AC-HPAT Biology Questions With 100% Correct Answers.

Pancreas and Type 1 diabetes

The pancreas is the organ that produces insulin, and it plays a major role in regulating
blood glucose levels. Type 1 diabetes occurs when the pancreas does not make
enough or any insulin.
How does insulin work in diabetes?
Insulin pumps are small, computerized devices that mimic the way the human pancreas
works by delivering small doses of short acting insulin continuously (basal rate). The
device also is used to deliver variable amounts of insulin when a meal is eaten (bolus)
chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is a drug treatment that uses powerful chemicals to kill fast-growing cells
in your body. Chemotherapy is most often used to treat cancer, since cancer cells grow
and multiply much more quickly than most cells in the body. It targets cells that grow
and divide quickly, as cancer cells do. Unlike radiation or surgery, which target specific
areas, chemo can work throughout your body. But it can also affect some fast-growing
healthy cells, like those of the skin, hair, intestines, and bone marrow.
How can stem cells be used in the treatment of leukemia? And how effective is it?
Stem cell transplant replaces the leukemia cells in your bone marrow with new ones
that make blood. Your doctor can get the new stem cells from your own body or from a
donor. Stem cell transplantation is effective against leukemia. In many cases, however,
the transferred immune cells of the donor also attack the recipients' healthy tissue—
often with fatal consequences. ... Stem cell therapy offers people suffering from
leukemia or bone-marrow cancer the chance of full recovery.
Why is laser technology more effective than conventional surgery in removing
cancerous tumours?
Lasers are more precise than standard surgical tools (scalpels), so they do less damage
to normal tissues. As a result, patients usually have less pain, bleeding, swelling, and
scarring. With laser therapy, operations are usually shorter.
Urinary system
· The urinary system, also known as the renal system or urinary tract, consists of the
kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra. The purpose of the urinary system is to
eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control levels
of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH
Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology can provide rapid and sensitive detection of cancer-related molecules,
enabling scientists to detect molecular changes even when they occur only in a small
percentage of cells.
Mercury poisoning
The most common cause of mercury poisoning is from consuming too much methyl
mercury or organic mercury, which is linked to eating seafood. Small amounts of
mercury are present in everyday foods and products, which may not affect your health.
Too much mercury, however, can be poisonous. Mercury salts affect primarily the
gastrointestinal tract and the kidneys, and can cause severe kidney damage; however,
as they cannot cross the blood-brain barrier easily, these salts inflict little neurological
damage without continuous or heavy exposure.
How can ultraviolet light from the sun affect the cells of the human eye?
UV rays may lead to macular degeneration, a leading cause of vision loss for older
Americans. UV rays, especially UV-B rays, may also cause some kinds of cataracts. A
cataract is a clouding of the eye's natural lens, the part of the eye that focuses the light
we see.
Macromolecules
Macromolecules are large molecules composed of thousands of covalently connected
atoms. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are all macromolecules.
Macromolecules are formed by many monomers linking together, forming a polymer.
passive transport
Passive transport is a movement of ions and other atomic or molecular substances
across cell membranes without need of energy input. Unlike active transport, it does not
require an input of cellular energy because it is instead driven by the tendency of the
system to grow in entropy.
active transport
active transport is the movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of
lower concentration to a region of higher concentration—against the concentration
gradient. Active transport requires cellular energy to achieve this movement.
catalyst
Catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself
undergoing any permanent chemical change.
fluid mosaic model
describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components —
including phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates—that gives the
membrane a fluid character. The proportions of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates in
the plasma membrane vary with cell type
Effect of lead on nerve cells
Lead poisoning can cause peripheral nerve damage: this can cause muscle weakness
and problems with the sense of touch. When researchers examine these damaged
nerves, they find that the myelin insulation is often gone, and the axons are destroyed.
These changes prevent nerves from transmitting messages properly.
the effect of electromagnetic radiation on brain
Reported symptoms include headaches, anxiety, suicide and depression, nausea,
fatigue and loss of libido. To date, scientific evidence does not support a link between
these symptoms and exposure to electromagnetic fields.
Carbohydrates function
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecule on Earth. Living organisms use
carbohydrates as accessible energy to fuel cellular reactions and for structural support
inside cell walls. Cells attach carbohydrate molecules to proteins and lipids, modifying
structures to enhance functionality.
Proteins function
Proteins fold up into specific shapes according to the sequence of amino acids in the
polymer, and the protein function is directly related to the resulting 3D structure.
Proteins may also interact with each other or other macromolecules in the body to
create complex assemblies.
Enzymes function
Enzymes are the catalysts involved in biological chemical reactions. They are the
"gnomes" inside each one of us that take molecules like nucleotides and align them
together to create DNA, or amino acids to make proteins, to name two of thousands of
such functions.
Function of lipids
They include fats, waxes, oils, hormones, and certain components of membranes and
function as energy-storage molecules and chemical messengers. Together with proteins
and carbohydrates, lipids are one of the principal structural components of living cells
Lysosomes
One of the key organelles involved in digestion and waste removal is the lysosome.
Lysosomes are organelles that contain digestive enzymes. They digest excess or worn
out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria.
Vacuole
· Vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs within the cytoplasm of a cell that function in
several different ways. In mature plant cells, vacuoles tend to be very large and are
extremely important in providing structural support, as well as serving functions such as
storage, waste disposal, protection, and growth.
Mitochondria
· Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. They are organelles that act
like a digestive system which takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and creates energy
rich molecules for the cell. The biochemical processes of the cell are known as cellular
respiration.
Cell membrane
· The cell membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of cells and
organelles. In this way, it is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules.
ribosomes
· Ribosomes are a cell structure that makes protein. Protein is needed for many cell
functions such as repairing damage or directing chemical processes. Ribosomes can be
found floating within the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
· Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), in biology, a continuous membrane system that forms a
series of flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells and serves multiple
functions, being important particularly in the synthesis, folding, modification, and
transport of proteins
Golgi apparatus
· The Golgi apparatus is an organelle present in most eukaryotic cells. It is made up of
membrane-bound sacs, and is also called a Golgi body, Golgi complex, or dictyosome.
The job of the Golgi apparatus is to process and bundle macromolecules like proteins
and lipids as they are synthesized within the cell.
digestive system parts
mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small intestine, large intestine, anus
Steps of Cell Respiration
· Step 1: Glycolysis breaks down glucose into 2 Pyretic Acid Molecules in the
Cytoplasm, releasing 2 ATP and Hydrogen
· Step 2: The Krebs Cycle takes Citric Acid which is a derivative of Pyruvic Acid and
converts this through 4 cycles into Hydrogen, carbon dioxide and water in the
Mitochondrial Matrix.
· Step 3: The Electron Transport Chain takes the electron carrying Hydrogens and
releases the energy as ATP and water in the Mitochondrial Membranes.
Protein Synthesis
1. Transcription
2. Translation
Transcription
1- Transcription: It is the transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to mRNA. During
transcription, a strand of mRNA is made to complement a strand of DNA
· Initiation is the beginning of transcription. It occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase
binds to a region of a gene called the promoter. This signals the DNA to unwind so the
enzyme can "read" the bases in one of the DNA strands. The enzyme is ready to make
a strand of mRNA with a complementary sequence of bases.
· Elongation is the addition of nucleotides to the mRNA strand.
· Termination is the ending of transcription. The mRNA strand is complete, and it
detaches from DNA.
· At this stage, it is called pre-mRNA, and it must go through more processing before it
leaves the nucleus as mature mRNA. The processing may include splicing (removes
introns which are a section from mRNA that do not code for proteins), editing (changes
some of the nucleotides in mRNA), and polyadenylation (adds a tail to the mRNA using
A's)
Translation
: It is the process in which the genetic code in mRNA is read to make a protein.
Translation is illustrated in the diagram below. After mRNA leaves the nucleus, it moves
to a ribosome, which consists of rRNA and proteins. The ribosome reads the sequence
of codons in mRNA, and molecules of tRNA bring amino acids to the ribosome in the
correct sequence. Each tRNA molecule has an anticodon for the amino acid it carries.
An anticodon is complementary to the codon for an amino acid. For example, the amino
acidlysine has the codon AAG, so the anticodon is UUC. Therefore, lysine would be
carried by a tRNA molecule with the anticodon UUC. Wherever the codon AAG appears
in mRNA, a UUC anticodon of tRNA temporarily binds. While bound to mRNA, tRNA
gives up its amino acid.
After a polypeptide chain is synthesized, it may undergo additional processes. For
example, it may assume a folded shape due to interactions between its amino acids.
Microbes in the environment
· Microbes are everywhere in the biosphere, and their presence invariably affects the
environment that they are growing in. The most significant effect of the microorganisms
on earth is their ability to recycle the primary elements that make up all living systems,
especially carbon (C), oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N).
Microorganism vital roles in ecosystem
· Microorganisms have several vital roles in ecosystems: decomposition, oxygen
production, evolution, and symbiotic relationships. The process of decomposition
provides nutrients that future plants and animals will be able to reuse, making soil more
fertile
Paratism
One organism benefits and the other is harmed
Mutualism
A relationship between two species in which both species benefit
Commensalism
A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is
unaffected
Anatomy and morphology of eukaryotes:
eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. However, unlike
prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have: numerous membrane-bound organelles
(including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, chloroplasts, and mitochondria)
several rod-shaped chromosomes.
Anatomy and morphology or prokaryotes
Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that lack organelles or other internal membrane-
bound structures. Therefore, they do not have a nucleus, but, instead, generally have a
single chromosome: a piece of circular, double-stranded DNA located in an area of the
cell called the nucleoid.
Anatomy and morphology of viruses
A virus consists of a nucleic acid core, an outer protein coating or capsid, and
sometimes an outer envelope made of protein and phospholipid membranes derived
from the host cell. The capsid is made up of protein subunits called capsomeres.
cell division
Cell division is the process in which one cell divides to form two new cells. Most
prokaryotic cells divide by the process of binary fission. In eukaryotes, cell division
occurs in two major steps: mitosis and cytokinesis.
Binary Fission
Binary fission ("division in half") is a kind of asexual reproduction. It is the most common
form of reproduction in prokaryotes such as bacteria. It occurs in some single-celled
Eukaryotes like the Amoeba and the Paramoecium. In binary fission DNA replication
and segregation occur simultaneously. (bacteria)
Reproduction of viruses
The structure of viruses allows them to succeed in their main mission—reproduction.
Lytic Cycle Once attached to a host cell, a virus injects its nucleic acid into the cell. The
nucleic acid takes over the normal operation of the host cell and produces multiple
copies of the virus's protein coat and nucleic acid.
Reproduction in Fungus
Fungi reproduce asexually by fragmentation, budding, or producing spores. Fragments
of hyphae can grow new colonies. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal
mycelium separates into pieces with each component growing into a separate
mycelium.
How viruses affect host cells and how treated?
· When it comes into contact with a host cell, a virus can insert its genetic material into
its host, literally taking over the host's functions. An infected cell produces more viral
protein and genetic material instead of its usual products.
· For most viral infections, treatments can only help with symptoms while you wait for
your immune system to fight off the virus. Antibiotics do not work for viral infections.
There are antiviral medicines to treat some viral infections. Vaccines can help prevent
you from getting many viral diseases.
How bacteria affect host cells and how treated?
· Bacterial pathogens operate by attacking crucial intracellular pathways in their hosts.
These pathogens usually target more than one intracellular pathway and often interact
at several points in each of these pathways to commandeer them fully.
· Many human illnesses are caused by infection with either bacteria or viruses. Most
bacterial diseases can be treated with antibiotics, although antibiotic-resistant strains
are starting to emerge.
How fungi affect host cells and how treated?
· Fungi and fungal-like microbes known as oomycetes produce effector molecules that
penetrate cells and switch off the host's defense system. Once the host's immune
system has been disabled, the fungus or oomycete swiftly follows up, breaking and
entering the cell and unleashing disease
· Fungi can be difficult to kill. For skin and nail infections, you can apply medicine
directly to the infected area. Oral antifungal medicines are also available for serious
infections.
Haploid
Haploid is the term used when a cell has half the usual number of chromosomes. A
normal eukaryotic gamete organism is composed of diploid cells, one set of
chromosomes from each parent. However, after meiosis, the number of chromosomes
in gametes is halved.
Diploid
The term diploid refers to a cell or an organism that has two sets of chromosomes
Heterozygous
An organism that has two different alleles for a trait
Homozygous
An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait
hemophilia
bleeding disorder that slows the blood clotting process. People with this condition
experience prolonged bleeding or oozing following an injury, surgery, or having a tooth
pulled.
Gametes
Gametes are the cells used during sexual reproduction to produce a new individual
organism or zygote. The male gamete, sperm, is a smaller, mobile cell that meets up
with the much larger and less mobile female gamete, egg or ova. Both sperm and egg
are only haploid cells. They only carry half of the chromosomes needed.
Ultraviolet radiation
Ultraviolet radiation is electromagnetic radiation or light having a wavelength greater
than 100 nm but less than 400 nm. ... Ultraviolet radiation has a wavelength longer than
that of x-rays but shorter than that of visible light.
Carcinogen
A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that promotes carcinogenesis,
the formation of cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the
disruption of cellular metabolic processes
Cancer
cancer is a term for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control and can
invade nearby tissues. Cancer cells can also spread to other parts of the body through
the blood and lymph systems. There are several main types of cancer.
Trisomy
is when a diploid organism has three copies of one of its chromosomes instead of two.
somatic cells
any cell of a living organism other than the reproductive cells.
Zygote
The cell formed by the union of a male sex cell (a sperm) and a female sex cell (an
ovum). The zygote develops into the embryo following the instruction encoded in its
genetic material, the DNA. The unification of a sperm and an ovum to form a zygote
constitutes fertilization.
Meiosis
a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the
original amount of genetic information. These cells are our sex cells - sperm in males,
eggs in females. During meiosis one cell? divides twice to form four daughter cells.
DNA
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other
organisms. Nearly every cell in a person's body has the same DNA. ... The information
in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C), and thymine (T). NA contains the instructions needed for an organism to
develop, survive and reproduce. To carry out these functions, DNA sequences must be
converted into messages that can be used to produce proteins, which are the complex
molecules that do most of the work in our bodies
Genes
Genes are a set of instructions that determine what the organism is like, its appearance,
how it survives, and how it behaves in its environment. Genes are made of a substance
called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA. They give instructions for a living being to make
molecules called proteins
Chromosomes
The chromosomes of a cell are in the cell nucleus. They carry the genetic information.
Chromosomes are made up of DNA and protein combined as chromatin. Each
chromosome contains many genes. Chromosomes come in pairs: one set from the
mother; the other set from the father.
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
Mitosis and meiosis are nuclear division processes that occur during cell division.
Mitosis involves the division of body cells, while meiosis involves the division of sex
cells
Genotype
The genotype is the part of the genetic makeup of a cell, and therefore of any individual,
which determines one of its characteristics (phenotype).
Phenotype
Phenotype is the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the
interaction of its genotype with the environment.
Dominance
the phenomenon of one variant (allele) of a gene on a chromosome masking or
overriding the effect of a different variant of the same gene on the other copy of the
chromosome. The first variant is termed dominant and the second recessive.
Recessive gene
recessive gene is a gene that can be masked by a dominant gene. In order to have a
trait that is expressed by a recessive gene, such as blue eyes, you must get the gene
for blue eyes from both of your parents. You might remember the word recessive from
biology, where it most often appears.
Sex Linkage
Sex linkage is the phenotypic expression of an allele that is dependent on the gender of
the individual and is directly tied to the sex chromosomes. In such cases there is a
homogametic sex and a heterogametic sex.
Cloning
Cloning is the process of taking genetic information from one living thing and creating
identical copies of it. The copied material is called a clone. Geneticists have cloned
cells, tissues, genes and entire animals
artificial insemination
Artificial insemination (AI) is the deliberate introduction of sperm into a female's cervix or
uterine cavity for the purpose of achieving a pregnancy through in vivo fertilization by
means other than sexual intercourse.
Vitro fertilization
vitro fertilization (IVF) is a complex series of procedures used to help with fertility or
prevent genetic problems and assist with the conception of a child. During IVF , mature
eggs are collected (retrieved) from ovaries and fertilized by sperm in a lab.
systolic pressure
The blood pressure when the heart is contracting. It is specifically the maximum arterial
pressure during contraction of the left ventricle of the heart. The time at which
ventricular contraction occurs is called systole.
Diastolic pressure
the pressure in the arteries when the heart rests between beats. This is the time when
the heart fills with blood and gets oxygen. A normal diastolic blood pressure is lower
than 80. A reading of 90 or higher means you have high blood pressure.
diffusion gradient
A diffusion gradient is a gradient in the rates of diffusion of multiple groups of molecules
through a medium or substrate. The groups of molecules may constitute multiple
substances, portions of the same substance that have different temperatures, or other
differentiable groupings
Breathing
During inhalation, the lungs expand with air and oxygen diffuses across the lung's
surface, entering the bloodstream. During exhalation, the lungs expel air and lung
volume decreases.
Cardiology
Cardiology is a medical specialty and a branch of internal medicine concerned with
disorders of the heart. It deals with the diagnosis and treatment of such conditions as
congenital heart defects, coronary artery disease, electrophysiology, heart failure and
valvular heart disease.
Ulcers
Ulcers. A peptic ulcer is a sore on the lining of your stomach, small intestine or
esophagus. A peptic ulcer in the stomach is called a gastric ulcer. A duodenal ulcer is a
peptic ulcer that develops in the first part of the small intestine (duodenum). An
esophageal ulcer occurs in the lower part of your esophagus.
Asthma
Asthma is a condition in which your airways narrow and swell and produce extra mucus.
This can make breathing difficult and trigger coughing, wheezing and shortness of
breath.
constipation
Constipation refers to bowel movements that are infrequent or hard to pass. The stool is
often hard and dry. Other symptoms may include abdominal pain, bloating, and feeling
as if one has not completely passed the bowel movement. Complications from
constipation may include hemorrhoids, anal fissure or fecal impaction.
The Atrium
The atrium (Latin ātrium, "entry hall") is the upper chamber through which blood enters
the ventricles of the heart. There are two atria in the human heart - the left atrium
receives blood from the pulmonary (lung) circulation, and the right atrium receives blood
from the venae cavae (venous circulation).
The Ventricles
The ventricles are structures that produce cerebrospinal fluid and transport it around the
cranial cavity. They are lined by ependymal cells, which form a structure called the
choroid plexus. ... Embryologically, the ventricular system is derived from the lumen of
the neural tube.
The valves
The valves prevent the backward flow of blood. These valves are actual flaps that are
located on each end of the two ventricles (lower chambers of the heart). They act as
one-way inlets of blood on one side of a ventricle and one-way outlets of blood on the
other side of a ventricle.
The Aorta
The aorta is the largest blood vessel in the body. This artery is responsible for
transporting oxygen rich blood from your heart to the rest of your body. The aorta
begins at the left ventricle of the heart, extending upward into the chest to form an arch.
pulmonary artery
The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs.
The blood here passes through capillaries adjacent to alveoli and becomes oxygenated
as part of the process of respiration. In contrast to the pulmonary arteries, the bronchial
arteries supply nutrition to the lungs themselves.
Inferior Vena Cava
It's the largest vein in the human body. The inferior vena cava carries deoxygenated
blood from the lower body to the heart. Deoxygenated blood means most of the oxygen
has been removed by tissues, and therefore the blood is darker. This blood comes from
the legs and the body's lower torso
Capillary
Capillary, in human physiology, any of the minute blood vessels that form networks
throughout the bodily tissues; it is through the capillaries that oxygen, nutrients, and
wastes are exchanged between the blood and the tissues.
Veins
Veins are a type of blood vessel that return deoxygenated blood from your organs back
to your heart. These are different from your arteries, which deliver oxygenated blood
from your heart to the rest of your body. Deoxygenated blood that flows into your veins
is collected within tiny blood vessels called capillaries
Artery
Artery, in human physiology, any of the vessels that, with one exception, carry
oxygenated blood and nourishment from the heart to the tissues of the body. The
exception, the pulmonary artery, carries oxygen-depleted blood to the lungs for
oxygenation and removal of excess carbon dioxide (see pulmonary circulation)
Cellular Components of Blood
The cellular components of blood are erythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBCs),
leukocytes (white blood cells, or WBCs), and thrombocytes (platelets). By volume, the
RBCs constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54.3%, and white blood
cells about 0.7%. Platelets make up less than 1%.
Platelets
Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are membrane-bound cell fragments derived from
the fragmentation of larger precursor cells called megakaryocytes, which are derived
from stem cells in the bone marrow. Platelets are important for the blood clotting
process, making them essential for wound healing.
Spleen
The spleen plays multiple supporting roles in the body. It acts as a filter for blood as part
of the immune system. Old red blood cells are recycled in the spleen, and platelets and
white blood cells are stored there. The spleen also helps fight certain kinds of bacteria
that cause pneumonia and meningitis
Kidney
The kidneys provide a hormonal mechanism for the regulation of blood pressure by
managing blood volume. The renin‐angiotensin‐aldosterone system of the kidneys
regulates blood volume. In response to rising blood pressure, the juxtaglomerular cells
in the kidneys secrete renin into the blood.
Nasal Cavity
The nasal cavity functions to allow air to enter the respiratory system upon respiration.
Structures within the cavity regulate the flow of air and particles it contains. The
olfactory region of the nasal cavity regulates the sense of smell.
Trachea
The windpipe (trachea) is a tube of 12 cm length connecting the larynx to the principal
bronchi that lead to the lungs. The main functions of the trachea comprise air flow into
the lungs, mucociliary clearance, and humidification and warming of air.
Larynx
The larynx is a tough, flexible segment of the respiratory tract connecting the pharynx to
the trachea in the neck. It plays a vital role in the respiratory tract by allowing air to pass
through it while keeping food and drink from blocking the airway.
Bronchi
It divides into two principal bronchi, tubes which conduct air into the lungs, and they
divide into two lobar bronchi for the left lung, and into four lobar bronchi for the right
lung. These further divide into smaller bronchi and bronchioles within the lung tissue.
Bronchioles
Bronchioles are air passages inside the lungs that branch off like tree limbs from the
bronchi—the two main air passages into which air flows from the trachea (windpipe)
after being inhaled through the nose or mouth. The bronchioles deliver air to tiny sacs
called alveoli where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged
Alveolus
An alveolus is an anatomical structure that has the form of a hollow cavity and is found
in the lung parenchyma (tissue inside the lung). The pulmonary alveoli are the terminal
ends of the respiratory tree that outcrop from either alveolar sacs or alveolar ducts; both
are sites of gas exchange.
Oxygenated blood
Oxygenated blood means the blood has released its CO2 content in exchange with
oxygen molecules in the lungs. ... Vertebrate blood is bright red when its haemoglobin is
oxygenated and dark red when it is deoxygenated.
Deoxygenated Blood
The right-side pumps deoxygenated blood (low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide) to
the lungs. ... Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the vena cava. Blood
moves into right ventricle. Blood is pumped into the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary
artery carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
Gas Exchange
Gas exchange is the delivery of oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream, and the
elimination of carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to the lungs. ... The walls of the
alveoli actually share a membrane with the capillaries in which oxygen and carbon
dioxide move freely between the respiratory system and the bloodstream
Mouth
The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract; and, in fact, digestion starts here when
taking the first bite of food. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more easily
digested, while saliva mixes with food to begin the process of breaking it down into a
form your body can absorb and use
Epiglottis
The epiglottis is a flexible flap at the superior end of the larynx in the throat. It acts as a
switch between the larynx and the esophagus to permit air to enter the airway to the
lungs and food to pass into the gastrointestinal tract
The Esophagus
The esophagus is a muscular tube that goes from your pharynx (throat) to your
stomach. Food is pushed through your esophagus and into your stomach with a series
of muscle contractions. Just before the opening to the stomach is an important ring-
shaped muscle called the lower esophageal sphincter (LES).
stomach
Your stomach is a sac-like organ with strong muscular walls. In addition to holding food,
it serves as the mixer and grinder of food. Your stomach makes acid and powerful
enzymes that break the food down and change it to a liquid or paste. From there, food
moves to your small intestine.
GI Tract
The GI tract is a series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to
the anus. The hollow organs that make up the GI tract are the mouth, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder
are the solid organs of the digestive system.
The Liver
The liver has multiple functions, but its main function within the digestive system is to
process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into
the small intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat
The Pancreas
Pancreas is part of the digestive system and produces insulin and other important
enzymes and hormones that help break down foods. The pancreas has an endocrine
function because it releases juices directly into the bloodstream, and it has an exocrine
function because it releases juices into ducts
Peristallis
Peristalsis is a series of wavelike muscle contractions that moves food to different
processing stations in the digestive tract. The process of peristalsis begins in the
esophagus when a bolus of food is swallowed
Absorption
Absorption is a complex process, in which nutrients from digested food are harvested.
Absorption can occur through five mechanisms: (1) active transport, (2) passive
diffusion, (3) facilitated diffusion, (4) co-transport (or secondary active transport), and (5)
endocytosis.
facilitated diffusion
· Facilitated diffusion (also known as facilitated transport or passive-mediated transport)
is the process of spontaneous passive transport (as opposed to active transport) of
molecules or ions across a biological membrane via specific transmembrane integral
proteins.
Co-Transporters
are a subcategory of membrane transport proteins (transporters) that couple the
favorable movement of one molecule with its concentration gradient and unfavorable
movement of another molecule against its concentration gradient.
Chemical Digestion
Chemical digestion involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that can be
used by the cells. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth when food mixes with saliva.
Saliva contains an enzyme (amylase) that begins the breakdown of carbohydrates.
mechanical digestion
Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking the food into smaller pieces.
Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth as the food is chewed. Chemical digestion
involves breaking down the food into simpler nutrients that can be used by the cells.
Chemical digestion begins in the mouth when food mixes with saliva.
Kidneys
The kidneys perform many crucial functions, including maintaining overall fluid balance.
regulating and filtering minerals from blood. filtering waste materials from food,
medications, and toxic substances.
Xylem vs. Phloem
Xylem transports only minerals and waters from the roots. Phloem transports food
materials that are prepared by the green parts of the plants to other parts of the plant.
Xylem is the dead tissues at maturity, but no cell contents. Phloem is the living tissue,
but not with the nucleus
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct
photosynthesis. Chloroplasts absorb sunlight and use it in conjunction with water and
carbon dioxide gas to produce food for the plant.
Pistil
Pistil, the female reproductive part of a flower. The pistil, centrally located, typically
consists of a swollen base, the ovary, which contains the potential seeds, or ovules; a
stalk, or style, arising from the ovary; and a pollen-receptive tip, the stigma, variously
shaped and often sticky.
Stamen
The stamen (plural stamina or stamens) is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a
flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium.
Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen fixation is a process by which molecular nitrogen in the air is converted into
ammonia (NH. 3) or related nitrogenous compounds in soil. Atmospheric nitrogen is
molecular dinitrogen, a relatively non-reactive molecule that is metabolically useless to
all but a few microorganisms.
Germination
Germination is the process of seeds developing into new plants. ... When water is
plentiful, the seed fills with water in a process called imbibition. The water activates
special proteins, called enzymes, that begin the process of seed growth. First the seed
grows a root to access water underground.
Photosynthesis
1. light dependent reaction
2. calvin cycle
Light dependent reaction
· Light dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplasts and
take place only when light is available. During these reactions light energy is converted
to chemical energy.
Chlorophyll and other pigments absorb energy from sunlight. This energy is transferred
to the photosystems responsible for photosynthesis
Water is used to provide electrons and hydrogen ions but also produces oxygen
The electrons and hydrogen ions are used to create ATP and NADPH. ATP is an
energy storage molecule. NADPH is an electron carrier/donor molecule. Both ATP and
NADPH will be used in the next stage of photosynthesis.
Calvin Cycle
· The Calvin Cycle reactions occur in the stroma of the chloroplasts. Although these
reactions can take place without light, the process requires ATP and NADPH which
were created using light in the first stage. Carbon dioxide and energy from ATP along
with NADPH are used to form glucose.
Pollination
Pollination is the act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a flower to the
female stigma. The goal of every living organism, including plants, is to create offspring
for the next generation. One of the ways that plants can produce offspring is by making
seeds.