Social Research

“ A systematic process of discovering, interpreting, and revising

facts about human society.”
Types of Social Research
1. Exploratory Research

 Objective: To investigate a problem or phenomenon that is not well

understood.

 Purpose: Helps to define the problem, generate hypotheses, and

identify variables for further study.

 Characteristics:

o Flexible and open-ended.

o Often precedes more structured research.

o Focus on ‘What’ Question.

 Methods:

o Interviews: Open-ended questions to gather insights.

o Focus Groups: Group discussions that elicit diverse opinions

and experiences.

o Literature Reviews: Reviewing existing research to identify

gaps and formulate questions.

 Example: Researching the impact of social media on youth

engagement by interviewing young users about their experiences.

2. Descriptive Research

 Objective: To provide an accurate depiction of characteristics of a

population or phenomenon.

 Purpose: To describe "what" exists rather than explain "why" it

exists.

 Characteristics:

o Provides a snapshot of a situation.

o Often involves larger sample sizes for generalization.

o Focus on ‘who, what, when, where, and how‟ but not why?

 Methods:
 o Surveys: Structured questionnaires to collect data from a
sample.

o Observational Studies: Systematic observation of behavior

in natural settings.

o Case Studies: In-depth examination of specific instances

within a broader context.

 Example: A national survey measuring public opinion on climate

change policies, providing demographic breakdowns.

3. Explanatory Research

 Objective: To explain the causes or reasons behind a phenomenon.

 Purpose: To understand the relationships between variables and

establish causality.

 Characteristics:

o More structured than exploratory research.

o Often involves hypothesis testing.

o Focus on ‘Why’ question

 Methods:

o Experiments: Manipulating variables in controlled conditions

to observe outcomes.

o Longitudinal Studies: Observing the same variables over time

to identify causal links.

o Statistical Analysis: Using techniques like regression to

analyze relationships.

 Example: Investigating the relationship between education level and

income by analyzing longitudinal data from a cohort.

4. Longitudinal Research

 Objective: To study changes in variables over an extended period.

 Purpose: To track developments and establish causal relationships

over time.

 Characteristics:

o Can be retrospective (looking back at historical data) or

prospective (following a group forward in time).
 o Involves repeated measurements.

 Methods:

o Cohort Studies: Following a specific group that shares a

characteristic over time.

o Panel Studies: Collecting data from the same subjects at

multiple points.

 Example: A longitudinal study tracking the academic performance of

students from early childhood through high school.

5. Cross-Sectional Research

 Objective: To collect data at a single point in time from a

population.

 Purpose: To provide a snapshot of a specific issue or phenomenon.

 Characteristics:

o Typically involves a large sample size for generalization.

o Useful for identifying patterns and associations.

 Methods:

o Surveys: Gathering data from a representative sample using

structured questionnaires.

o Observations: Documenting behaviors in real-time across

various groups.

 Example: A survey assessing the dietary habits of different age

groups conducted in one year.

6. Experimental Research

 Objective: To manipulate one or more independent variables to

observe effects on dependent variables.

 Purpose: To establish cause-and-effect relationships through

controlled testing.

 Characteristics:

o Involves random assignment to minimize biases.

o Highly structured with specific control measures.

 Methods:
 o Laboratory Experiments: Conducted in controlled settings to
test hypotheses.

o Field Experiments: Testing hypotheses in real-world

environments.

 Example: Testing the effectiveness of a new drug by randomly

assigning participants to treatment and control groups.

Research Designs: Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative Research Design

 Objective: To quantify relationships and generalize findings from a

sample to a larger population.

 Purpose: Focuses on measurement, statistical analysis, and

objectivity.

 Characteristics:

o Uses numerical data for analysis.

o Emphasizes reliability and validity.

o Often employs structured instruments.

 Methods:

o Surveys: Using standardized questionnaires with closed-ended

questions to collect numerical data.

o Experiments: Conducting controlled tests to measure effects.

o Secondary Data Analysis: Analyzing existing datasets for

trends and correlations.

 Example: A survey measuring the impact of exercise on mental

health among adults, analyzing results statistically to determine
significance.

Qualitative Research Design

 Objective: To explore and understand social phenomena from the

participants’ perspectives.

 Purpose: Captures the richness of human experience, focusing on

meanings and interpretations.

 Characteristics:
 o Emphasizes context and depth over breadth.

o Data is often text-based or visual.

o Subjectivity and participant perspectives are valued.

 Methods:

o In-Depth Interviews: Conducting open-ended discussions to

gather detailed insights.

o Focus Groups: Engaging groups in discussions to explore

collective views and experiences.

o Observations: Recording behaviors and interactions in natural

settings.

 Example: Conducting interviews with caregivers of patients with

chronic illnesses to understand their challenges and coping
strategies.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THEORY AND METHOD

The relationship between theory and method is foundational in research

and inquiry, as each informs and shapes the other. Here’s a breakdown of
their interplay:

Theory

1. Definition: A theory is a system of ideas intended to explain

something, often based on principles and assumptions. It provides a
framework for understanding phenomena.

2. Purpose: Theories guide research questions, helping to define what

is worth studying and what might be expected as outcomes.

3. Role in Research: Theories help in formulating hypotheses and can

suggest relationships between variables, offering insights into why
certain phenomena occur.

Method

1. Definition: Method refers to the systematic procedures and

techniques used to collect and analyze data. This includes
qualitative and quantitative approaches, experimental designs,
surveys, etc.
 2. Purpose: Methods provide the tools to test theories, gather
evidence, and ultimately validate or refine theoretical frameworks.

3. Role in Research: The choice of method can influence the type of

data collected, the analysis conducted, and the interpretation of
results.

Interrelationship

1. Guidance: Theory often dictates the choice of method. For instance,

a theoretical framework focused on social dynamics may require
qualitative methods, while a theory based on measurable
phenomena might favor quantitative approaches.

2. Testing: Methods serve as a means to test theoretical propositions.

Findings from empirical research can confirm, refute, or refine
existing theories.

3. Evolution: As methods evolve (e.g., with advancements in

technology), they can lead to new theoretical insights or challenge
existing theories, fostering a dynamic interaction.

4. Feedback Loop: There’s a cyclical relationship where theories inspire

new methods, and findings from research can prompt the revision or
development of theories.

Further Readings for Qualitative VS Quantitative

Research

Quantitative Research:

Quantitative research focuses on collecting numerical data and using

statistical methods to analyze it. This approach is often used to identify
patterns, test theories, and make generalizations about populations.

Key Features:

1. Numerical Data:

o The data collected is in numerical form (e.g., surveys,

experiments, questionnaires).
 o Examples: number of people in a group, income levels,
educational attainment, or ratings on a scale.

2. Structured and Objective:

o Quantitative research typically uses structured tools, such as

questionnaires with closed-ended questions, to ensure
consistency.

o Objectivity is central, with researchers aiming to minimize

bias.

3. Large Sample Sizes:

o This method usually involves large sample sizes, allowing for

statistical generalization to a larger population.

4. Hypothesis Testing:

o Quantitative research often starts with a clear hypothesis that

the researcher seeks to confirm or refute through analysis.

5. Statistical Analysis:

o The data is analyzed using statistical tools, which help identify

relationships, correlations, or trends within the data.

o Techniques include regression analysis, factor analysis, and

significance testing.

6. Generalizability:

o Results are often generalizable to broader populations, making

this method particularly useful for predicting behaviors or
outcomes.

Strengths:

 Provides precise, quantifiable data.

 Allows for comparison across different groups.

 Can identify patterns and trends over time.

 Facilitates generalization of findings to larger populations.

Limitations:

 May overlook the depth of social phenomena.

 Less effective at exploring complex, subjective human experiences

or meanings.
  The rigid structure may miss context or unexpected insights.

Qualitative Research:

Qualitative research, on the other hand, focuses on understanding social

phenomena through detailed, non-numerical data. It aims to capture
meanings, interpretations, and experiences from the perspective of
participants.

Key Features:

1. Non-Numerical Data:

o Data collected is often in textual or visual form, such as

interviews, focus groups, participant observations, and case
studies.

o Examples: interview transcripts, field notes, diaries, or video

recordings.

2. Unstructured or Semi-Structured:

o The research design is often more flexible, with unstructured

or semi-structured interviews, allowing participants to express
themselves freely.

o Researchers may adjust their questions or focus based on the

responses they receive.

3. Smaller, In-Depth Samples:

o Qualitative research typically involves smaller, more focused

sample sizes that allow for a deeper, more nuanced
understanding of individuals’ experiences.

4. Exploratory and Interpretative:

o Instead of testing hypotheses, qualitative research often seeks

to explore new ideas, understand processes, or interpret social
behaviors in a particular context.

o The emphasis is on participants' subjective perspectives and

experiences.

5. Thematic or Content Analysis:

o Data is analyzed by identifying themes, patterns, or narratives

within the content.

o Analysis is often interpretative, with the researcher playing an

active role in making sense of the data.
 6. Contextual Understanding:

o Qualitative research places great emphasis on understanding

the context and complexity of social phenomena.

Strengths:

 Provides rich, in-depth insights into social phenomena.

 Captures the complexity and meaning behind human behaviors.

 Flexible and adaptable to the research context.

 Gives voice to participants, allowing for a more grounded

understanding of their perspectives.

Limitations:

 Harder to generalize findings to a larger population due to small

sample sizes.

 Analysis can be more subjective, relying on the researcher’s

interpretation.

 Time-consuming to collect and analyze large volumes of data.

Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Aspect Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

To quantify data, test To explore meanings,

Purpose hypotheses, identify understand processes, gain
patterns deep insights

Numerical (e.g., statistics, Non-numerical (e.g., words,

Data Form
percentages) images)

Sample Size Large, representative Small, focused

Research Design Structured, fixed Flexible, evolving

Surveys, experiments,
Data Collection Interviews, focus groups,
closed-ended
Methods participant observation
questionnaires

Statistical (e.g., Thematic, content, narrative

Analysis Method
regression, correlation) analysis

Generalizability High Low

Subjective, researcher
Subjectivity Objective, detached
involvement