ +OCl-)
• HOCl and OCl- are free available chlorine which are very
effective in killing bacteria
• Small amount of ammonium (NH 4+) in water is desired toform
Chloramines: NH2Cl, NHCl2, NCl3
• Chloramines (combined available chlorine) are weaker
disinfectants than free available chlorine but are desired
residual chlorine to be retained in water distribution system
• Excessive amount of ammonium (NH 4+) in water isundesirable
because it consume excess demand of Cl2
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Chlorine Demand or Breakpoint
Chlorination
Chlorine removal
by reducing Chlor-
organic organic and
Chlorine residual
compounds chloramine
destruction
Chloro-
organic and Formation of free
chloramine chlorine
formation
Free Residual
Breakpoint
Combined Residual
Chlorine added 59
Disinfection CT* Concept
CT = 0.9847 C **0.1758 pH**2.7519 temp**- 0.1467
{(mg/L).min}
Inactivation is a function of Contact tim, e Concentration ,
pH , and Temperature .
To get credit for 99.9% inactivation of Gardia microorganism:
Contact Time (min)
chlorine pH 6.5 pH 7.5
(mg/L) 2°C 10°C 2°C 10°C
0.5 300 178 430 254
1.0 159 94 228 134
*CT: Conc.x Contact Time 60
Conventional Surface Water Treatment
Surface Water Treatment
Direct filtration plant
Goal: Removal of turbidity and color from high quality waters (TOC < 4 mg/L)
Membrane filtration plant
Groundwater Water Treatment
Aeration in
Ground Water
Treatment
Purpose: Oxidation of iron and manganese, removal of sulfide, used for groundwater not
under the influence of surface water
Groundwater Treatment
Treatment technologies largely based on chemical precipitation
Water Softening
Groundwater is generally harder than surface water.
❖ Softening is the process of removing ions that cause hardness
Softening can be accomplished by :
1. Ion exchange
2. Chemical precipitation (lime-soda process)
3. Reverse osmosis
4. Nanofiltration
Principal cations causing hardness and the major anions associated with
them (in decreasing order of abundance in natural waters)
Cations: Ca2+, Mg2+, Sr2+, Fe2+, Mn2+
Anions: HCO3-, SO42-, Cl-, NO3-, SiO32-
Ion Exchange
• Ion exchange, or zeolite, softening is most applicable to waters
that are high in noncarbonate hardness (because it can be
removed without chemical addition, unlike precipitation) and
that have less than 350 mg/L as CaCO3 total hardness.
Ion Exchange
Resin
Cation resin bead attract and hold
positively charged ions.
• Those ions remain on the bead until
the bead encounters other ions for
which it has a greater affinity
➢ The hard water passes through a column
containing resin
The resin bead adsorbs the hardness ions Ca+2
and Mg+2, exchanging them for sodium Na+
(release them) typically. (This is why softened
water often tastes salty.
• Water has been softened because the
hardness ions which cause water hardness have
been reduced.
This process is known as ion exchange
After a vast number of Ca+2 and Mg+2
ions have become attached to the resin
beads, and most of the Na+ ions have
been released, the resin can no longer
removes the amount of hardness
desired, a concentrated salt, or brine,
solution (NaCl) is used to regenerate
the resin (remove the hardness ions)
so that it can be reused.
Resin Regeneration
The reaction can be reversed by
greatly increasing the concentration
of sodium in the solution.
• Reverse process drive the Ca+2 and
Mg+2 ions off the resin beads and
replace them with Na+ ions.
• Although the resin beads prefer
Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions, the excessive
concentration of Na+ ions
overcomes this affinity.
Breakthrough Curve
Breakthrough may be considered as
occurring once the effluent
concentration is approximately equal
to the influent concentration.
It is more typical at municipal plants
for the breakthrough criterion to be
set much lower, for example, at 5%
to 10% of the influent concentration.
Water Softening Methods
RXNs
Re-carbonation
Adding carbon dioxide to the water:
When the pH of the softened water is greater than the
saturation pH, the pH must be reduced to stop the
precipitation reaction that will deposit CaCO3 in the filters and
distribution system piping because this will cement them
closed.
CO2 (which when dissolved in water forms H2CO3 ) has
frequently been found to be the most economical chemical to
use in reducing the pH. Alternatively, strong acids such as
sulfuric acid may be employed.
• Example 7-4. Prepare a bar chart for Sweetwater’s water analysis given
below and determine the chemical dosage required for selective calcium
removal. Estimate the dosage of quicklime (CaO) that needs to be added
if the purity of lime is 90%.
