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First Edition

Britannica Educational Publishing

Michael I. Levy: Executive Editor
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Steven Bosco: Director, Editorial Technologies
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Kathy Nakamura: Manager, Media Acquisition
John P. Rafferty: Associate Editor, Earth and Life Sciences

Rosen Educational Services

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Cindy Reiman: Photography Manager
Matthew Cauli: Designer, Cover Design
Introduction by John P. Rafferty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Rocks / edited by John P. Rafferty. — 1st ed.

p. cm. — (Geology : landforms, minerals, and rocks)
“In association with Britannica Educational Publishing, Rosen Educational Services.”
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-61530-541-4 (eBook)
1. Rocks. 2. Petology. I. Rafferty, John P.
QE431.2.R63 2012
552—dc22
2010045807

On the cover (front and back): Marble quarry at Carrara, Italy. Gjon Mili/Time & Life
Pictures/Getty Images

On the cover (front top), p. iii: Rocks fall into three major classes, determined by how
they were formed: sedimentary (far left), metamorphic (centre images), and igneous (far
right). [Link]

On pages 1, 50, 111, 191, 259, 260, 264, 267: With some rocks dating back nearly four billion
years, the Grand Canyon in northern Arizona provides a wealth of historic information
about the geologic events of that area. Rock types in this immense canyon include Archean
granite and schist, Proterozoic limestones, sandstones, and shales, and Paleozoic freshwater
shales, cemented sandstones, and limestones. iStockphoto/Thinkstock
Contents
Introduction x

Chapter 1: A World of Rock 1

General Considerations 2
Lava 4
Texture 6
Classification by Grain or
Crystal Size 6
Crystalline Rock 7
Porosity 8 2
Physical Properties 10
Density 11
Mechanical Properties 17
Thermal Properties 28
Intrusive and Extrusive Rocks 29
Continental Drift 35
Electrical Properties 36
Magnetic Properties 39
Magnetic Survey 41

Chapter 2: Igneous Rock 50

Composition
Chemical Components
53
53
29
Felsic and Mafic Rocks 56
Mineralogical Components 57
Textural Features 59
Crystallinity 59
Granularity 61
Structural Features 66
Small-Scale Structural Features 66
Large-Scale Structural Features 70
Classification of Igneous Rocks 72
Classification of Plutonic Rocks 73
Granite 77
65
 Classification of Volcanic and
Hypabyssal Rocks 79 83
Alkaline Rock 81
Origin and Distribution 81
Origin of Magmas 82
Nature of Magmas 84
Crystallization from Magmas 87
Volatile Constituents and Late
Magmatic Processes 94
Forms of Occurrence 97
Extrusive Igneous Rocks 97
Obsidian 97
Intrusive Igneous Rocks 99
Distribution of Igneous Rocks
on Earth’s Surface 102
105
Chapter 3: Sedimentary Rock 111
Banded-Iron Formation (BIF) 114
Classification Systems 116
Terrigenous Clastic Rocks 119
Carbonate Rocks: Limestones
and Dolomites 121
Noncarbonate Chemical
Sedimentary Rocks 121
Texture 122
Grain Size 123
Particle Shape 125
Fabric 126
Mineralogical and Geochemical
Composition 127
Sedimentary Structures 129
External Stratification 131
Bedding Types and Bedding-
Plane Features 131
Deformation Structures 133
Sedimentary Environments 134
113
 Sedimentary Facies 135
Sedimentary Rock Types 137 145
Conglomerates and Breccias 137
Sandstones 143
Uluru and the Olgas 145
Mudrocks 159
Limestones and Dolomites 163
Biogenic Ooze 171
Siliceous Rocks 174
Phosphorites 177
Evaporites 177
Iron-Rich Sedimentary Rocks 182
Organic-Rich Sedimentary
Deposits 184
Fossil Fuels 185
Secular Trends in the Sedimentary
Rock Record 189

Chapter 4: Metamorphic Rock 191

Metamorphic Variables 194
Temperature 195
Pressure 196
Rock Composition 198
Metamorphic Reactions 206 199
Reactions in a Kaolinite-Quartz
System 206
Reactions of Other Mineral
Systems 208
Isograds 209
Principal Types 210
Retrograde Metamorphism 212
Textural Features 214
Major Features 215
Lamination 219
Structural Features 219
Metamorphic Facies 221
217
 Facies Series 223
Pressure-Temperature-Time
Paths 224 225
Origin of Metamorphic Rocks:
Types of Metamorphism 226
Metamorphism 227
Hydrothermal Metamorphism 228
Dynamic Metamorphism 228
Contact Metamorphism 229
Skarn 232
Regional Metamorphism 232
Distribution of Metamorphic
Rocks 246
Classification of Metamorphic
Rocks 250
Schist 250
Slate 250
Gneisses 252
Hornfels 254
Marble 254
Mylonites and Cataclastites 254
Other Classes 255
Q uartzite 256
Conclusion 256 247
Appendix 259

Glossary 260
Bibliography 264
Index 267

251
Introduction
Introduction
 7 Introduction 7

R ocks are the foundations upon which humans and

other forms of life on Earth stand. Rock makes up
the solid outer skin of planet Earth, as well as the molten
and solid layers of Earth’s interior. Across the wide span
of geologic time, no rock remains the same. Rocks begin
as volumes of magma (hot, fluidlike mixtures of minerals,
gases, and steam) that slowly rise and cool into igneous
rocks at or near Earth’s surface. Exposed to the elements
on the surface over long time intervals, igneous rocks may
crack, flake, and break apart to provide the basic materi-
als for deposits of sedimentary rock. After being subjected
to high temperatures, high pressures, or bathed in chemi-
cal solutions, igneous and sedimentary rock may become
metamorphic rock or revert into magma if conditions are
particularly intense. The first part of this book provides
the reader with a general treatment of rocks and their
important properties, while the remainder of the book
considers the three major types of rocks: igneous, sedi-
mentary, and metamorphic.
For any given rock, the path of its formation deter-
mines how it is classified. Igneous rocks form from magma
that cools either within Earth’s interior or on Earth’s
surface. Sedimentary rocks are derived from bits of preex-
isting rock and compounds that precipitate from chemical
reactions at or near Earth’s surface. Lastly, metamorphic
rock is produced when a rock is later transformed by tem-
perature, pressure, reactions with chemical solutions, or a
combination of these phenomena into rocks with proper-
ties that differ from the original material.
All rocks are classified according to their texture,
which is an aggregation of the size, shape, and pattern of
their characteristic grains and crystals. A rock’s texture can
Wave Rock in Australia, one of that country’s most famous landforms, is a mas-
sive formation of granite, an igneous rock. Steve Allen/Brand X Pictures/
Getty Images

xi
 7 Rocks 7

provide clues to its identity and how it was formed. The

crystals of igneous and metamorphic rocks are divided
according to size. Pegmatic rocks have relatively large
crystals, whereas phaneritic and aphanitic rocks contain
medium-sized and small crystals, respectively. Similarly,
sedimentary rocks are classified in part by the size of their
grains. Porosity, or the volume of the rock not taken up by
grains, crystals, or cementing material—that is, the spaces
in between those elements—is another important feature
of rocks.
The physical properties of rocks are important to geol-
ogists, materials scientists, seismologists, and the mining
industry. The knowledge of a rock’s characteristics allows
these practitioners to better predict the behaviour of the
rock under different conditions. For example, a rock’s
density, or the mass of the rock per unit of its volume, is
important because it can provide clues to the identity of a
given rock as well as the structure of the geology occurring
below Earth’s surface. Rocks can be altered by mechanical
forces—which include stress and strain, confining pres-
sure, internal pore pressure, and temperature—that occur
within Earth’s interior, and each type of rock responds
differently to these forces. There are those rocks that con-
duct heat and electricity better than others, and those that
contain magnetic minerals. Certain rocks are under enor-
mous pressure from incremental movements of Earth’s
tectonic plates, whereas others experience less stress and
strain. The ability to predict the behaviour of a given rock
exposed to various combinations of mechanical forces
allows geologists to better understand the organizational
structure of the rock layers under the surface, discover
and extract rocks containing valuable minerals or other
resources, and more accurately foretell the location and
intensity of earthquakes.

xii
 7 Introduction 7

Igneous rocks are closely tied to the behaviour of

magma, the material from which they arise. They are
formed by the cooling and crystallization of magma at or
near Earth’s surface. These processes occur most often
near the boundaries of Earth’s tectonic plates. Magma
extruded onto the surface is called lava, and thus the rocks
formed by lava are called extrusive, or volcanic, rocks.
Igneous rocks that form within other layers of other rocks
are called intrusive, or plutonic, rocks.
The relationship between heat, pressure, and water
within deep layers of rock determines how igneous
rocks are formed. In general, new magma is generated
by the melting of solid rocks as they are driven deep
into Earth and thus closer to the planet’s internal heat
source. At the atomic level, heating causes the mol-
ecules in the rock to vibrate. If enough heat is added,
the bonds between molecules will break and the rock
will change from a solid to a liquid. Since rocks are made
up of different minerals with different melting points,
some minerals melt earlier than others, and rocks are
said to partially melt. Although Earth’s temperatures
rise with depth, melting can be confounded by increases
in pressure. In dry rocks, the tremendous weight of
the surrounding rock holds the molecules in the rock
together, and more energy is needed to melt the rock.
Thus, with added pressure, the melting point of the
various minerals in the rock increases. On the other
hand, the melting point of minerals in wet rocks—that
is, rocks with a high water content—is lowered. (Water
dissolves relatively easily into magmas, and any undis-
solved water in the rock helps to break the bonds that
stabilize the crystal structures in the rock’s minerals.)
Also, under high pressure conditions, wet rocks melt
faster than dry rocks.

xiii
 7 Rocks 7

After the magma is created, it has a tendency to rise,

because the rocks above are less dense (and thus easier to
move through) than the ones below. As it travels upward,
it cools and crystallizes. Since this magma is made up
of different minerals with different freezing tempera-
tures, some minerals will crystallize earlier than others.
Minerals, which are essentially solid forms of chemical
compounds, are constructed by the elements available in
the magma. Those that form early in the crystallization
process remove different elements from the magma,
changing the chemistry of the magma that remains.
Consequently, different types of rocks will form from
the same volume of magma.
All igneous rocks are classified by their dominant
chemical composition. Those with high levels of silica
are called felsic rocks. Granite and rhyolite are examples
of common felsic rocks in plutonic and volcanic settings,
respectively. On the other end of the spectrum, rocks
made up of less than 40 percent silica are called ultramafic
rocks. These rocks contain relatively high proportions of
magnesium and iron. Peridotite and komatiite are com-
mon ultramafic rocks that occur in plutonic and volcanic
settings, respectively.
The creation of sedimentary rocks, however, is only
indirectly related to the behaviour of magma. Such rocks
are derived from weathering—that is, the decomposition
of rock. Weathering can occur mechanically from the
actions of wind, water, gravity, and ice that remove bits and
pieces of rock from their parent material. These pieces,
which may be as large as boulders or as fine as bits of sand
and silt, are transported to new areas and deposited. After
layer upon layer of sediment accumulates in an area such
as a basin, some of the loose material may be converted
to solid rock, a process called lithification. The weight of

xiv
 7 Introduction 7

the accumulated layers of material above compacts the

lower levels of sediment. Water that filters through the
compacted sediment may dissolve some of the material,
creating a type of cement that binds different particles
together. Chemical weathering can also produce sedi-
mentary rock. In this process, minerals precipitate from
solutions to form rock.
Sedimentary rocks can be divided into three broad
categories. The first contains terrigenous clastic sedimen-
tary rocks, that is, sedimentary rocks that contain broken
fragments of decomposed rocks called clasts. Terrigenous
clastic rocks are classified by their grain size and texture.
Those with small grains are called mudrocks. Sedimentary
rocks with progressively larger particle sizes are classified
in turn as sandstones, breccias, and conglomerates. The
second category, the carbonates, are inorganic sedimen-
tary rocks that form from chemical weathering. Common
examples of carbonate rocks include limestones and dolo-
mites. The noncarbonated chemical sedimentary rocks
make up the third category. This group includes the cherts
and phosporites, as well as iron-rich rocks and organic-
rich rocks (such as coal).
Metamorphic rocks are derived from igneous, sedi-
mentary, or other metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic
rocks are rocks that undergo extreme changes to their
crystal structure. They are similar to igneous rocks in that
they are affected by heat and pressure, but, they are unlike
igneous rocks in that they do not melt. Metamorphic
rocks are not transformed by overhauling their inter-
nal chemistry or material state. (Recrystallization takes
place while the rock is in solid form.) However, they are
affected by the materials that surround them, as well
as the composition of the parent rock. The process of
metamorphism occurs within a range of temperature,

xv
 7 Rocks 7

pressure, and chemical conditions, and the intensity of

the transformation, reflected in the metamorphic grade
of the rock, depends on the environmental conditions
that surround the rock.
There are four types of metamorphism. Contact
metamorphism occurs when a rock is subject to heating,
such as when hot igneous material touches or surrounds
cooler rock. The parts of the rock that make contact with
the magma will undergo the greatest transformation and
thus will likely become high-grade metamorphic rocks,
whereas the parts of the rock farther away from the heat
source will exhibit a low-grade transformation. Quartzite,
which results from sandstone or chert coming into direct
contact with hot magma, and marble, which results from
the placement of limestone or dolostone under these
same conditions, are examples of high-grade metamor-
phic rocks. In contrast, slate, which results from shale
placed in milder temperature and pressure conditions, is
an example of a low-grade metamorphic rock.
Other types of metamorphism do not require direct
contact between the magma and the rock. In hydrothermal
metamorphism, magma-heated seawater and groundwa-
ter become the agents of metamorphism. The remaining
two, dynamic and regional metamorphism, emphasize the
role pressure plays in transforming a rock. Dynamic meta-
morphism results from the actions of directed pressure or
stress, such as the changes that occur in rocks that are bur-
ied under several layers of rock or smashed along a fault
plane. Regional metamorphism is similar, but it consid-
ers rock transformations over wide areas, such as beneath
landscape-sized deposits of sedimentary rock or between
two colliding tectonic plates.
The study of rocks goes well beyond their classifica-
tion and identification. The placement and orientation

xvi
 7 Introduction 7

of rocks within mountains, along the sides of cliffs, and

on the floors of lake and ocean basins can explain a great
deal about the environments they emerged from, as well
as the environments that shaped them into their current
forms. Rocks also contain clues to the evolution of life on
Earth. Layers of sedimentary rock often contain fossils,
or remnants or imprints of long-dead organisms. Fossils
and the rocks that hold them are snapshots of moments
in time. Both can be dated and placed with other fos-
sils and rocks to construct evolutionary timelines that
span many millions of years. From these timelines, pale-
ontologists can better understand how Earth, as well as
the groups of life-forms that inhabit it, changed from the
periods following the planet’s initial formation to the
present day.

xvii
chapter 1
A World of Rock

R ocks are naturally occurring and coherent aggre-

gates of one or more minerals. Such aggregates
constitute the basic unit of which the solid Earth is com-
prised and typically form recognizable and mappable
volumes. Rocks are commonly divided into three major
classes according to the processes that resulted in their
formation. These classes are (1) igneous rocks, which
have solidified from molten material called magma;

Porphyry, an igneous rock. DEA/A. Rizzi/De Agostini Picture Library/

Getty Images

1
 7 Rocks 7

(2) sedimentary rocks, those consisting of fragments

derived from preexisting rocks or of materials precipi-
tated from solutions; and (3) metamorphic rocks, which
have been derived from either igneous or sedimentary
rocks under conditions that caused changes in miner-
alogical composition, texture, and internal structure.
These three classes, in turn, are subdivided into numer-
ous groups and types on the basis of various factors, the
most important of which are chemical, mineralogical,
and textural attributes.

General Considerations
Igneous rocks are those that solidify from magma, a
molten mixture of rock-forming minerals and usually

Seashell fossil embedded in limestone. A sedimentary rock, limestone some-

times hosts fossil animal shells—from microscopic fragments to full specimens.
[Link]

2
 7 A World of Rock 7

volatiles such as gases and steam. Since their constituent

minerals are crystallized from molten material, igneous
rocks are formed at high temperatures. They originate
from processes deep within Earth—typically at depths
of about 50 to 200 km (30 to 120 miles)—in the mid- to
lower-crust or in the upper mantle. Igneous rocks are
subdivided into two categories: intrusive (emplaced in
the crust), and extrusive (extruded onto the surface of
the land or ocean bottom), in which case the cooling mol-
ten material is called lava.
Sedimentary rocks are those that are deposited and
lithified (compacted and cemented together) at the
Earth’s surface, with the assistance of running water,
wind, ice, or living organisms. Most are deposited from
the land surface to the bottoms of lakes, rivers, and

Marble, a metamorphic rock. [Link]

3
 7 Rocks 7

oceans. Sedimentary rocks are generally stratified—i.e.,

they have layering. Layers may be distinguished by differ-
ences in colour, particle size, type of cement, or internal
arrangement.
Metamorphic rocks are those formed by changes
in preexisting rocks under the influence of high tem-
perature, pressure, and chemically active solutions. The
changes can be chemical (compositional) and physical
(textural) in character. Metamorphic rocks are often
formed by processes deep within Earth that produce
new minerals, textures, and crystal structures. The
recrystallization that takes place does so essentially
in the solid state, rather than by complete remelting,
and can be aided by ductile deformation and the pres-
ence of interstitial fluids such as water. Metamorphism
often produces apparent layering, or banding, because
of the segregation of minerals into separate bands.
Metamorphic processes can also occur at Earth’s surface
due to meteorite impact events and pyrometamorphism
taking place near burning coal seams ignited by light-
ning strikes.

Lava
Lava is molten rock originating as magma in Earth’s mantle that
pours out onto Earth’s surface through volcanic vents at tempera-
tures of about 700–1,200 °C (1,300–2,200 °F). Mafic lavas, such as
basalt, form flows known by the Hawaiian names pahoehoe and aa.
Pahoehoe is smooth and gently undulating; the lava moves through
natural pipes known as lava tubes. Aa is very rough, covered with a
layer of loose, irregular fragments called clinker, and flows in open
channels. Lava that starts out as pahoehoe may turn into aa as it
cools. Lavas of intermediate composition form a block lava flow,
which also has a top consisting largely of loose rubble, but the frag-
ments are fairly regular in shape, mostly polygons with relatively
smooth sides.

4
 7 A World of Rock 7

Geologic materials—mineral crystals and their host

rock types—are cycled through various forms. The pro-
cess depends on temperature, pressure, time, and changes
in environmental conditions in Earth’s crust and at its
surface. The rock cycle reflects the basic relationships
among igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
Erosion includes weathering (the physical and chemical
breakdown of minerals) and transportation to a site of
deposition. Diagenesis is, as previously explained, the
process of forming sedimentary rock by compaction and
natural cementation of grains, or crystallization from
water or solutions, or recrystallization. The conversion
of sediment to rock is termed lithification.

The rock cycle. Copyright Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; rendering for

this edition by Rosen Educational Services

5
 7 Rocks 7

Texture
The texture of a rock is the size, shape, and arrangement
of the grains (for sedimentary rocks) or crystals (for igne-
ous and metamorphic rocks). Also of importance are the
rock’s extent of homogeneity (i.e., uniformity of composi-
tion throughout) and the degree of isotropy. The latter is
the extent to which the bulk structure and composition
are the same in all directions in the rock.
Analysis of texture can yield information about the
rock’s source material, conditions and environment of
deposition (for sedimentary rock) or crystallization and
recrystallization (for igneous and metamorphic rock,
respectively), and subsequent geologic history and change.

Classification by Grain or Crystal Size

The common textural terms used for rock types with
respect to the size of the grains or crystals, are given in

Copyright Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; rendering for this edition

by Rosen Educational Services

6
 7 A World of Rock 7

the table. The particle-size categories are derived from

the Udden-Wentworth scale developed for sediment.
For igneous and metamorphic rocks, the terms are gen-
erally used as modifiers—e.g., medium-grained granite.
Aphanitic is a descriptive term for small crystals (from the
Greek aphanēs, meaning “invisible”), and phaneritic for
larger ones. (Applied to those crystals viewable without
the aid of a microscope, phaneritic comes from the Greek
phaneros, meaning “visible”). Very coarse crystals (those
larger than 3 cm, or 1.2 inches) are termed pegmatitic.
For sedimentary rocks, the broad categories of sediment
size are coarse (greater than 2 mm, or 0.08 inch), medium
(between 2 and 1⁄16 mm, or 0.08 and 0.0025 inch), and fine
(under 1⁄16 mm, or 0.0025 inch). The latter includes silt and
clay, which both have a size indistinguishable by the human
eye and are also termed dust. Most shales (the lithified ver-
sion of clay) contain some silt. Pyroclastic rocks are those
formed from clastic (from the Greek word for broken)
material ejected from volcanoes. Blocks are fragments bro-
ken from solid rock, while bombs are molten when ejected.

Crystalline Rock
A crystalline rock is any rock composed entirely of crystallized
minerals without glassy matter. Intrusive igneous rocks—those
that congeal at depth—are virtually always crystalline, whereas
extrusive igneous rocks, or volcanic rocks, may be partly to entirely
glassy. Many factors influence the ability of a magma to crystallize,
but the length of time during which cooling occurs is the control-
ling factor. Metamorphic rocks are almost always crystalline; the
term crystalline schists has been applied to indicate all rocks of
metamorphic origin, and thus the term crystalline rocks may be
taken to mean an igneous origin. Sedimentary rocks can also be
crystalline, such as the crystalline limestones precipitated directly
from solution; the term is not generally applied to the clastic sedi-
ments, even though they are formed largely from the accumulation
of crystalline materials.

7
 7 Rocks 7

Porosity
The term rock refers to the bulk volume of the material,
including the grains or crystals as well as the contained
void space. The volumetric portion of bulk rock that
is not occupied by grains, crystals, or natural cement-
ing material is termed porosity. That is to say, porosity
is the ratio of void volume to the bulk volume (grains
plus void space). This void space consists of pore space
between grains or crystals, in addition to crack space. In
sedimentary rocks, the amount of pore space depends
on the degree of compaction of the sediment (with com-
paction generally increasing with depth of burial), on the
packing arrangement and shape of grains, on the amount
of cementation, and on the degree of sorting. Typical
cements are siliceous, calcareous or carbonate, or iron-
bearing minerals.
Sorting is the tendency of sedimentary rocks to have
grains that are similarly sized—i.e., to have a narrow range
of sizes. Poorly sorted sediment displays a wide range of
grain sizes and hence has decreased porosity. Well-sorted
sediment indicates a grain size distribution that is fairly

Sorting. Copyright Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; rendering for this

edition by Rosen Educational Services

8
 7 A World of Rock 7

uniform. Depending on the type of close-packing of the

grains, porosity can be substantial. It should be noted
that in engineering usage—e.g., geotechnical or civil
engineering—the terminology is phrased oppositely and
is referred to as grading. A well-graded sediment is a (geo-
logically) poorly sorted one, and a poorly graded sediment
is a well-sorted one.
Total porosity encompasses all the void space, includ-
ing those pores that are interconnected to the surface of
the sample as well as those that are sealed off by natural
cement or other obstructions. Thus the total porosity
(ϕT) is

where VolG is the volume of grains (and cement, if any)

and VolB is the total bulk volume. Alternatively, one can
calculate ϕT from the measured densities of the bulk rock
and of the (mono)mineralic constituent. Thus,

where ρB is the density of the bulk rock and ρG is the

density of the grains (i.e., the mineral, if the composition
is monomineralogic and homogeneous). For example,
if a sandstone has a ρB of 2.38 grams per cubic cm (1.37
ounces per cubic inch) and is composed of quartz (SiO2)
grains having ρG of 2.65 grams per cubic cm (1.37 ounces
per cubic inch), the total porosity is

9
 7 Rocks 7

Apparent (effective, or net) porosity is the proportion

of void space that excludes the sealed-off pores. It thus
measures the pore volume that is effectively intercon-
nected and accessible to the surface of the sample, which
is important when considering the storage and movement
of subsurface fluids such as petroleum, groundwater, or
contaminated fluids.

Physical Properties
Physical properties of rocks are of interest and utility
in many fields of work, including geology, petrophys-
ics, geophysics, materials science, geochemistry, and
geotechnical engineering. The scale of investigation
ranges from the molecular and crystalline up to ter-
restrial studies of Earth and other planetary bodies.
Geologists are interested in the radioactive age dating
of rocks to reconstruct the origin of mineral depos-
its; seismologists formulate prospective earthquake
predictions using premonitory physical or chemi-
cal changes; crystallographers study the synthesis of
minerals with special optical or physical properties;
exploration geophysicists investigate the variation of
physical properties of subsurface rocks to make pos-
sible detection of natural resources such as oil and
gas, geothermal energy, and ores of metals; geotechni-
cal engineers examine the nature and behaviour of the
materials on, in, or of which such structures as build-
ings, dams, tunnels, bridges, and underground storage
vaults are to be constructed; solid-state physicists study
the magnetic, electrical, and mechanical properties of
materials for electronic devices, computer components,
or high-performance ceramics; and petroleum reservoir
engineers analyze the response measured on well logs

10
 7 A World of Rock 7

or in the processes of deep drilling at elevated tempera-

ture and pressure.
Since rocks are aggregates of mineral grains or crys-
tals, their properties are determined in large part by the
properties of their various constituent minerals. In a
rock these general properties are determined by averag-
ing the relative properties and sometimes orientations
of the various grains or crystals. As a result, some prop-
erties that are anisotropic (i.e., differ with direction) on
a submicroscopic or crystalline scale are fairly isotropic
for a large bulk volume of the rock. Many properties
are also dependent on grain or crystal size, shape, and
packing arrangement, the amount and distribution of
void space, the presence of natural cements in sedimen-
tary rocks, the temperature and pressure, and the type
and amount of contained fluids (e.g., water, petroleum,
gases). Because many rocks exhibit a considerable range
in these factors, the assignment of representative values
for a particular property is often done using a statistical
variation.
Some properties can vary considerably, depending on
whether measured in situ (in place in the subsurface) or
in the laboratory under simulated conditions. Electrical
resistivity, for example, is highly dependent on the fluid
content of the rock in situ and the temperature condition
at the particular depth.

Density
Density varies significantly among different rock
types because of differences in mineralogy and poros-
ity. Knowledge of the distribution of underground rock
densities can assist in interpreting subsurface geologic
structure and rock type.

11
 7 Rocks 7

Dry bulk densities for various

rock types

(grams per

(grams per

(grams per
number of

deviation
rock type

standard
cubic cm)

cubic cm)

cubic cm)
samples

median
mode
mean
all rocks 1,647 2.73 0.26 2.65 2.86
andesite 197 2.65 0.13 2.58 2.66
basalt 323 2.74 0.47 2.88 2.87
diorite 68 2.86 0.12 2.89 2.87
dolerite 224 2.89 0.13 2.96 2.90
(diabase)
gabbro 98 2.95 0.14 2.99 2.97
granite 334 2.66 0.06 2.66 2.66
quartz 76 2.62 0.06 2.60 2.62
porphyry
rhyolite 94 2.51 0.13 2.60 2.49
syenite 93 2.70 0.10 2.67 2.68
trachyte 71 2.57 0.10 2.62 2.57
sandstone 107 2.22 0.23 2.22 2.22
Source: After data from H.S. Washington (1917) and R.J. Piersol, L.E.
Workman, and M.C. Watson (1940) as compiled by Gary R. Olhoeft and
Gordon R. Johnson in Robert S. Carmichael, ed., Hand-book of Physical
Properties of Rocks, vol. III, CRC Press, Inc. (1984).

In strict usage, density is defined as the mass of a

substance per unit volume; however, in common usage,
it is taken to be the weight in air of a unit volume of a
sample at a specific temperature. Weight is the force that
gravitation exerts on a body (and thus varies with loca-
tion), whereas mass (a measure of the matter in a body)
is a fundamental property and is constant regardless of
location. In routine density measurements of rocks, the

12
 7 A World of Rock 7

sample weights are considered to be equivalent to their

masses, because the discrepancy between weight and
mass would result in less error on the computed density
than the experimental errors introduced in the mea-
surement of volume. Thus, density is often determined
using weight rather than mass. Density should properly
be reported in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3), but is
still often given in grams per cubic cm (g/cm3).
Another property closely related to density is specific
gravity. It is defined, as noted above, as the ratio of the
weight or mass in air of a unit volume of material at a stated
temperature to the weight or mass in air of a unit volume
of distilled water at the same temperature. Specific gravity
is dimensionless (i.e., has no units).
The bulk density of a rock is ρB = WG /VB, where WG is
the weight of grains (sedimentary rocks) or crystals (igne-
ous and metamorphic rocks) and natural cements, if any,
and VB is the total volume of the grains or crystals plus
the void (pore) space. The density can be dry if the pore
space is empty, or it can be saturated if the pores are filled
with fluid (e.g., water), which is more typical of the sub-
surface (in situ) situation. If there is pore fluid present,

where Wfl is the weight of pore fluid. In terms of total

porosity, saturated density is

and thus

13
 7 Rocks 7

where ρfl is the density of the pore fluid. Density measure-

ments for a given specimen involve the determination of
any two of the following quantities: pore volume, bulk vol-
ume, or grain volume, along with the weight.
A useful way to assess the density of rocks is to make a
histogram plot of the statistical range of a set of data. The
representative value and its variation can be expressed as fol-
lows: (1) mean, the average value, (2) mode, the most common
value (i.e., the peak of the distribution curve), (3) median, the
value of the middle sample of the data set (i.e., the value at

Dry bulk densities (distribution with density) for all rocks given in the dry
bulk densities table. Copyright Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; render-
ing for this edition by Rosen Educational Services

14
 7 A World of Rock 7

which half of the samples are below and half are above), and
(4) standard deviation, a statistical measure of the spread of
the data (plus and minus one standard deviation from the
mean value includes about two-thirds of the data).

Typical density ranges for

some other rock types
rock type density (grams per cubic cm)
amphibolite 2.79–3.14
andesite glass 2.40–2.57
anhydrite 2.82–2.93
anorthosite 2.64–2.92
basalt glass 2.70–2.85
chalk 2.23
dolomite 2.72–2.84
dunite 2.98–3.76
eclogite 3.32–3.45
gneiss 2.59–2.84
granodiorite 2.67–2.78
limestone 1.55–2.75
marble 2.67–2.75
norite 2.72–3.02
peridotite 3.15–3.28
quartzite 2.65
rock salt 2.10–2.20
schist 2.73–3.19
shale 2.06–2.67
slate 2.72–2.84
Source: After data from R.A. Daly, G.E. Manger, and S.P. Clark,
Jr. (1966); A.F. Birch (1966); F. Press (1966); and R.N. Schock, B.P.
Bonner, and H. Louis (1974) in Robert S. Carmichael, ed., Handbook of
Physical Properties of Rocks, vol. III, CRC Press, Inc. (1984).

15
 7 Rocks 7

The density distributions for granite, basalt, and sand-

stone are often compared. Granite is an intrusive igneous
rock with low porosity and a well-defined chemical (min-
eral) composition; its range of densities is narrow. Basalt is,
in most cases, an extrusive igneous rock that can exhibit
a large variation in porosity (because entrained gases leave
voids called vesicles), and thus some highly porous samples
can have low densities. Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary
rock that can have a wide range of porosities depending
on the degree of sorting, compaction, packing arrange-
ment of grains, and cementation. The bulk density varies
accordingly.
The density of clastic sedimentary rocks increases
as the rocks are progressively buried. This is because of
the increase of overburden pressure, which causes com-
paction, and the progressive cementation with age. Both
compaction and cementation decrease the porosity.
The densities for rock-forming minerals and rocks are
represented by the variables rG and rB, respectively. The
bulk densities for sedimentary rocks, which typically have
variable porosity, are often presented as ranges of both dry
rB and (water-) saturated rB. The pore-filling fluid is usually
briny water, often indicative of the presence of seawater
when the rock was being deposited or lithified. It should
be noted that the bulk density is less than the grain den-
sity of the constituent mineral (or mineral assemblage),
depending on the porosity. For example, sandstone (char-
acteristically quartzose) has a typical dry bulk density of
2.0–2.6 g/cm3, with a porosity that can vary from low to
more than 30 percent. The density of quartz itself is 2.65
g/cm3. If porosity were zero, the bulk density would equal
the grain density.
Saturated bulk density is higher than dry bulk density,
owing to the added presence of pore-filling fluid.

16
 7 A World of Rock 7

Mechanical Properties

Rocks can be altered mechanically through a variety of pro-

cesses. The stress of a force upon a rock can deform, or strain,
the rock. Such forces include confining pressure, internal
pore pressure, temperature, the rate of loading, and time.

Stress and Strain

When a stress σ (force per unit area) is applied to a material
such as rock, the material experiences a change in dimen-
sion, volume, or shape. This change, or deformation, is called
strain (ε). Stresses can be axial—e.g., directional tension or
simple compression—or shear (tangential), or all-sided (e.g.,
hydrostatic compression). The terms stress and pressure are
sometimes used interchangeably, but often stress refers to
directional stress or shear stress and pressure (P) refers to
hydrostatic compression. For small stresses, the strain is
elastic (recoverable when the stress is removed and linearly
proportional to the applied stress). For larger stresses and
other conditions, the strain can be inelastic, or permanent.

Elastic constants
In elastic deformation, there are various constants that
relate the magnitude of the strain response to the applied
stress. These elastic constants include the following:
(1) Young’s modulus (E) is the ratio of the applied
stress to the fractional extension (or shortening) of the
sample length parallel to the tension (or compression).
The strain is the linear change in dimension divided by
the original length.
(2) Shear modulus (μ) is the ratio of the applied stress
to the distortion (rotation) of a plane originally perpen-
dicular to the applied shear stress; it is also termed the
modulus of rigidity.

17
 7 Rocks 7

(3) Bulk modulus (k) is the ratio of the confining pres-

sure to the fractional reduction of volume in response
to the applied hydrostatic pressure. The volume strain is
the change in volume of the sample divided by the origi-
nal volume. Bulk modulus is also termed the modulus of
incompressibility.
(4) Poisson’s ratio (σp) is the ratio of lateral strain (per-
pendicular to an applied stress) to the longitudinal strain
(parallel to applied stress).
For elastic and isotropic materials, the elastic con-
stants are interrelated. For example,

and

The following are the common units of stress:

Thus 10 kilobars = 1 gigapascal (i.e., 109 Pa).

Rock Mechanics
The study of deformation resulting from the strain of
rocks in response to stresses is called rock mechanics.
When the scale of the deformation is extended to large

18
 7 A World of Rock 7

geologic structures in Earth’s crust, the field of study is

known as geotectonics.
The mechanisms and character of the deformation
of rocks and Earth materials can be investigated through
laboratory experiments, development of theoretical
models based on the properties of materials, and study of
deformed rocks and structures in the field. In the labora-
tory, one can simulate—either directly or by appropriate
scaling of experimental parameters—several conditions.
Two types of pressure may be simulated: confining (hydro-
static), due to burial under rock overburden, and internal
(pore), due to pressure exerted by pore fluids contained
in void space in the rock. Directed applied stress, such
as compression, tension, and shear, is studied, as are the
effects of increased temperature introduced with depth
in Earth’s crust. The effects of the duration of time and
the rate of applying stress (i.e., loading) as a function of
time are examined. Also, the role of fluids, particularly if
they are chemically active, is investigated.
Some simple apparatuses for deforming rocks are
designed for biaxial stress application: a directed (uni-
axial) compression is applied while a confining pressure
is exerted (by pressurized fluid) around the cylindrical
specimen. This simulates deformation at depth within
Earth. An independent internal pore-fluid pressure also
can be exerted. The rock specimen can be jacketed with a
thin, impermeable sleeve (e.g., rubber or copper) to sepa-
rate the external pressure medium from the internal pore
fluids (if any). The specimen is typically a few centimetres
in dimension.
Another apparatus for exerting high pressure on a
sample was designed in 1968 by Akira Sawaoka, Naoto
Kawai, and Robert Carmichael to give hydrostatic confin-
ing pressures up to 12 kilobars (1.2 gigapascal), additional

19
 7 Rocks 7

directed stress, and temperatures up to a few hundred

degrees Celsius. The specimen is positioned on the base-
plate; the pressure is applied by driving in pistons with
a hydraulic press. The end caps can be locked down to
hold the pressure for time experiments and to make the
device portable.
Apparatuses have been developed, typically using
multianvil designs, which extend the range of static
experimental conditions—at least for small specimens
and limited times—to pressures as high as about 1,700
kilobars (170 gigapascal) and temperatures of about
2,000 °C (about 3,600 °F). Such work has been pioneered
by researchers such as Peter M. Bell and Ho-Kwang Mao,
who conducted studies at the Geophysical Laboratory
of the Carnegie Institution in Washington, D.C. Using
dynamic techniques (i.e., shock from explosive impact
generated by gun-type designs), even higher pressures
up to 7,000 kilobars (700 gigapascal)—which is nearly
twice the pressure at Earth’s centre and seven million
times greater than the atmospheric pressure at Earth’s
surface—can be produced for very short times. A lead-
ing figure in such ultrapressure work is A. Sawaoka at the
Tokyo Institute of Technology.
In the upper crust of the planet, hydrostatic pressure
increases at the rate of about 320 bars (0.032 gigapascal)
per km (0.6 mile), and temperature increases at a typical
rate of 20–40 °C (68–104 °F) per km, depending on recent
crustal geologic history. Additional directed stress, as can
be generated by large-scale crustal deformation (tecto-
nism), can range up to 1 to 2 kilobars (0.1 to 0.2 gigapascal).
This is approximately equal to the ultimate strength
(before fracture) of solid crystalline rock at surface tem-
perature and pressure. The stress released in a single major
earthquake—a shift on a fault plane—is about 50–150 bars.

20
 7 A World of Rock 7

Deformation as affected by increased confining pressure. Copyright

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; rendering for this edition by Rosen
Educational Services

In studying the deformation of rocks one can start

with the assumption of ideal behaviour: elastic strain and
homogeneous and isotropic stress and strain. In reality,
on a microscopic scale there are grains and pores in sedi-
ments and a fabric of crystals in igneous and metamorphic
rocks. On a large scale, rock bodies exhibit physical and
chemical variations and structural features. Furthermore,
conditions such as extended length of time, confining
pressure, and subsurface fluids affect the rates of change
of deformation.

Stress-Strain Relationships
The deformation of materials is characterized by stress-
strain relations. For elastic-behaviour materials, the strain
is proportional to the load (i.e., the applied stress). The

21
 7 Rocks 7

strain is immediate with stress and is reversible (recover-

able) up to the yield point stress, beyond which permanent
strain results. For viscous material, there is laminar (slow,
smooth, parallel) flow; one must exert a force to main-
tain motion because of internal frictional resistance to

Some typical values of elastic

constants and properties
elastic constants (at room temperature and pressure)
material Young’s modulus shear modulus (in
(in 106 bars) 106 bars)
ice 0.1 0.03
shale 0.2–0.3 0.15
limestone 0.4–0.7 0.22–0.26
granite 0.3–0.6 0.2
basalt 0.7–0.9 0.3
steel 2.1 0.83
temperature coefficient of vis-
(degrees Celsius) cosity (poises)
lava (Mount 1,100 28,300
Vesuvius) 1,400 250
lava (Oshima, 1,038 230,000
Japan) 1,125 5,600
andesite lava 1,400 150–1,500
compressive strength
(at room temperature and pressure, in
kilobars)
shale 0.8–1.8
sandstone 0.5–2
limestone 1–2
granite 1.7–2.5
basalt 1–3.4

22
 7 A World of Rock 7

flow, called the viscosity. Viscosity varies with the applied

stress, strain rate, and temperature. In plastic behaviour,
the material strains continuously (but still has strength)
after the yield point stress is reached; however, beyond
this point there is some permanent deformation. In elas-
ticoviscous deformation, there is combined elastic and
viscous behaviour. The material yields continuously (vis-
cously) for a constant applied load. An example of such
behaviour is creep, a slow, permanent, and continuous
deformation occurring under constant load over a long
time in such materials as crystals, ice, soil and sediment,
and rocks at depth. In firmoviscous behaviour, the mate-
rial is essentially solid but the strain is not immediate with
application of stress; rather, it is taken up and released
exponentially. A plasticoviscous material exhibits elastic
behaviour for initial stress (as in plastic behaviour), but
after the yield point stress is reached, it flows like a vis-
cous fluid.

Typical stress-strain curves for rock materials. Each X represents the point
of fracture for the corresponding material. Copyright Encyclopædia
Britannica, Inc.; rendering for this edition by Rosen Educational
Services

23
 7 Rocks 7

Rheology is the study of the flow deformation of mate-

rials. The concept of rheidity refers to the capacity of a
material to flow, arbitrarily defined as the time required
with a shear stress applied for the viscous strain to be
1,000 times greater than the elastic strain. It is thus a mea-
sure of the threshold of fluidlike behaviour. Although such
behaviour depends on temperature, relative comparisons
can be made.
The ability to undergo large permanent deforma-
tion before fracture is called ductility. Stress is force
per unit area, whereas strain can be defined as frac-
tional shortening of the specimen parallel to the applied
compression. Brittle material behaves elastically nearly
until the point of fracture, whereas the ductile (plasti-
cally deformable) material is elastic up to the yield point
but then has a range of plastic deformation before frac-
turing. For plastic deformation, the flow mechanisms
are intracrystalline (slip and twinning within crystal
grains), intercrystalline motion by crushing and fracture
(cataclasis), and recrystallization by solutioning or solid
diffusion.
If the applied stress is removed while a ductile mate-
rial is in the plastic range, part of the strain is recoverable
(elastically), but there is permanent deformation. The

Rheidity threshold of
fluidlike deformation
material approximate
time
ice (e.g., glacier) 2 weeks
gypsum 1 year
rock salt (e.g., saltdome) 10–20 years
serpentine (a mafic silicate mineral) 10,000 years

24
 7 A World of Rock 7

ultimate strength is the highest point (stress) on a stress-

strain curve, often occurring at fracture (which is the
complete loss of cohesion). The strength of a material
is its resistance to failure (destruction of structure) by
flow or fracture; it is a measure of the stress required to
deform a body.

Effect of Environmental Conditions

The behaviour and mechanical properties of rocks
depend on a number of environmental conditions. (1)
Confining pressure increases the elasticity, strength
(e.g., yield point and ultimate fracture stress), and
ductility. (2) Internal pore-fluid pressure reduces the
effective stress acting on the sample, thus reducing the
strength and ductility. The effective, or net, confin-
ing pressure is the external hydrostatic pressure minus
the internal pore-fluid pressure. (3) Temperature low-
ers the strength, enhances ductility, and may enhance
recrystallization. (4) Fluid solutions can enhance
deformation, creep, and recrystallization. (5) Time
is an influential factor as well. (6) The rate of load-
ing (i.e., the rate at which stress is applied) influences
mechanical properties. (7) Compaction, as would
occur with burial to depth, reduces the volume of pore
space for sedimentary rocks and the crack porosity for
crystalline rocks.
Rocks, which are typically brittle at Earth’s surface,
can undergo ductile deformation when buried and sub-
jected to increased confining pressure and temperature
for long periods of time. If stress exceeds their strength
or if they are not sufficiently ductile, they will fail by
fracture—as a crystal, within a bed or rock, on an earth-
quake fault zone, and so on—whereas with ductility they
can flow and fold.

25
 7 Rocks 7

Rock strengths, with varying

temperature and pressure
rock temper- confining plastic ultimate
type ature pressure yield strength
(°C) (kilobars) strength (kilobars)
(kilobars)

500 5 10 11.5
granite
800 5 5 6
gabbro 500 5 4 8
500 5 8 9
peridotite
800 5 5.5 8
500 5 8 10
basalt
800 5 2 2.5
24 2 2.5 5.5
marble
500 3 1 2
24 2 4.5 5.5
limestone
500 3 2.5 3
24 2 6 7
dolomite
500 5 4 6.5
shale 24 2 1.5 2.5
rock salt 24 1 0.5 1

An increase in confining pressure causes brittle frac-

ture to become shear slippage and eventually causes
flow (ductile) behaviour. This transition is also aided by
higher temperature, decreased internal pore-fluid pres-
sure, and slower strain rate.

26
 7 A World of Rock 7

Variation of some elastic

constants (in 106 bars) with rock
type and confining pressure
rock bulk Young’s shear Poisson’s
type modulus modulus modulus ratio
at pressure = 1 bar
granite 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.05
gabbro 0.3 0.9 0.6 0.1
dunite 1.1 1.5 0.5 0.3
obsidian 0.4 0.7 0.3 0.08
basalt 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.23
gneiss 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.05
marble 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1
quartzite
sandstone 0.07 0.2 0.08 0.1
shale 0.04 0.1 0.05 0.04
limestone 0.8 0.6 0.2 0.3
at pressure = 3,000 bars
rock type bulk Young’s shear Poisson’s
modulus modulus modulus ratio
granite 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.25
gabbro 0.9 0.8 0.5 0.2
dunite 1.2 1.7 0.7 0.27
obsidian
basalt 0.8 1.2 0.4 0.25
gneiss 0.5 0.7 0.3
marble 0.8 0.7 0.3 0.3
quartzite 0.5 1.0 0.4 0.07
sandstone
shale
limestone

27
 7 Rocks 7

Thermal Properties

Heat flow (or flux), q, in Earth’s crust or in rock as a

building material, is the product of the temperature gra-
dient (change in temperature per unit distance) and the
material’s thermal conductivity (k, the heat flow across a
surface per unit area per unit time when a temperature
difference exists in unit length perpendicular to the sur-
face). Thus,

The units of the terms in this equation are given

below, expressed first in the centimetre-gram-second
(cgs) system and then in the International System of
Units (SI) system, with the conversion factor from the
first to the second given between them.

28
 7 A World of Rock 7

Intrusive and
Extrusive Rocks
Intrusive rocks, which are
also called plutonic rocks,
are igneous rocks formed
from magma forced into
older rocks at depths
within Earth’s crust. The
intruded magma then
slowly solidifies below
Earth’s surface, though it
may later be exposed by
erosion. Igneous intru-
sions form a variety of
rock types.
Reddish volcanic rock on the coast of Tanna In contrast, extrusive
Island, Vanuatu. Allan Power—Bruce rocks are rocks derived
Coleman Inc. from magma (molten sili-
cate material) that have
been poured out or ejected at Earth’s surface. Extrusive rocks are usu-
ally distinguished from intrusive rocks on the basis of their texture
and mineral composition.
Both lava flows and pyroclastic debris (fragmented volcanic
material) are extrusive; they are commonly glassy (obsidian) or finely
crystalline (basalts and felsites). Many extrusive rocks also contain
intrusive components; this mixture of fine- and coarse-grained tex-
tures is described as porphyritic.

Thermal Conductivity
Thermal conductivity can be determined in the labora-
tory or in situ, as in a borehole or deep well, by turning
on a heating element and measuring the rise in tempera-
ture with time. It depends on several factors: (1) chemical
composition of the rock (i.e., mineral content), (2) fluid
content (type and degree of saturation of the pore space);

29
 7 Rocks 7

Typical values of
thermal conductivity
(in 0.001 calories per centimetre per second per degree Celsius)
material at 20 °C at 200 °C
typical rocks 4–10
granite 7.8 6.6
gneiss
(perpendicular to 5.9 5.5 (100 °C)
banding)
(parallel to banding) 8.2 7.4 (100 °C)
gabbro 5.1 5.0
basalt 4.0 4.0
dunite 12.0 8.1
marble 7.3 5.2
quartzite 15.0 9.0
limestone 6.0
one sandstone
(dry) 4.4
(saturated) 5.4
shale 3–4
rock salt 12.8
sand
(dry) 0.65
(30% water) 3.94
water 1.34 (0 °C) 1.6 (80 °C)
ice 5.3 (0 °C) 9.6 (−130 °C)
magnetite 12.6
quartz 20.0
feldspars 5.0

30
 7 A World of Rock 7

the presence of water increases the thermal conductiv-

ity (i.e., enhances the flow of heat), (3) pressure (a high
pressure increases the thermal conductivity by closing
cracks which inhibit heat flow), (4) temperature, and (5)
isotropy and homogeneity of the rock. For crystalline
silicate rocks—the dominant rocks of the “basement”
crustal rocks—the lower values are typical of ones rich
in magnesium and iron (e.g., basalt and gabbro) and the
higher values are typical of those rich in silica (quartz) and
alumina (e.g., granite). These values result because the
thermal conductivity of quartz is relatively high, while
that for feldspars is low.

Thermal Expansion
The change in dimension—linear or volumetric—of a
rock specimen with temperature is expressed in terms
of a coefficient of thermal expansion. This is given as the
ratio of dimension change (e.g., change in volume) to
the original dimension (volume, V) per unit of tempera-
ture (T) change:

Thermal
Most rocks haveexpansion of rocks
a volume-expansion coefficient in
rock type linear-expansion coefficient
(in 10−6 per degree Celsius)
granite and rhyolite 8±3
andesite and diorite 7±2
basalt, gabbro, and 5.4 ± 1
diabase
sandstone 10 ± 2
limestone 8±4
marble 7±2
slate 9±1

31
 7 Rocks 7

Most rocks have a volume-expansion coefficient in

the range of 15–33 × 10 -6 per degree Celsius under ordi-
nary conditions. Quartz-rich rocks have relatively high
values because of the higher volume expansion coefficient
of quartz. Thermal-expansion coefficients increase with
temperature. Linear expansion coefficients may be calcu-
lated using the equation,

where L represents length.

Radioactive Heat Generation

The spontaneous decay (partial disintegration) of the
nuclei of radioactive elements provides decay particles
and energy. The energy, composed of emission kinetic
energy and radiation, is converted to heat; it has been an
important factor in affecting the temperature gradient
and thermal evolution of Earth. Deep-seated elevated
temperatures provide the heat that causes rock to deform
plastically and to move, thus generating to a large extent
the processes of plate tectonics—plate motions, seafloor
spreading, continental drift, and subduction—and most
earthquakes and volcanism.
Some elements, or their isotopes (nuclear spe-
cies with the same atomic number but different mass
numbers), decay with time. These include elements
with an atomic number greater than 83—of which the
most important are uranium-235, uranium-238, and
thorium-232—and a few with a lower atomic number,
such as potassium-40.
The heat generated within rocks depends on the
types and abundances of the radioactive elements and
their host minerals. Such heat production, A, is given in
calories per cubic cm per second, or 1 calorie per gram

32
 7 A World of Rock 7

Some radioactive decay series

element radio- final isotopic half-life
active product abundance (in 109
isotope (%) years)
U-235 Pb-207 0.72 0.7
uranium
U-238 Pb-206 99.28 4.5
thorium Th-232 Pb-208 100.0 14.0
K-40 (89%) Ca-40 0.01 1.4*

potassium
(11%) 11.9*
Argon-40
rubidium Rb-87 Sr-87 27.8 48.8
*half-life for K-40 as a whole is 1.25(109) years.

per year = 4.186 × 107 ergs per gram per year = 1.327 ergs
per gram per second. The rate of radioactive decay, sta-
tistically an exponential process, is given by the half-life,
t1/2. The half-life is the time required for half the origi-
nal radioactive atoms to decay for a particular isotope.

Heat productivities
isotope heat productivity, A (calories
per gram per year)
U-235 4.29
U-238 0.71
natural uranium 0.73
Th-232 0.20
K-40 0.22
natural 27(10−6)
potassium
Rb-87 130(10−6)
natural rubidium 36(10−6)

33
 7 Rocks 7

Heat productivities
abundances
major rock U Th K % heat productivity,
province ppm ppm A (in 10−13 calories
per cubic centime-
tre per second)
oceanic crust 0.42 1.68 0.69 0.71
continental 1.00 4.00 1.63 1.67
shield crust (old)
continental upper 1.32 5.28 2.15 2.20
crust (young)

Heat productivities
of various rocks
abundances
rock type
U ppm Th ppm Rb ppm K %
granite 3.4 50 220 4.45
andesite 1.9 6.4 67 2.35
oceanic basalt 0.5 0.9 9 0.43
peridotite 0.005 0.01 0.063 0.001
average upper-continental 2.5 10.5 110 2.7
crust
average continental crust 1.0 2.5 50 1.25
heat production
from from from total A
rock type U Th K (in 10−6 calories
per gram per
year)
granite 2.52 9.95 1.16 13.63
andesite 1.41 1.27 0.61 3.29
oceanic basalt 0.37 0.18 0.11 0.66

34
 7 A World of Rock 7

heat production
from from from total A
rock type U Th K (in 10−6 calories
per gram per
year)
average upper- 1.85 2.09 0.7 4.64
continental
crust
average conti- 0.74 0.5 0.33 1.56
nental crust
Source: Modified from compilation by William Van Schmus in Robert
S. Carmichael, ed., Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks, vol. III,
CRC Press, Inc. (1984).

The radioactive elements are more concentrated in

the continental upper-crust rocks that are rich in quartz
(i.e., felsic, or less mafic). This results because these rocks
are differentiated by partial melting of the upper-mantle
and oceanic-crust rock. The radioactive elements tend to
be preferentially driven off from these rocks for geochem-
ical reasons.

Continental Drift
The large-scale horizontal movement of continents relative to one
another and to the ocean basins during one or more episodes of geo-
logic time is called continental drift. This concept was an important
precursor to the development of the theory of plate tectonics, which
incorporates it.
The idea of a large-scale displacement of continents has a
long history. Noting the apparent fit of the bulge of eastern South
America into the bight of Africa, the German naturalist Alexander
von Humboldt theorized about 1800 that the lands bordering the
Atlantic Ocean had once been joined. Some 50 years later, Antonio
Snider-Pellegrini, a French scientist, argued that the presence of
identical fossil plants in both North American and European coal
deposits could be explained if the two continents had formerly

35
 7 Rocks 7

been connected, a relationship otherwise difficult to account for.

In 1908 Frank B. Taylor of the United States invoked the notion of
continental collision to explain the formation of some of the world’s
mountain ranges.
The first truly detailed and comprehensive theory of continental
drift was proposed in 1912 by Alfred Wegener, a German meteorolo-
gist. Bringing together a large mass of geologic and paleontological
data, Wegener postulated that throughout most of geologic time there
was only one continent, which he called Pangea. Late in the Triassic
Period (an interval which lasted from approximately 251 million to
199.6 million years ago), Pangea fragmented, and the parts began to
move away from one another. Westward drift of the Americas opened
the Atlantic Ocean, and the Indian block drifted across the Equator
to merge with Asia. In 1937 Alexander L. Du Toit, a South African
geologist, modified Wegener’s hypothesis by suggesting two primor-
dial continents: Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south.
Aside from the congruency of continental shelf margins across
the Atlantic, modern proponents of continental drift have amassed
impressive geologic evidence to support their views. Indications of
widespread glaciation from 380 to 250 million years ago are evident
in Antarctica, southern South America, southern Africa, India, and
Australia. If these continents were once united around the south polar
region, this glaciation would become explicable as a unified sequence of
events in time and space. Also, fitting the Americas with the continents
across the Atlantic brings together similar kinds of rocks, fossils, and
geologic structures. A belt of ancient rocks along the Brazilian coast,
for example, matches one in West Africa. Moreover, the earliest marine
deposits along the Atlantic coastlines of either South America or Africa
are Jurassic in age (approximately 199.6 million to 145.5 million years
old), which suggests that the ocean did not exist before that time.

Electrical Properties
The electrical nature of a material is characterized by its
conductivity (or, inversely, its resistivity) and its dielec-
tric constant, and coefficients that indicate the rates of
change of these with temperature, frequency at which

36
 7 A World of Rock 7

measurement is made, and so on. For rocks with a range of

chemical composition as well as variable physical proper-
ties of porosity and fluid content, the values of electrical
properties can vary widely.
Resistance (R) is defined as being one ohm when a
potential difference (voltage; V) across a specimen of one
volt magnitude produces a current (i) of one ampere; that
is, V = Ri. The electrical resistivity (ρ) is an intrinsic prop-
erty of the material. In other words, it is inherent and not
dependent on sample size or current path. It is related to
resistance by R = ρL/A where L is the length of specimen,
A is the cross-sectional area of specimen, and units of ρ
are ohm-centimetre; 1 ohm-centimetre equals 0.01 ohm-
metre. The conductivity (σ) is equal to 1/ρ ohm -1 · cm-1 (or
termed mhos/cm). In SI units, it is given in mhos/metre,
or siemens/metre.
Materials that are generally considered as “good”
conductors have a resistivity of 10 -5–10 ohm-centimetre
(10 -7–10 -1 ohm-metre) and a conductivity of 10–107 mhos/
metre. Those that are classified as intermediate conduc-
tors have a resistivity of 100–109 ohm-centimetre (1–107
ohm-metre) and a conductivity of 10 -7–1 mhos/metre.
“Poor” conductors, also known as insulators, have a resis-
tivity of 1010–1017 ohm-centimetre (108–1015 ohm-metre)
and a conductivity of 10 -15–10 -8. Seawater is a much better
conductor (i.e., it has lower resistivity) than fresh water
owing to its higher content of dissolved salts; dry rock is
very resistive. In the subsurface, pores are typically filled
to some degree by fluids. The resistivity of materials has a
wide range—copper is, for example, different from quartz
by 22 orders of magnitude.
For high-frequency alternating currents, the electri-
cal response of a rock is governed in part by the dielectric
constant, ε. This is the capacity of the rock to store elec-
tric charge; it is a measure of polarizability in an electric

37
 7 Rocks 7

Typical resistivities
resistivity
material
(ohm-centimetre)
seawater (18 °C) 21
uncontaminated surface water 2(104)
distilled water 0.2–1(106)
water (4 °C) 9(106)
ice 3(108)
Rocks (in situ)
sedimentary
clay, soft shale 100–5(103)
hard shale 7–50(103)
sand 5–40(103)
sandstone (104)–(105)
glacial moraine 1–500(103)
porous limestone 1–30(104)
dense limestone >(106)
rock salt (108)–(109)
igneous 5(104)–(108)
metamorphic 5(104)–5(109)
Rocks (laboratory)
dry granite 1012
Minerals
copper (18 °C) 1.7(10−6)
graphite 5–500(10−4)
pyrrhotite 0.1–0.6
magnetite crystals 0.6–0.8
pyrite ore 1–(105)
magnetite ore (102)–5(105)
chromite ore >106
quartz (18 °C) (1014)–(1016)

38
 7 A World of Rock 7

field. In cgs units, the dielectric constant is 1.0 in a vac-

uum. In SI units, it is given in farads per metre or in terms
of the ratio of specific capacity of the material to specific
capacity of vacuum (which is 8.85 × 10 -12 farads per metre).
The dielectric constant is a function of temperature, and
of frequency, for those frequencies well above 100 hertz
(cycles per second).
Electrical conduction occurs in rocks by (1) fluid
conduction—i.e., electrolytic conduction by ionic transfer
in briny pore water—and (2) metallic and semiconductor
(e.g., some sulfide ores) electron conduction. If the rock
has any porosity and contained fluid, the fluid typically
dominates the conductivity response. The rock conduc-
tivity depends on the conductivity of the fluid (and its
chemical composition), degree of fluid saturation, poros-
ity and permeability, and temperature. If rocks lose water,
as with compaction of clastic sedimentary rocks at depth,
their resistivity typically increases.

Magnetic Properties
The magnetic properties of rocks arise from the magnetic
properties of the constituent mineral grains and crystals.
Typically, only a small fraction of the rock consists of
magnetic minerals. It is this small portion of grains that
determines the magnetic properties and magnetization
of the rock as a whole, with two results: (1) the magnetic
properties of a given rock may vary widely within a given
rock body or structure, depending on chemical inhomo-
geneities, depositional or crystallization conditions, and
what happens to the rock after formation; and (2) rocks
that share the same lithology (type and name) need not
necessarily share the same magnetic characteristics.
Lithologic classifications are usually based on the abun-
dance of dominant silicate minerals, but the magnetization

39
 7 Rocks 7

is determined by the minor fraction of such magnetic

mineral grains as iron oxides. The major rock-forming
magnetic minerals are iron oxides and sulfides.
Although the magnetic properties of rocks sharing
the same classification may vary from rock to rock, gen-
eral magnetic properties do nonetheless usually depend
on rock type and overall composition. The magnetic
properties of a particular rock can be quite well under-
stood provided one has specific information about the
magnetic properties of crystalline materials and miner-
als, as well as about how those properties are affected by
such factors as temperature, pressure, chemical composi-
tion, and the size of the grains. Understanding is further
enhanced by information about how the properties of
typical rocks are dependent on the geologic environ-
ment and how they vary with different conditions.

Applications of the Study of

Rock Magnetization
An understanding of rock magnetization is important
in at least three different areas: prospecting, geology,
and materials science. In magnetic prospecting, one is
interested in mapping the depth, size, type, and inferred
composition of buried rocks. The prospecting, which
may be done from ground surface, ship, or aircraft,
provides an important first step in exploring buried
geologic structures and may, for example, help identify
favourable locations for oil, natural gas, and economic
mineral deposits.
Rock magnetization has traditionally played an
important role in geology. Paleomagnetic work seeks
to determine the remanent magnetization and thereby
ascertain the character of Earth’s field when certain
rocks were formed. The results of such research have
important ramifications in stratigraphic correlation, age

40
 7 A World of Rock 7

Magnetic Survey
A magnetic survey is one of the tools used by the exploration geo-
physicist in his or her search for mineral-bearing ore bodies or even
oil-bearing sedimentary structures. The essential feature is the
measurement of the magnetic-field intensity and sometimes the
magnetic inclination, or dip, and declination (departure from geo-
graphic north) at several stations. If the object of the survey is to
make a rapid reconnaissance of an area, a magnetic-intensity profile
is made only over the target area. If the object of the survey is to
delineate already discovered structures, the geophysicist sets up a
grid over the area and makes measurements at each station on the
grid. The corrected data he records is then entered on a scale draw-
ing of the grid, and contour lines are drawn between points of equal
intensity to give a magnetic map of the target area that may clearly
indicate the size and extent of the anomalous body to the trained eye
of the interpreting geophysicist.

dating, and reconstructing past movements of Earth’s

crust. Indeed, magnetic surveys of the oceanic crust pro-
vided for the first time the quantitative evidence needed
to cogently demonstrate that segments of the crust had
undergone large-scale lateral displacements over geologic
time, thereby corroborating the concepts of continental
drift and seafloor spreading, both of which are funda-
mental to the theory of plate tectonics.
The understanding of magnetization is increasingly
important in materials science as well. The design and
manufacture of efficient memory cores, magnetic tapes,
and permanent magnets increasingly rely on the ability to
create materials having desired magnetic properties.

Basic Types of Magnetization

There are six basic types of magnetization: (1) dia-
magnetism, (2) paramagnetism, (3) ferromagnetism,
(4) antiferromagnetism, (5) ferrimagnetism, and (6)
superparamagnetism.

41
 7 Rocks 7

Diamagnetism arises from the orbiting electrons sur-

rounding each atomic nucleus. When an external magnetic
field is applied, the orbits are shifted in such a way that
the atoms set up their own magnetic field in opposition
to the applied field. In other words, the induced diamag-
netic field opposes the external field. Diamagnetism is
present in all materials, is weak, and exists only in the
presence of an applied field. The propensity of a sub-
stance for being magnetized in an external field is called
its susceptibility (k) and it is defined as J/H, where J
is the magnetization (intensity) per unit volume and H is
the strength of the applied field. Since the induced field
always opposes the applied field, the sign of diamagnetic
susceptibility is negative. The susceptibility of a diamag-
netic substance is on the order of -10 -6 electromagnetic
units per cubic cm (emu/cm3). It is sometimes denoted κ
for susceptibility per unit mass of material.
Paramagnetism results from the electron spin of
unpaired electrons. An electron has a magnetic dipole
moment—which is to say that it behaves like a tiny bar
magnet—and so when a group of electrons is placed in a
magnetic field, the dipole moments tend to line up with
the field. The effect augments the net magnetization in
the direction of the applied field. Like diamagnetism,
paramagnetism is weak and exists only in the presence of
an applied field, but since the effect enhances the applied
field, the sign of the paramagnetic susceptibility is always
positive. The susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is
on the order of 10 -4 to 10 -6 emu/cm3.
Ferromagnetism also exists because of the magnetic
properties of the electron. Unlike paramagnetism, how-
ever, ferromagnetism can occur even if no external field is
applied. The magnetic dipole moments of the atoms spon-
taneously line up with one another because it is energetically
favourable for them to do so. A remanent magnetization can

42
 7 A World of Rock 7

be retained. Complete alignment of the dipole moments

would take place only at a temperature of absolute zero (0
kelvin [K], or -273.15 °C, or -459.67 °F). Above absolute zero,
thermal motions begin to disorder the magnetic moments.
At a temperature called the Curie temperature, which varies
from material to material, the thermally induced disorder
overcomes the alignment, and the ferromagnetic properties
of the substance disappear. The susceptibility of ferromag-
netic materials is large and positive. It is on the order of 10
to 104 emu/cm3. Only a few materials—iron, cobalt, and
nickel—are ferromagnetic in the strict sense of the word
and have a strong residual magnetization. In general usage,
particularly in engineering, the term ferromagnetic is fre-
quently applied to any material that is appreciably magnetic.
Antiferromagnetism occurs when the dipole moments
of the atoms in a material assume an antiparallel arrange-
ment in the absence of an applied field. The result is that
the sample has no net magnetization. The strength of the
susceptibility is comparable to that of paramagnetic mate-
rials. Above a temperature called the Néel temperature,
thermal motions destroy the antiparallel arrangement,
and the material then becomes paramagnetic. Spin-canted
(anti)ferromagnetism is a special condition which occurs
when antiparallel magnetic moments are deflected from
the antiferromagnetic plane, resulting in a weak net mag-
netism. Hematite (α-Fe2O3) is such a material.
Ferrimagnetism is an antiparallel alignment of atomic
dipole moments which does yield an appreciable net
magnetization resulting from unequal moments of the
magnetic sublattices. Remanent magnetization is detect-
able. Above the Curie temperature the substance becomes
paramagnetic. Magnetite (Fe3O4), which is the most mag-
netic common mineral, is a ferrimagnetic substance.
Superparamagnetism occurs in materials hav-
ing grains so small (about 100 angstroms) that any

43
 7 Rocks 7

cooperative alignment of dipole moments is overcome

by thermal energy.

Types of Remanent Magnetization

Rocks and minerals may retain magnetization after the
removal of an externally applied field, thereby becom-
ing permanent weak magnets. This property is known
as remanent magnetization and is manifested in differ-
ent forms, depending on the magnetic properties of the
rocks and minerals and their geologic origin and history.
Delineated below are the kinds of remanent magnetiza-
tion frequently observed.
CRM (chemical, or crystallization, remanent mag-
netization) can be induced after a crystal is formed and
undergoes one of a number of physicochemical changes,
such as oxidation or reduction, a phase change, dehydra-
tion, recrystallization, or precipitation of natural cements.
The induction, which is particularly important in some
(red) sediments and metamorphic rocks, typically takes
place at constant temperature in Earth’s magnetic field.
DRM (depositional, or detrital, remanent magnetiza-
tion) is formed in clastic sediments when fine particles
are deposited on the floor of a body of water. Marine sedi-
ments, lake sediments, and some clays can acquire DRM.
Earth’s magnetic field aligns the grains, yielding a pre-
ferred direction of magnetization.
IRM (isothermal remanent magnetization) results
from the application of a magnetic field at a constant (iso-
thermal) temperature, often room temperature.
NRM (natural remanent magnetization) is the mag-
netization detected in a geologic in situ condition. The
NRM of a substance may, of course, be a combination of
any of the other remanent magnetizations described here.
PRM (pressure remanent, or piezoremanent, mag-
netization) arises when a material undergoes mechanical

44
 7 A World of Rock 7

deformation while in a magnetic field. The process

of deformation may result from hydrostatic pressure,
shock impact (as produced by a meteorite striking Earth’s
surface), or directed tectonic stress. There are magnetiza-
tion changes with stress in the elastic range, but the most
pronounced effects occur with plastic deformation when the
structure of the magnetic minerals is irreversibly changed.
TRM (thermoremanent magnetization) occurs when
a substance is cooled, in the presence of a magnetic field,
from above its Curie temperature to below that tempera-
ture. This form of magnetization is generally the most
important, because it is stable and widespread, occurring
in igneous and sedimentary rocks. TRM also can occur
when dealing exclusively with temperatures below the
Curie temperature. In PTRM (partial thermoremanent
magnetization) a sample is cooled from a temperature
below the Curie point to yet a lower temperature.
VRM (viscous remanent magnetization) results from
thermal agitation. It is acquired slowly over time at low
temperatures and in Earth’s magnetic field. The effect is
weak and unstable but is present in most rocks.

Hysteresis and Magnetic Susceptibility

The concept of hysteresis is fundamental when describ-
ing and comparing the magnetic properties of rocks.
Hysteresis is the variation of magnetization with applied
field and illustrates the ability of a material to retain its
magnetization, even after an applied field is removed.
Magnetic susceptibility is a parameter of consider-
able diagnostic and interpretational use in the study of
rocks. This is true whether an investigation is being con-
ducted in the laboratory or magnetic fields over a terrain
are being studied to deduce the structure and lithologic
character of buried rock bodies. Susceptibility for a rock
type can vary widely, depending on magnetic mineralogy,

45
 7 Rocks 7

grain size and shape, and the relative magnitude of rema-

nent magnetization present, in addition to the induced
magnetization from Earth’s weak field. The latter is given
as Jinduced = kHex, where k is the (true) magnetic suscepti-
bility and Hex is the external (i.e., Earth’s) magnetic field.
If there is an additional remanent magnetization with its
ratio (Qn ) to induced magnetization being given by

then the total magnetization is

General magnetic hysteresis curve, showing magnetization (J) as a function of

the external field (Hex ). Js is the saturation (or “spontaneous”) magnetization;
Jr,sat is the remanent magnetization that remains after a saturating applied
field is removed; Jr is the residual magnetization left by some magnetization
process other than IRM saturation; Hc is the coercive field; and Hc,r is the field
necessary to reduce Jr to zero. Copyright Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.;
rendering for this edition by Rosen Educational Services

46
 7 A World of Rock 7

where kapp, the “apparent” magnetic susceptibility, is

k(1 + Qn ).

Magnetic Minerals and Magnetic

Properties of Rocks
The major rock-forming magnetic minerals are the
following iron oxides: the titanomagnetite series,
xFe2TiO4 · (1 - x)Fe3O4, where Fe3O4 is magnetite, the
most magnetic mineral; the ilmenohematite series,
yFeTiO3 · (1 - y)Fe2O3, where α-Fe2O3 (in its rhombohe-
dral structure) is hematite; maghemite, γ-Fe2O3 (in which
some iron atoms are missing in the hematite structure);
and limonite (hydrous iron oxides). They also include
sulfides—namely, the pyrrhotite series, yFeS · (1 - y)Fe1 - xS.

Approximate “apparent
susceptibilities” for rock types
rock apparent magnetic susceptibility
(electromagnetic units per cubic centimetre)
iron ores over 0.1
basalt 10−2
andesite 10−3
dacite 10−4
metamorphic 10−4
rocks
sedimentary rocks 10−5
Source: From T. Nagata, ed., Rock Magnetism, Maruzen Co., Tokyo (1961).

47
 7 Rocks 7

Measured susceptibilities
for rock types
% of samples with magnetic
susceptibility
rock type (in 10−6 electromagnetic units per cubic centimetre)
less 100– 1,000– greater than
than 100 1,000 4,000 4,000
Basic extrusive 5 29 47 19
(e.g., basalt)
Basic intrusive 24 27 28 21
(e.g., gabbro)
Granite 60 23 16 1
Metamorphic 71 22 7 0
(gneiss, schist,
slate)
Sedimentary 73 19 4 4
Source: After D.H. Lindsley, G.E. Andreasen, and J.R. Balsley,
“Magnetic Properties of Rocks and Minerals” in Handbook of Physical
Constants, S.P. Clark, ed., Memoir 97, Geological Society of America,
1966, and L.B. Slichter, “Magnetic Properties of Rocks” in Handbook of
Physical Constants, F. Birch, ed. (1942).

Typical magnetic
properties of rocks
rock Jn k ratio*
natural magnetic Qn=Jn/k·Hex
remanent susceptibil-
magnetization ity
(10−5 electromag- (10−5 electromag-
netic units per netic units per
cubic centimetre) cubic centimetre)
Igneous
granite 10–80 50–400 0.3–1
diabase 190–400 100–230 2–3.5

48
 7 A World of Rock 7

rock Jn k ratio*
natural magnetic Qn=Jn/k·Hex
remanent susceptibil-
magnetization ity
(10−5 electromag- (10−5 electromag-
netic units per netic units per
cubic centimetre) cubic centimetre)
Igneous
seafloor basalt 500–800 30–60 25–45
(1–6 metres)
typical 10–4,000 5–500 1–40
(average)
Sedimentary
red sediments 0.2–2 0.04–6 2–4
sandstone 1–40
shale 1–50
limestone 0.5–20
typical 0.1–10 0.3–30 0.02–10
(average)
Ores
magnetite ore 300,000–1,000,000 30,000–100,000 ~10–50
hematite ore 10–70
*For external magnetic field (Hex) = 0.5 oersted, the cgs electromag-
netic unit of magnetic field intensity.
Source: After Robert S. Carmichael, ed., Handbook of Physical Properties
of Rocks, vol. II, CRC Press, Inc. (1982).

Rocks may be tested for their apparent magnetic sus-

ceptibility. The calculated values usually include some
remanent as well as induced magnetization. Values are
higher for mafic igneous rocks, especially as the content
of magnetite increases.

49
chapter 2
Igneous Rock

I gneous rocks are crystalline or glassy rocks formed by

the cooling and solidification of molten earth material.
They comprise one of the three principal classes of rocks,
the others being metamorphic and sedimentary. Igneous
rocks are formed from the solidification of magma, which
is a hot (600 to 1,300 °C, or 1,100 to 2,400 °F) molten or
partially molten rock material. Earth is composed pre-
dominantly of a large mass of igneous rock with a very
thin veneer of weathered material—namely, sedimen-
tary rock. Whereas sedimentary rocks are produced by
processes operating mainly at Earth’s surface by the dis-
integration of mostly older igneous rocks, igneous—and
metamorphic—rocks are formed by internal processes
that cannot be directly observed and that necessitate the
use of physical-chemical arguments to deduce their ori-
gins. Because of the high temperatures within Earth, the
principles of chemical equilibrium are applicable to the
study of igneous and metamorphic rocks, with the latter
being restricted to those rocks formed without the direct
involvement of magma.
Magma is thought to be generated within the plastic
asthenosphere (the layer of partially molten rock under-
lying Earth’s crust) at a depth below about 60 km (40
miles). Because magma is less dense than the surround-
ing solid rocks, it rises toward the surface. It may settle
within the crust or erupt at the surface from a volcano as
a lava flow. Rocks formed from the cooling and solidifi-
cation of magma deep within the crust are distinct from
those erupted at the surface mainly owing to the differ-
ences in physical and chemical conditions prevalent in

50
 7 Igneous Rock 7

Towering columns of basalt, an igneous rock, make up the unusual formation

known as the Devils Postpile, part of a national monument in east-central
California. It formed within the last 100,000 years, when a lava flow filled
a valley floor and then very slowly cooled and cracked into many-sided col-
umns. Glaciers later eroded most of the hardened lava, revealing the sides of
the remaining columns. [Link]

51
 7 Rocks 7

the two environments. Within Earth’s deep crust the

temperatures and pressures are much higher than at its
surface; consequently, the hot magma cools slowly and
crystallizes completely, leaving no trace of the liquid
magma. The slow cooling promotes the growth of min-
erals large enough to be identified visually without the
aid of a microscope. On the other hand, magma erupted
at the surface is chilled so quickly that the individual
minerals have little or no chance to grow. As a result,
the rock is either composed of minerals that can be seen
only with the aid of a microscope or contains no min-
erals at all (in the latter case, the rock is composed of
glass, which is a highly viscous liquid). This results in two
groups: (1) plutonic intrusive igneous rocks that solidi-
fied deep within the crust and (2) volcanic, or extrusive,
igneous rocks formed at Earth’s surface. Some intrusive
rocks, known as subvolcanic, were not formed at great
depth but were instead injected near the surface where
lower temperatures result in a more rapid cooling pro-
cess; these tend to be aphanitic and are referred to as
hypabyssal intrusive rocks.
The deep-seated plutonic rocks can be exposed at the
surface for study only after a long period of denudation or
by some tectonic forces that push the crust upward or by
a combination of the two conditions. (Denudation is the
wearing away of the terrestrial surface by processes includ-
ing weathering and erosion.) Generally, the intrusive rocks
have cross-cutting contacts with the country rocks that
they have invaded, and in many cases the country rocks
show evidence of having been baked and thermally meta-
morphosed at these contacts. The exposed intrusive rocks
are found in a variety of sizes, from small veinlike injec-
tions to massive dome-shaped batholiths, which extend
for more than 100 square km (40 square miles) and make
up the cores of the great mountain ranges.

52
 7 Igneous Rock 7

Extrusive rocks occur in two forms: (1) as lava flows

that flood the land surface much like a river and (2) as
fragmented pieces of magma of various sizes (pyroclastic
materials), which often are blown through the atmosphere
and blanket Earth’s surface upon settling. The coarser
pyroclastic materials accumulate around the erupting vol-
cano, but the finest pyroclasts can be found as thin layers
located hundreds of kilometres from the opening. Most
lava flows do not travel far from the volcano, but some
low-viscosity flows that erupted from long fissures have
accumulated in thick (hundreds of metres) sequences,
forming the great plateaus of the world (e.g., the Columbia
River plateau of Washington and Oregon and the Deccan
plateau in India). Both intrusive and extrusive magmas
have played a vital role in the spreading of the ocean basin,
in the formation of the oceanic crust, and in the formation
of the continental margins. Igneous processes have been
active since the onset of Earth’s formation some 4.6 bil-
lion years ago. Their emanations have provided the water
for the oceans, the gases for the primordial oxygen-free
atmosphere, and many valuable mineral deposits.

Composition
Igneous rocks are made up of various chemical and miner-
alogical components. These rocks can be divided into two
groups: felsic (from feldspar and silica) and mafic (from
magnesium and ferrous iron). Silicate minerals make up
the bulk of the chemical ingredients in igneous rocks.

Chemical Components
The great majority of the igneous rocks are composed of
silicate minerals (meaning that the basic building blocks
for the magmas that formed them are made of silicon [Si]

53
 7 Rocks 7

and oxygen [O]), but minor occurrences of carbonate-rich

igneous rocks are found as well. Indeed, in 1960 a sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3) lava with only 0.05 weight percent
silica (SiO2) was erupted from Ol Doinyo Lengai, a vol-
cano in northern Tanzania, Africa. Because of the limited
occurrence of such carbonate-rich igneous rocks, how-
ever, the following discussion will consider the chemistry
of silicate rocks only. The major oxides of the rocks gen-
erally correlate well with their silica content: those rocks
with low silica content are enriched in magnesium oxide
(MgO) and iron oxides (FeO, Fe2O3, and Fe3O4) and are
depleted in soda (Na2O) and potash (K2O); those with a
large amount of silica are depleted in magnesium oxide
and iron oxides but are enriched in soda and potash. Both
calcium oxide (CaO) and alumina (Al2O3) are depleted in
the rocks that have a silica content of less than about 45
weight percent, but, above 45 percent, calcium oxide can
be as high as 10 percent; this amount decreases gradually
as the silica increases. Alumina in rocks that contain more
than 45 percent silica is generally above approximately 14
weight percent, with the greatest abundance occurring
at an intermediate silica content of about 56 weight per-
cent. Because of the importance of silica content, it has
become common practice to use this feature of igneous
rocks as a basis for subdividing them into the following
groups: silicic or felsic (or acid, an old and discredited but
unfortunately entrenched term), rocks having more than
66 percent silica; intermediate, rocks with 55 to 66 percent
silica; and subsilicic, rocks containing less than 55 percent
silica. The latter may be further divided into two groups:
mafic, rocks with 45 to 55 percent silica and ultramafic,
those containing less than 45 percent. The subsilicic rocks,
enriched as they are in iron (Fe) and magnesium (Mg), are
termed femic (from ferrous iron and magnesium), whereas
the silicic rocks are referred to as sialic (from silica and

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 7 Igneous Rock 7

aluminum, with which they are enriched) or salic (from

silica and aluminum). The terms mafic (from magnesium
and ferrous iron) and felsic (feldspar and silica) are used
interchangeably with femic and sialic.
The silica content also reflects the mineral compo-
sition of the rocks. As the magma cools and begins to
crystallize, silica is taken from the magma to be combined
with the other cationic oxides to form the silicate minerals.
For example, one mole of SiO2 is combined with one mole
of MgO to make the magnesium-rich pyroxene, MgSiO3
(enstatite): SiO2 + MgO → MgSiO3. Two moles of SiO2 are
needed to be combined with one mole each of CaO and
Al2O3 to make the calcium-rich plagioclase, CaAl2Si2O8
(anorthite). However, in a case where magma does not have
enough silica relative to the magnesium oxide to produce
the pyroxene, the magma will compensate by making a
magnesium-olivine (forsterite; Mg2SiO4), along with the
pyroxene, since the olivine requires only one-half as much
silica for every mole of magnesium oxide. On the other
hand, a silicic magma may have excess silica such that
some will be left after all the silicate minerals were formed
from the combination of the oxides; the remaining “free”
silica crystallizes as quartz or its polymorphs. The former
case usually occurs in subsilicic rocks that characteristi-
cally will have silicate minerals like magnesium-olivine,
sodium-nepheline (NaAlSiO4, which requires only one
mole of silicon for every mole of sodium [Na]), and leucite
(KAlSi2O6, which requires only two moles of silicon to one
mole of potassium [K]). These three minerals substitute in
part for enstatite, albite (NaAlSi3O8, requiring three moles
of silicon for one mole of sodium), and orthoclase feldspar
(KAlSi3O8, requiring three moles of silicon for one mole of
potassium), respectively. Quartz clearly will not be present
in these rocks. Minerals such as magnesium-olivine, nephe-
line, and leucite are termed undersaturated (with respect to

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 7 Rocks 7

Felsic and Mafic Rocks

Felsic and mafic rocks are igneous rocks categorized on the basis of
their silica content. Chemical analyses of the most abundant com-
ponents in rocks usually are presented as oxides of the elements;
igneous rocks typically consist of approximately 12 major oxides
totaling over 99 percent of the rock. Of the oxides, silica (SiO2) is
usually the most abundant. Because of this abundance and because
most igneous minerals are silicates, silica content was used as a basis
of early classifications; it remains widely accepted today. Within this
scheme, rocks are described as felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultra-
mafic (in order of decreasing silica content).
In a widely accepted silica-content classification scheme,
rocks with more than 65 percent silica are called felsic; those
with between 55 and 65 percent silica are intermediate; those with
between 45 and 55 percent silica are mafic; and those with less than
45 percent are ultramafic. Compilations of many rock analyses show
that rhyolite and granite are felsic, with an average silica content of
about 72 percent; syenite, diorite, and monzonite are intermediate,
with an average silica content of 59 percent; gabbro and basalt are
mafic, with an average silica content of 48 percent; and peridotite
is an ultramafic rock, with an average of 41 percent silica. Although
there are complete gradations between the averages, rocks tend
to cluster about the averages. In general, the gradation from felsic
to mafic corresponds to an increase in colour index (dark-mineral
percentage).
The fine-grained or glassy nature of many volcanic rocks
makes a chemical classification such as the felsic-mafic taxonomy
very useful in distinguishing the different types. Silica content is
especially useful because the density and refractive index of natu-
ral glasses have been correlated with silica percentage; this makes
identification possible in the absence of chemical data. For similar
determinations, glasses can also be prepared in the laboratory from
crystalline rocks.
The influence of silica content on the particular minerals that
crystallize from a rock magma is a complex interaction of several
parameters, and it cannot be assumed that rocks with the same
silica content will have the same mineralogy. Silica saturation is a
classification of minerals and rocks as oversaturated, saturated, or
undersaturated with respect to silica. Felsic rocks are commonly

56
 7 Igneous Rock 7

oversaturated and contain free quartz (SiO2), intermediate rocks con-

tain little or no quartz or feldspathoids (undersaturated minerals), and
mafic rocks may contain abundant feldspathoids. This broad group-
ing on the basis of mineralogy related to silica content is used in many
modern classification schemes.

silica), and the subsilicic rocks that contain them are termed
undersaturated as well. In the case of rocks that have excess
silica, the silicic rocks will have quartz and magnesium-
pyroxene, which are considered saturated minerals, and the
rocks that contain them are termed supersaturated.

Mineralogical Components
The felsic minerals include quartz, tridymite, cristobalite,
feldspars (plagioclase and alkali feldspar), feldspathoids
(nepheline and leucite), muscovite, and corundum.
Because felsic minerals lack iron and magnesium, they are
generally light in colour and consequently are referred to
as such or as leucocratic. The mafic minerals include oliv-
ine, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and biotites, all of which are
dark in colour. Mafic minerals are said to be melanocratic.
These terms can be applied to the rocks, depending on the
relative proportion of each type of mineral present. In this
regard, the term colour index, which refers to the total
percentage of the rock occupied by mafic minerals, is use-
ful. Felsic rocks have a colour index of less than 50, while
mafic rocks have a colour index above 50. Those rocks that
have a colour index above 90 are referred to as ultramafic.
These terms are to be used only for the mineralogical
content of igneous rocks because they do not necessarily
correlate directly with chemical terms. For example, it is
common to find a felsic rock composed almost entirely

57
 7 Rocks 7

of the mineral plagioclase, but in chemical terms, such a

rock is a subsilicic mafic rock. Another example is an igne-
ous rock consisting solely of pyroxene. Mineralogically it
would be termed ultramafic, but chemically it is a mafic
igneous rock with a silica content of about 50 percent.
The influence of supersaturation and undersatura-
tion on the mineralogy of a rock was noted above. During
the crystallization of magmas, supersaturated minerals
will not be formed along with undersaturated minerals.
Supersaturated minerals include quartz and its polymorphs
and a low-calcium orthorhombic pyroxene. These cannot
coexist with any of the feldspathoids (e.g., leucite and neph-
eline) or magnesium-rich olivine. In volcanic rocks that
have been quenched (cooled rapidly) such that only a small
part of the magma has been crystallized, it is possible to find
a forsterite (magnesium-rich olivine) crystal surrounded by
a glass that is saturated or supersaturated. In this case, the
outer rim of the olivine may be corroded or replaced by a
magnesium-rich pyroxene (called a reaction rim). The oliv-
ine was the first to be crystallized, but it was in the process
of reacting with the saturated magma to form the satu-
rated mineral when an eruption halted the reaction. Had
the magma been allowed to crystallize fully, all the forster-
ite would have been transformed into the magnesium-rich
pyroxene and quartz may have been crystallized.
Accessory minerals present in igneous rocks in minor
amounts include monazite, allanite, apatite, garnets,
ilmenite, magnetite, titanite, spinel, and zircon. Glass may
be a major phase in some volcanic rock but, when present,
is usually found in minor amounts. Igneous rocks that were
exposed to weathering and circulating groundwater have
undergone some degree of alteration. Common altera-
tion products are talc or serpentine formed at the expense
of olivine, chlorites replacing pyroxene and amphiboles,
iron oxides replacing any mafic mineral, clay minerals and

58
 7 Igneous Rock 7

epidote formed from the feldspars, and calcite that may be

formed at the expense of any calcium-bearing mineral by
interaction with a carbon dioxide (CO2)-bearing solution.
Glass is commonly altered to clay minerals and zeolite. In
some cases, however, glass has undergone a devitrifica-
tion process (in which it is transformed into a crystalline
material) initiated by reaction of the glass with water or
by subsequent reheating. Common products of devitrifi-
cation include quartz and its polymorphs, alkali feldspar,
plagioclase, pyroxene, zeolite, clays, and chlorite.

Textural Features
The texture of an igneous rock normally is defined by the
size and form of its constituent mineral grains and by the
spatial relationships of individual grains with one another
and with any glass that may be present. Texture can be
described independently of the entire rock mass, and its
geometric characteristics provide valuable insights into
the conditions under which the rock was formed.

Crystallinity
Among the most fundamental properties of igneous rocks
are crystallinity and granularity, two terms that closely

Crystallinity categories
of igneous rocks
crystallinity rock term
entirely crystalline holocrystalline
crystalline material and sub- hemicrystalline or
ordinate glass hypocrystalline
glass and subordinate crystal- hemihyaline or hypohyaline
line material
entirely glassy holohyaline or hyaline

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 7 Rocks 7

Categories of rock grain size

terms in com- general grain pegmatites
mon use size igneous
rocks in general
fine-grained <1 mm <1 in.
medium-grained 1–5 mm 1 in.–4 in.
coarse-grained 5 mm–2 cm 4 in.–12 in.
very >2 cm >12 in.
coarse-grained

reflect differences in magma composition and the differ-

ences between volcanic and various plutonic environments
of formation. Entirely crystallized, or holocrystalline,
rocks in which mineral grains can be recognized with
the unaided eye are called phanerites, and their texture
is called phaneritic. Those with mineral grains so small
that their outlines cannot be resolved without the aid of
a hand lens or microscope are termed aphanites, and their
texture is termed aphanitic. Aphanitic rocks are further
described as either microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline,
according to whether or not their individual constituents
can be resolved under the microscope. The subaphanitic,
or hyaline, rocks are referred to as glassy, or vitric, in terms
of granularity.
Aphanitic and glassy textures represent relatively rapid
cooling of magma and, hence, are found mainly among
the volcanic rocks. Slower cooling, either beneath Earth’s
surface or within very thick masses of lava, promotes the
formation of crystals and, under favourable circumstances
of magma composition and other factors, their growth to
relatively large sizes. The resulting phaneritic rocks are so
widespread and so varied that it is convenient to specify
their grain size.

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Granularity

In general, granularity refers to the size of a rock’s con-

stituent grains or crystals. While size is important, other
factors, such as the fabric (pattern) and the articulation
of these grains, also contribute to the understanding of a
rock’s texture.

Grain Size
The general grain size ordinarily is taken as the average
diameter of dominant grains in the rock; for the pegma-
tites, which are special rocks with extremely large crystals,
it can refer to the maximum exposed dimensions of domi-
nant grains. Most aphanitic rocks are characterized by
mineral grains less than 0.3 mm (0.01 inch) in diameter, and
those in which the average grain size is less than 0.1 mm
(0.004 inch) are commonly described as dense.

Fabric
A major part of rock texture is fabric or pattern, which is a
function of the form and outline of its constituent grains,
their relative sizes, and their mutual relationships in space.
Many specific terms have been employed to shorten the
description of rock fabrics, and even the sampling offered
here may seem alarmingly extensive. It should be noted,
however, that fabric provides some of the most useful clues
to the nature and sequence of magmatic crystallization.
The degree to which mineral grains show external
crystal faces can be described as euhedral or panidiomor-
phic (fully crystal-faced), subhedral or hypidiomorphic
(partly faced), or anhedral or allotriomorphic (no external
crystal faces). Quite apart from the presence or absence
of crystal faces, the shape, or habit, of individual mineral
grains is described by such terms as equant, tabular, platy,

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 7 Rocks 7

elongate, fibrous, rodlike, lathlike, needlelike, and irregu-

lar. A more general contrast can be drawn between grains
of equal (equant) and inequal dimensions. Even-grained,
or equigranular, rocks are characterized by essential min-
erals that all exhibit the same order of grain size, but this
implied equality need not be taken too literally. For such
rocks the combination terms panidiomorphic-granular,
hypidiomorphic-granular, and allotriomorphic-granular
are applied according to the occurrence of euhedral, sub-
hedral, and anhedral mineral grains within them. Many
fine-grained allotriomorphic-granular rocks are more sim-
ply termed sugary, saccharoidal, or aplitic.
Rocks that are unevenly grained, or inequigranular, are
generally characterized either by a seriate fabric, in which
the variation in grain size is gradual and essentially contin-
uous, or by a porphyritic fabric, involving more than one
distinct range of grain sizes. Both of these kinds of texture
are common. The relatively large crystals in a porphy-
ritic rock ordinarily occur as separate entities, known as
phenocrysts, set in a groundmass or matrix of much finer-
grained crystalline material or glass. Quite commonly in
many volcanic rocks, phenocrysts are aggregated. When
this is observed, the term glomeroporphyritic is used to
describe the texture, and the aggregate is referred to as
a glomerocryst. In some cases, such glomerocrysts are
monomineralic, but more commonly they are composed
of two or more minerals. Based on chemical composi-
tion, texture, and other criteria such as isotopic analysis,
it has been demonstrated that some phenocrysts and
glomerocrysts were not crystallized from the host magma
but rather were accidentally torn from the country rock
by the magma as it rose to the surface. When this has
occurred, these phenocrysts are referred to as xenocrysts,
while the aggregates can be termed xenoliths. The size of
phenocrysts is essentially independent of their abundance

62
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relative to the groundmass, and they range in external

form from euhedral to anhedral. Most of them are best
described as subhedral. Because the groundmass con-
stituents span almost the full ranges of crystallinity and
granularity, porphyritic fabric is abundantly represented
among the phaneritic, aphanitic, and glassy rocks.
The sharp break in grain size between phenocrysts
and groundmass reflects a corresponding change in the
conditions that affected the crystallizing magma. Thus,
the phenocrysts of many rocks probably grew slowly at
depth, following which the nourishing magma rose to
Earth’s surface as lava, cooled much more rapidly, and
congealed to form a finer-grained or glassy groundmass.
A porphyritic volcanic rock with a glassy groundmass is
described as having a vitrophyric texture and the rock can
be called a vitrophyre. Other porphyritic rocks may well
reflect less drastic shifts in position and perhaps more
subtle and complex changes in conditions of temperature,
pressure, or crystallization rates. Many phenocrysts could
have developed at the points where they now occur, and
some may represent systems with two fluid phases, magma
and coexisting gas. Appraisals of the composition of phe-
nocrysts, their distribution, and their periods of growth
relative to the accompanying groundmass constituents are
important to an understanding of many igneous processes.

Important Textural Types

The articulation of mineral grains is described in terms
of planar, smoothly curved, sinuous, sutured, interlocked,
or irregular surfaces of mutual boundary. The distribution
and orientation of mineral grains and of mineral grains
and glass are other elements of fabric that can be useful in
estimating the conditions and sequence of mineral forma-
tion in igneous rocks. The following are only a few of the
most important examples:

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 7 Rocks 7

Directive textures are produced by the preferred ori-

entation of platy, tabular, or elongate mineral grains to
yield grossly planar or linear arrangements; they are gener-
ally a result of magmatic flowage.
Graphic texture refers to the regular intergrowth of two
minerals, one of them generally serving as a host and the
other appearing on surfaces of the host as striplike or cunei-
form units with grossly consistent orientation; the graphic
intergrowth of quartz in alkali feldspar is a good example.
Ophitic texture is the association of lath-shaped
euhedral crystals of plagioclase, grouped radially or in
an irregular mesh, with surrounding or interstitial large
anhedral crystals of pyroxene; it is characteristic of the
common rock type known as diabase.
Poikilitic texture describes the occurrence of one
mineral that is irregularly scattered as diversely oriented
crystals within much larger host crystals of another mineral.
Reaction textures occur at the corroded margins of
crystals, from the corrosive rimming of crystals of one
mineral by finer-grained aggregates of another, or as a
result of other features that indicate partial removal of
crystalline material by reaction with magma or other fluid.
Pyroclastic texture results from the explosive frag-
mentation of volcanic material, including magma
(commonly the light, frothy pumice variety and glass
fragments called shards), country rock, and phenocrysts.
Fragments less than 2 mm (0.08 inch) in size are called
ash, and the rock formed of these is called tuff; frag-
ments between 2 and 64 mm are lapilli and the rock is
lapillistone; fragments greater than 64 mm (2.5 inches)
are called bombs if rounded or blocks if angular, and
the corresponding rock is termed agglomerate or pyro-
clastic breccia, respectively. Commonly, many of these
pyroclastic rocks have been formed by dense hot clouds
that hug the ground and behave much like a lava flow

64
 7 Igneous Rock 7

and hence are given the name pyroclastic flow. Most of

these flows are composed of ash-size material; therefore,
they are called ash flows and the rocks deposited by them
are called ash-flow tuffs. A more general term for rocks
deposited by these flows that does not specify size of
fragments is ignimbrite. Ash-flow tuffs and other ignim-
brites often have zones in which the fragments have
been welded. These zones are termed welded tuffs and
display a directive planar texture (called eutaxitic) that
results from compaction and flattening of pumice frag-
ments. Such pyroclastic flows were responsible for many
of the deposits of the eruption of Mount St. Helens in
Washington State, U.S., on May 18, 1980. Most eruptions
eject fragments that are borne by the wind and deposited
subaerially (on the land surface). These deposits are said
to be ash-fall tuffs and are recognized by their lamina-
tion (formation in thin layers that differ in grain size or
composition). They commonly blanket the topography

A volcanic peak in the Cascade Range, Mount St. Helens is situated in south-
western Washington state. Dormant since 1857, it erupted on May 18, 1980,
in one of the most violent volcanic eruptions ever recorded in North America.
Peter Lipman/U.S. Geological Survey

65
 7 Rocks 7

in contrast to the ash-flow deposits, which flow around

topographic highs and which are completely unsorted.
Replacement textures occur where a mineral or min-
eral aggregate has the external crystal form of a preexisting
different mineral (pseudomorphism) or where the juxta-
position of two minerals indicates that one was formed at
the expense of the other.
Finally, crystal zoning describes faintly to very well-
defined geometric arrangements of portions within
individual crystals that differ significantly in composition
(or some other property) from adjacent portions; most
common are successive shells grouped concentrically
about the centres of crystals, presumably reflecting shifts
in conditions during crystal growth.

Structural Features
The structure of an igneous rock is normally taken to
comprise the mutual relationships of mineral or mineral-
glass aggregates that have contrasting textures, along with
layering, fractures, and other larger-scale features that
transect or bound such aggregates. Structure often can be
described only in relation to masses of rock larger than a
hand specimen, and most of its individual expressions can
be closely correlated with physical conditions that existed
when the rock was formed.

Small-Scale Structural Features

Among the most widespread structural features of volca-
nic rocks are the porelike openings left by the escape of gas
from the congealing lava. Such openings are called vesicles,
and the rocks in which they occur are said to be vesicular.
Where the openings lie close together and form a large
part of the containing rock, they impart to it a slaglike,

66
 7 Igneous Rock 7

or scoriaceous, structure. Their relative abundance is even

greater in the type of sialic glassy rock known as pumice,
which is essentially a congealed volcanic froth. Most ves-
icles can be likened to peas or nuts in their ranges of size
and shape; those that were formed when the lava was still
moving tend to be flattened and drawn out in the direction
of flow. Others are cylindrical, pearlike, or more irregular
in shape, depending in part on the manner of escape of the
gas from the cooling lava; most of the elongate ones occur
in subparallel arrangements.
Many vesicles have been partly or completely filled
with quartz, chalcedony, opal, calcite, epidote, zeolites,
or other minerals. These fillings are known as amygdules,
and the rock in which they are present is amygdaloidal.
Some are concentrically layered, others also include cen-
trally disposed series of horizontal layers, and still others
are featured by central cavities into which well-formed
crystals project.
Spherulites are light-coloured subspherical masses
that commonly consist of tiny fibres and plates of alkali
feldspar radiating outward from a centre. Most range from
pinpoint to nut size, but some are as much as several feet
in diameter. The relatively large ones tend to be internally
complex and to contain concentric shells of feldspar fibres
with or without accompanying quartz, tridymite, or glass.
Spherulites occur mainly in glassy volcanic rocks; they also
are present in some partly or wholly crystalline rocks that
include shallow-seated intrusive types. Many evidently
are products of rapid crystallization, perhaps at points
of gas concentration in the freezing magmas. Others, in
contrast, were formed more slowly, by devitrification of
volcanic glasses, presumably not long after they congealed
and while they were still relatively hot.
Lithophysae, also known as stone bubbles, consist
of concentric shells of finely crystalline alkali feldspar

67
 7 Rocks 7

separated by empty spaces; thus, they resemble an onion

or a newly blooming rose. Commonly associated with
spherulites in glassy and partly crystalline volcanic rocks
of salic composition, many lithophysae are about the size
of walnuts. They have been ascribed to short episodes
of rapid crystallization, alternating with periods of gas
escape when the open spaces were developed by thrusting
the feldspathic shells apart or by contraction associated
with cooling. The curving cavities commonly are lined
with tiny crystals of quartz, tridymite, feldspar, topaz, or
other minerals deposited from the gases.
Some glassy rocks of silicic composition are marked
by domains of strongly curved, concentrically disposed
fractures that promote breakage into rounded masses of
pinhead to walnut size. Because their surfaces often have
a pearly or shiny lustre, the name perlite is applied to such
rocks. Perlite is most common in glassy silicic rocks that
have interacted with water to become hydrated. During
the hydration process, water enters the glass, break-
ing the silicon-oxygen bonds and causing an expansion
of the glass structure to form the curved cracks. The
extent of hydration of glass, indicating the amount of
perlite that has been formed from the glass, depends on
the climate and on time. In a given area where the cli-
mate is expected to be consistent, the thickness of the
hydration of the glass surface has been used by archae-
ologists to date artifacts such as arrowheads composed
of the dark volcanic glass known as obsidian and made
by early native Americans.
Numerous structural features of comparably small
scale occur among the intrusive rocks; these include miar-
olitic, orbicular, plumose, and radial structures. Miarolitic
rocks are felsic phanerites distinguished by scattered
pods or layers, ordinarily several centimetres in maxi-
mum thickness, within which their essential minerals are

68
 7 Igneous Rock 7

coarser-grained, subhedral to euhedral, and otherwise

pegmatitic in texture. Many of these small interior bodies,
called miaroles, contain centrally disposed crystal-lined
cavities that are known as druses or miarolitic cavities.
An internal zonal disposition of minerals also is common,
and the most characteristic sequence is alkali feldspar
with graphically intergrown quartz, alkali feldspar, and a
central filling of quartz. Miarolitic structure probably rep-
resents local concentration of gases during very late stages
in consolidation of the host rocks.
The term orbicular is applied to rounded, onionlike
masses with distinct concentric layering that are distrib-
uted in various ways through otherwise normal-appearing
phaneritic rocks of silicic to mafic composition. The lay-
ers within individual masses are typically thin, irregular,
and sharply defined, and each differs from its immediate
neighbours in composition or texture. Some layers contain
tabular or prismatic mineral grains that are oriented radi-
ally with respect to the containing orbicule and, hence,
are analogous to spherulitic layers in volcanic rocks. The
minerals of most orbicules are the same as those of the
enclosing rock, but they are not necessarily present in
the same proportions. The concentric structure appears
to reflect rhythmic crystallization about specific centres,
commonly at early stages in consolidation of the general
rock mass.
The normal fabric of some relatively coarse-grained
plutonic rocks is interrupted by clusters of crystals with
radial grouping but without concentric layering. A char-
acteristic plumelike, spraylike, or rosettelike structure is
imparted by the markedly elongate form of the partici-
pating crystals or crystal aggregates, which seem to have
developed outward from common centres by direct crys-
tallization from magma or by replacement of preexisting
solid material.

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 7 Rocks 7

Large-Scale Structural Features

Many kinds of larger-scale features occur among both the

intrusive and the extrusive rocks. Most of these are men-
tioned later in connection with rock occurrence or are
discussed in other articles, but several are properly intro-
duced here:

Clastic Structures
These are various features that express the accumulation of
fragments or the rupturing and dislocation of solid mate-
rial. In volcanic environments they generally result from
explosive activity or the incorporation of solid fragments
by moving lava; as such, they characterize the pyroclastic
rocks. Among the plutonic rocks, they appear chiefly as
local to very extensive zones of pervasive shearing, dislo-
cation, and granulation, commonly best recognized under
the microscope. Those developed prior to final consolida-
tion of the rock are termed protoclastic; those developed
after final consolidation, cataclastic.

Flow Structures
These are planar or linear features that result from flow-
age of magma with or without contained crystals. Various
forms of faintly to sharply defined layering and lining
typically reflect compositional or textural inhomogene-
ities, and they often are accentuated by concentrations
or preferred orientation of crystals, inclusions, vesicles,
spherulites, and other features.

Fractures
These are straight or curving surfaces of rupture directly
associated with the formation of a rock or later superim-
posed upon it. Primary fractures generally can be related
to emplacement or to subsequent cooling of the host rock

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mass. The columnar jointing found in many mafic volcanic

rocks is a typical result of contraction upon cooling.

Inclusions
These are rounded to angular masses of solid material
enclosed within a rock of recognizably different compo-
sition or texture. Those consisting of older material not
directly related to that of their host are known as xeno-
liths, and those representing broken-up and detached
older parts of the same igneous body that encloses them
are termed cognate xenoliths or autoliths.

Pillow Structures
These are aggregates of ovoid masses, resembling pil-
lows or grain-filled sacks in size and shape, that occur in
many basic volcanic rocks. The masses are separated or
interconnected, and each has a thick vesicular crust or a
thinner and more dense glassy rind. The interiors ordinar-
ily are coarser-grained and less vesicular. Pillow structure
is formed by rapid chilling of highly fluid lava in contact
with water or water-saturated sediments, accompanied by
the development of budlike projections with tough, elas-
tic crusts. As additional lava is fed into each bud, it grows
into a pillow and continues to enlarge until rupture of the
skin permits escape of fresh lava to form a new bud and a
new pillow.

Segregations
These are special types of inclusions that are intimately
related to their host rocks and in general are relatively rich
in one or more of the host-rock minerals. They range from
small pods to extensive layers and from early-stage crystal
accumulations formed by gravitational settling in magma
to very late-stage concentrations of coarse-grained mate-
rial developed in place.

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 7 Rocks 7

Zonal Structures

These are arrangements of rock units with contrasting

composition, or texture, in an igneous body, commonly
in a broadly concentric pattern. Chilled margins, the fine-
grained or glassy edges along the borders of many extrusive
and shallow-seated intrusive bodies, represent quenching
of magma along contacts with cooler country rock. Other
kinds of zones generally reflect fractional crystallization
of magma and are useful in tracing courses of magmatic
differentiation, as will be noted later.
An interesting type of zonal structure is an orbicular
configuration that has alternating light and dark repeating
bands in an oval arrangement found in some diorites and
granodiorites. Pegmatites also often have zonal structures
due to fluctuations in fluid composition. This results in
“pockets” that may contain gems or other unusual minerals.

Classification of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of mineralogy,
chemistry, and texture. As discussed earlier, texture is
used to subdivide igneous rocks into two major groups: (1)
the plutonic rocks, with mineral grain sizes that are vis-
ible to the naked eye, and (2) the volcanic and hypabyssal
types, which are usually too fine-grained or glassy for their
mineral composition to be observed without the use of a
petrographic microscope. Being rather coarsely grained,
phaneritic rocks readily lend themselves to a classification
based on mineralogy since their individual mineral compo-
nents can be discerned, but the volcanic rocks are more
difficult to classify because either their mineral compo-
sition is not visible or the rock has not fully crystallized
owing to fast cooling. As a consequence, various methods
employ chemical composition as the criterion for volcanic

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 7 Igneous Rock 7

igneous rock classification. A commonly used technique

was introduced at the beginning of the 20th century by the
American geologists C. Whitman Cross, Joseph P. Iddings,
Louis V. Pirsson, and Henry S. Washington. In this method,
the mineral composition of the rock is recalculated into a
standard set of typically occurring minerals that theoreti-
cally could have developed from the complete equilibrium
crystallization at low temperatures of a magma of the
indicated bulk composition. The calculated hypothetical
mineral composition is called the norm, and the minerals
constituting the standard set are termed normative miner-
als, since they are ordinarily found in igneous rocks. The
rock under analysis may then be classified according to the
calculated proportions of the normative minerals.
Because other methods for calculating the norm have
been devised, this original norm is referred to as the CIPW
norm after the initials of the four petrologists who devised
the system. The norm calculation allows the petrologist
studying an aphanitic rock to “see” the mineral assemblage
that corresponds well with the actual mineral assemblage
of a plutonic rock of the same composition that had crys-
tallized under equilibrium conditions. Moreover, the
norm has been shown to have a thermodynamic basis.
The concept of silica saturation discussed above is incor-
porated into the norm, which will show whether a magma
of a certain composition is supersaturated, saturated, or
undersaturated by the presence or absence of normative
minerals such as quartz, orthopyroxene, olivine, and the
feldspathoids.

Classification of Plutonic Rocks

A plutonic rock may be classified mineralogically based
on the actual proportion of the various minerals of which
it is composed (called the mode). In any classification

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 7 Rocks 7

scheme, boundaries between classes are set arbitrarily;

however, if the boundaries can be placed closest to natu-
ral divisions or gaps between classes, they will seem less
random and subjective, and the standards will facilitate
universal understanding. In order to set boundaries
nearest to the population lows (of constituent minerals)
and to achieve an international consensus, a poll among
the world’s petrologists was conducted and a modal
classification for plutonic igneous rocks was devised.
Based mainly on this poll, the International Union of
Geological Sciences (IUGS) Subcommission on the
Systematics of Igneous Rocks in 1973 suggested the use
of the modal composition for all plutonic igneous rocks
with a colour index less than 90 and for those plutonic
ultramafic rocks with a colour index greater than 90.
The rock modes of various mineral components can
be plotted on a graph. Each component is represented by
the corners of the equilateral triangle, the length of whose
sides are divided into 100 equal parts. Any composition
plotting at a corner, therefore, has a mode of 100 percent
of the corresponding component. Any point on the sides
of the triangle represents a mode composed of the two
adjacent corner components.
For example, in a comparison of quartz, alkali feld-
spar, and plagioclase, if the colour index is less than 90
and quartz (Q) is present, then the three components,
Q + A (alkali feldspar) + P (plagioclase), are recalculated
from the mode to sum to 100 percent and plotted to a
region on the graph. A rock with 60 percent Q and 40
percent A will plot on the QA side at a location 60 per-
cent of the distance from A to Q. A rock containing all
three components will plot within the triangle. Since the
sides of the triangle are divided into 100 parts, a rock
having a mode of 20 percent Q and 80 percent A + P (in
unknown proportions for the moment) will plot on the

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 7 Igneous Rock 7

Modal classification of plutonic igneous rocks with less than 90 percent mafic
minerals. The names in parentheses are the equivalent volcanic rocks. After
IUGS Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks, “Plutonic Rocks,
Classification and Nomenclature,” Geotimes, 18, no. 10 (1973). Reprinted
with permission from Geotimes. Copyright Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc.; rendering for this edition by Rosen Educational Services

75
 7 Rocks 7

line that parallels the AP side and lies 20 percent of the

distance toward Q from the side AP. If this same rock has
30 percent P and 50 percent A, the rock mode will plot at
the intersection of the 20 percent Q line described above,
with a line paralleling the QA side at a distance 30 percent
toward P from the QA side. The third intersecting line
for the point is necessarily the line paralleling the QP side
at 50 percent of the distance from the side QP toward A.
A rock with 25 percent Q, 35 percent P, and 40 percent
A plots in the granite field, whereas one with 25 percent
Q, 60 percent P, and 15 percent A plots in the granodio-
rite field. The latter is close to the average composition
of Earth’s continental crust. Igneous rocks normally do
not exceed about 50 percent quartz, and the feldspathoi-
dal rocks are relatively rare. The most common plutonic
rocks are those in fields numbered 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, and 15.
These are found in what have been called granite (used
in a loose sense) batholiths, which are irregularly shaped
large bodies covering an area greater than 100 square km
(about 39 square miles). Batholiths constitute the cores of
the great mountain ranges, such as the Rockies in west-
ern North America and the Sierra Nevada in California,
U.S. Typically these batholiths are composites of smaller
intrusions, each of which may display several differ-
ent rock types. The average composition is close to that
of a granodiorite, but in many batholiths the sequence
of intrusions progresses from basic to acidic, with gab-
bro or quartz diorite being emplaced first. In the Sierra
Nevada batholith, the dominant rocks are quartz mon-
zonite and granodiorite, with intrusions including quartz
diorite in the far western rim and granite in the east.
Batholiths contain medium- to coarse-grained rocks with
hypidiomorphic-granular texture. The rocks are generally
leucocratic; diorites and quartz diorites typically contain
less than 30 percent mafic minerals—e.g., hornblende and

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 7 Igneous Rock 7

biotite. Pyroxenes are rare but are more commonly found

in the gabbros. Mineralogically the ratio of hornblende
to biotite, the colour index, the calcium content of the
plagioclase feldspar, and the ratio of plagioclase to alkali
feldspar decrease from diorite to quartz diorite to grano-
diorite and granite. Common accessory minerals include
apatite, titanite, and an opaque mineral such as magnetite
or ilmenite. Ideally it would be preferable to use the same
modal scheme for volcanic rocks.

Granite
Granite is a coarse- or
medium-grained intru-
sive igneous rock that
is rich in quartz and
feldspar; it is the most
common plutonic rock
of Earth’s crust, form-
ing by the cooling of
magma (silicate melt)
at depth.
Because of its use
as paving block and as a
building stone, the quar-
rying of granite was, at
Cut and polished surface of granite (magnified one time, a major indus-
1.5×). Large, slightly pink grains are micro-
trial activity. Except
cline feldspar; white grains are sodium-rich
for tombstones, how-
plagioclase feldspar; smaller smoky grains are
quartz; black spots are biotite and hornblende. ever, for which there is
D.L. Weide a continuing demand,
the present production
of granite is geared to the fluctuating market for curbing in highway
construction and veneer used in the facing of large industrial and
commercial buildings.
Granite may occur in dikes or sills (tabular bodies injected in
fissures and inserted between other rocks), but more characteristi-
cally it forms irregular masses of extremely variable size, ranging
from less than 8 km (5 miles) in maximum dimension to larger masses

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 7 Rocks 7

(batholiths) that are often hundreds or thousands of square kilome-

tres in area.
The principal constituent of granite is feldspar. Both plagioclase
feldspar and alkali feldspar are usually abundant in it, and their rela-
tive abundance has provided the basis for granite classifications. In
most granite, the ratio of the dominant to the subdominant feld-
spar is less than two. This includes most granites from the eastern,
central, and southwestern United States, southwestern England, the
Fennoscandian (Baltic Shield) area, western and central France, Spain,
and many other areas. Granites in which plagioclase greatly exceeds
alkali feldspar are common in large regions of the western United
States and are thought to be characteristic of the great series of batho-
liths stretching from Alaska and British Columbia southward through
Idaho and California into Mexico. Granites with a great excess of
alkali feldspar over plagioclase are known from New England; they
occur in smaller bodies at numerous sites in British Paleogene and
Neogene rocks and in the Oslo region of Norway, but their most
extensive development is in northern Nigeria.
Rocks containing less than 20 percent quartz are almost never
named granite, and rocks containing more than 20 percent (by vol-
ume) of dark, or ferromagnesian, minerals are also seldom called
granite. The minor essential minerals of granite may include musco-
vite, biotite, amphibole, or pyroxene. Biotite may occur in granite
of any type and is usually present, though sometimes in very small
amounts. The sodic-amphiboles and pyroxenes (riebeckite, arfved-
sonite, aegirine) are characteristic of the alkali granites. If neither
feldspar is in great excess, neither amphibole nor pyroxene is likely to
be an essential constituent; the other minerals will then ordinarily be
either biotite or muscovite, or both.
There are two major source regions for producing molten gran-
ite: igneous and sedimentary protoliths (source rocks). These result
in I-type granitoids, derived from igneous protoliths and containing
moderate amounts of Al2O3 and high amounts of Na2O, and S-type
granitoids, derived from sedimentary protoliths and containing high
amounts of Al2O3 and relatively low amounts of Na2O. Amphibole
and pyroxene are more common in I-type granitoids, while S-type
granitoids may have garnet, cordierite, and sillimanite. Both types of
granitoids may also contain biotite and muscovite.

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 7 Igneous Rock 7

Classification of Volcanic
and Hypabyssal Rocks

Owing to the aphanitic texture of volcanic and hypabyssal

rocks, their modes cannot be readily determined; conse-
quently, a chemical classification is widely accepted and
employed by most petrologists. One popular scheme is
based on the use of both chemical components and nor-
mative mineralogy. Because most lay people have little
access to analytic facilities that yield igneous rock com-
positions, only an outline will be presented here in order
to provide an appreciation for the classification scheme.
The first major division is based on the alkali (soda
+ potash) and silica contents, which yield two groups,
the subalkaline and alkaline rocks. The subalkaline
rocks have two divisions based mainly on the iron con-
tent, with the iron-rich group called the tholeiitic series
and the iron-poor group called calc-alkalic. The for-
mer group is most commonly found along the oceanic
ridges and on the ocean floor; the latter group is char-
acteristic of the volcanic regions of the continental
margins (convergent, or destructive, plate boundaries;
see below Forms of occurrence: Distribution of igne-
ous rocks on Earth’s surface). In some magmatic arcs
(groups of islands arranged in a curved pattern), notably
Japan, both the tholeiitic and calc-alkalic series occur.
This is the case, for example, in the volcanoes of north-
eastern Honshu, the largest of Japan’s four main islands,
and both series may be found within the same volcano.
The alkaline rocks frequently occur on oceanic islands
(usually formed during the late stages of magma consoli-
dation after tholeiitic eruptions) and in continental rifts
(extensive fractures). Based on the relative proportions
of soda and potash, the calc-alkalic series is subdivided
into the sodic and potassic series.

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 7 Rocks 7

Chemically the subalkaline rocks are saturated with

respect to silica; consequently, they have normative min-
erals such as orthopyroxene [Mg(Fe)2Si2O6] and quartz
but lack nepheline and olivine (in the presence of quartz).
This chemical property also is reflected in the mode of
the basic members that have two pyroxenes, orthopy-
roxene and augite [Ca(Mg, Fe)Si2O6], and perhaps quartz.
Plagioclase is common in phenocrysts, but it can also
occur in holocrystalline rocks in the microcrystalline
matrix along with the pyroxenes and an iron–titanium
oxide phase. In addition to the differences in iron content
between the tholeiitic and calc-alkalic series, the latter has
a higher alumina content (16 to 20 percent), and the range
in silica content is larger (48 to 75 percent compared to
45 to 63 percent for the former). Hornblende and biotite
phenocrysts are common in the calc-alkalic andesites and
dacites but are lacking in the tholeiites except as alteration
products. The dacites and rhyolites commonly have phe-
nocrysts of plagioclase, alkali feldspar (usually sanidine),
and quartz in a glassy matrix. Hornblende and plagioclase
phenocrysts are more widespread in dacites than in rhyo-
lites, which have more biotite and alkali feldspar. When
occurring near volcanic vents, (openings from which vol-
canic materials are brought to Earth’s surface), basalts and
andesites of both series are found as tuffs or agglomer-
ates; otherwise, they typically occur as flows. Dacite and
rhyolite occur as flows near vents but are most commonly
found as tuffs composed of fragmented pieces of glass,
phenocrysts, and rock.
The alkaline rocks typically are chemically undersatu-
rated with respect to silica; hence they lack normative
orthopyroxene (i.e., they have only one pyroxene, the
calcium-rich augite) and quartz but have normative neph-
eline. Microscopic examination of the alkali olivine basalts
usually reveals phenocrysts with an abundance of olivine,

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 7 Igneous Rock 7

Alkaline Rock
Various rocks in which the chemical content of the alkalies (potas-
sium oxide and sodium oxide) is great enough for alkaline minerals
to form are called alkaline rocks. Such minerals may be unusually
sodium rich, with a relatively high ratio of alkalies to silica (SiO2 ),
as in the feldspathoids. Other alkaline minerals have a high ratio
of alkalies to alumina (Al2O3 ), as in aegirine pyroxene and the sodic
amphibole riebeckite.
English-speaking petrologists have followed Alfred Harker,
who divided igneous rocks of Cenozoic age (that is, those laid down
between about 65.5 million years ago and the present day) into calc-
alkaline and alkaline suites. Alkaline rocks include many with unusual
names, but the more common alkali-basalt, syenite, and phonolite
are included in the group. The most common and widely distributed
rocks of the world—e.g., granite, granodiorite, andesite, and basalt—
do not contain the alkaline minerals. Alkaline rocks are generally
considered to be abnormal types, and there have been many intensive
studies of their origin, yielding a number of theories, each of which
may be valid for a specific case.

one pyroxene (augite, which is usually titanium-rich), and

plagioclase. Nepheline may be seen in the matrix. Trachytes
typically are leucocratic with an abundance of feldspars
aligned roughly parallel to the direction of the lava flow.

Origin and Distribution

Magmas are chemically complex fluid systems. The vis-
cosity of a magma greatly affects how they flow, as well as
the behaviour of the crystals and other materials within
magmas and the explosivity of the volcanic eruptions
that release them. Magma solidifies as its temperature
declines, but the chemical reactions that cause crystalliza-
tion can proceed along different chemical pathways. The
viscosity of magmas and various aspects of the crystalliza-
tion process are also affected by the presence of water and
other volatile substances.

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 7 Rocks 7

Origin of Magmas
Basaltic magmas that form Earth’s oceanic crust are
generated in the asthenosphere at a depth of about 70
km (43 miles). The mantle rocks located at depths from
about 70 to 200 km (43 to 124 miles) are believed to exist
at temperatures slightly above their melting point, and
possibly 1 or 2 percent of the rocks occur in the molten
state. As a result, the asthenosphere behaves plastically,
and upon penetrating this zone seismic waves experience
a slight drop in velocity; this shell came to be known as
the low velocity zone. Only after the acceptance of the
plate tectonic theory has this zone become known as the
asthenosphere. The most common mantle rock within
the asthenosphere is peridotite, which is composed pre-
dominantly of magnesium-rich olivine, along with lesser
amounts of chromium diopside and enstatite and an even
smaller quantity of garnet. Peridotite may undergo partial
melting to produce magmas with different compositions.

A proposed temperature distribution within the Earth. Copyright

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; rendering for this edition by Rosen
Educational Services

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 7 Igneous Rock 7

Theories on the generation of basaltic magma mainly

attribute its origin to the derivation of heat from within
peridotite rather than by some outside source such as the
radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium,
which are only of minor consequence. Because of the dif-
ference in composition between basalt and peridotite,
only a small amount of heat is needed to produce about 3
to at most 25 percent melt.
Granitic, or rhyolitic, magmas and andesitic magmas
are generated at convergent plate boundaries where the
oceanic lithosphere (the outer layer of Earth composed of
the crust and upper mantle) is subducted so that its edge
is positioned below the edge of the continental plate or
another oceanic plate. Heat will be added to the subduct-
ing lithosphere as it moves slowly into the hotter depths
of the mantle. The andesitic magma is believed to be gen-
erated in the wedge of mantle rock below the crust and

Collision of a continental plate with an oceanic plate. Copyright

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; rendering for this edition by Rosen
Educational Services

83
 7 Rocks 7

above the subducted plate or within the subducted plate

itself. The former requires the partial melting of a “wet”
peridotite. Experiments conducted at pressures simulat-
ing mantle conditions have demonstrated that peridotite
will produce andesitic melts during partial melting under
hydrous conditions. The latter theory suggests that the
subducted basaltic crust is partially melted and may
be combined with some subducted oceanic sediments
to form andesites. A third theory involves the mix-
ing of basaltic magma that was generated in the mantle
with granitic or rhyolitic magma or with crustal rocks.
The silicic magmas can be formed by a combination
of two processes; the presence of water under pressure
lowers the melting temperature by as much as 200 °C
(392 °F) and thereby expedites magma generation. At a
convergent plate boundary, the lower continental crust is
heated to a temperature near its melting point by being
pushed downward into hotter regions of the mantle.
Basaltic or andesitic magma generated below the crust
may accumulate near the Moho, which is a discontinu-
ity that separates Earth’s crust from its mantle. As the
magma cools, it crystallizes and releases its latent heat
of crystallization. This evolved heat is transferred to the
lower crustal rocks along with the simple heat released
by cooling. If the lower crustal rocks contain some water,
their melting temperatures would be lowered and the
heating provided by the above processes would possibly
be sufficient to partially melt the crustal rocks producing
rhyolitic magma.

Nature of Magmas
Magmas can be thought of as mutual solutions, or melts,
of rock-forming components that are variously present
as simple ions, as complex ions and ionic groups, and as

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molecules. The most abundant of the simple ions in com-

mon magmas are such singly and doubly charged cations
as Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, and Fe2+. Because these ions can
move about rather freely in the system, they occupy no
fixed positions with respect to other ions that are present.
In contrast, the smaller and more highly charged cations,
notably Si4+, Al3+, and (to a lesser degree) Fe3+, are sur-
rounded or screened by O2− ions and other anions (negative
ions) to form parts of relatively stable complex ions such
as (SiO4)4−, (AlO4)5−, and (FeO6 )9−. Simple anions, includ-
ing F−, Cl−, O2−, and (OH)−, ordinarily are present in much
smaller amounts. Water, hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydro-
gen fluoride (HF), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), and other volatile
molecular substances occur as well, generally in equilib-
rium with ionic forms such as (OH)−, Cl−, F−, and (CO3)2−.
Because the bond that unites silicon and oxygen is a
remarkably strong one, (SiO4)4− ions are stable in magmas
even at exceedingly high temperatures. They also tend to
join with one another, or polymerize, to form more com-
plex anionic groups, a tendency that is especially great in
the more silicic magmas. The joining is accomplished by
a sharing of oxygen ions between adjacent silicon ions to
form Si-O-Si bridges like those in many silicate and alumi-
nosilicate minerals; in the simplest such case, (Si2O7)6− ions
are the result. Because the (AlO4)5− ions also have a strong
tendency to polymerize, most of the large ionic groups
in magmas probably contain both silicon and aluminum
ions. These groups, which resemble the frameworks of
many rock-forming minerals but are geometrically less
regular, significantly affect the viscosity and crystalliza-
tion of magmas.
The viscosity of magmas, which spans an enormous
range of values, affects their flow behaviour, the move-
ments of crystals and inclusions of foreign matter within
them, the diffusion of materials through them, the growth

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of crystals from them, and the explosivity of eruptions

(when aided by growth of gas bubbles near the surface).
Lava flows are thin and rapid for low-viscosity magmas,
but thick and slow for viscous flows. Fluid magma pro-
motes the growth of large crystals such as the ones found
in pegmatites, but crystal growth is prevented in viscous
magmas, which usually are quenched as glass. Highly
explosive eruptions such as occurred at Mount St. Helens
commonly result from gas bubbles nucleating, growing,
and rising in a highly viscous magma. It can be demon-
strated thermodynamically that the overpressure (excess
rock pressure) developed in growing and rising bubbles is
inversely proportional to their radii. In fluid magmas, gas
bubbles grow large in size and rise quickly, which causes
their pressures to be expended; hence, only a spectacular
fountaining of hot lava is observed at the surface. In con-
trast, a viscous magma prevents the growth of bubbles, so
that they will rise slowly while retaining excess pressure; as
a result, the associated volcano erupts violently. Energies
equivalent to the amount produced by several nuclear
bombs are released in such explosions. Viscosity increases
greatly with decreasing temperature and less markedly
with increasing pressure. It also can be governed in part by
the amount and distribution of any solid materials or bub-
bles of gas present, which both tend to increase viscosity.
Finally, it varies considerably among magmas of differing
gross composition, mainly because of the differences in
the degree of Si-O and Al-O polymerization. Thus, highly
silicic magmas generally are more viscous than mafic ones
by several orders of magnitude, a difference reflected by
contrasts in the eruptive behaviour of rhyolitic and basal-
tic lavas. Basaltic magmas at 1,100 °C (about 2,000 °F) can
be at least 100,000 times more viscous than water at room
temperature, whereas rhyolitic magmas at 800 °C (about
1,475 °F) are at least 10 million times more viscous than

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 7 Igneous Rock 7

room-temperature water. The presence of volatile constit-

uents can markedly increase the fluidity of magmas, even
those that are rich in SiO2. This effect has been attributed
to the breaking of Si-O-Si bridges through substitution of
ions such as F− and (OH)− for shared O2− ions in elements of
the polymerized groups.
A typical magma can be broadly viewed as an assem-
blage of relatively large and rather closely packed oxygen
ions, among which some cations have considerable mobil-
ity; others, such as Si4+ and Al3+, tend to occupy positions
that are more fixed. The entire system is a dynamic one,
however, and even the largest of the Si-O and Al-O ion
groups are constantly changing form and position as
bonds are broken and new ones are established. If the
magma quickly loses thermal energy and cools to a glass,
these internal movements are sharply restricted, and the
various constituents become essentially frozen in posi-
tion. If cooling is slower, the contained complex ions and
polymerized ion groups have time to assume more regular
arrangements and to be stabilized by cations of appropri-
ate size, charge, and other properties. Crystalline solids
are thereby formed. Their regular internal structure is
relatively conserving of space, and so they have somewhat
higher specific gravities than the magma from which they
were nourished.

Crystallization from Magmas

The crystallization of magmas may occur discontinuously
at fixed temperatures at constant pressures, or they may
occur continuously when temperatures or pressures change.
One example of a discontinuous reaction (the olivine-
liquid-pyroxene reaction) is the forsterite-cristobalite
system, whereas one example of a continuous reaction
(the plagioclase-liquid reaction) is the albite-anorthite

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 7 Rocks 7

system. The progress of both reactions and their ultimate

convergence with one another can be plotted together in
a Y-shaped graph called Bowen’s reaction series. Daughter
magmas may also occur as a result of reactions between
the parent magma and the wall rocks that surround it.

The Forsterite-Cristobalite System

Because magmas are multicomponent solutions, they
do not crystallize at a single temperature at a given pres-
sure like water at 0 °C (32 °F) and 1 standard atmosphere
of pressure. Rather, they crystallize over a wide range of
temperatures beginning at liquidus temperatures (that
is, the line on a phase diagram depicting the equilibrium
between liquid, solid, and gaseous phases in a mixture) for
basaltic magmas as high as 1,150 °C (about 2,100 °F) and
ending as a complete solid at a low solidus temperature of
about 800 °C (about 1,475 °F). (The solidus temperature
corresponds to a line on a phase diagram showing where
the complete crystallization of a given substance occurs.)
During their crystallization at constant pressure, com-
mon minerals that make up basaltic magma (e.g., olivine)
become unstable at some temperature and react with the
liquid to form a more stable phase. In the case of olivine,
this phase is pyroxene. This reaction relationship is best
illustrated with the use of a phase diagram of a portion
of the olivine Mg2SiO4 (forsterite) + SiO2 (cristobalite, a
high-temperature form of quartz) binary system at one
atmosphere.
Consider a mixture X of two minerals in the propor-
tions 28 percent cristobalite and 72 percent forsterite. At a
temperature of 1,601 °C (2,914 °F), this mixture is entirely
liquid. At temperatures below 1,557 °C (2,835 °F), forsterite
(Fo) and enstatite (En) are stable, but between 1,557 and
1,600 °C, forsterite and the liquid whose composition
is represented by L are in equilibrium. At a temperature

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of 1,570 °C (2,858 °F), there is about 7 percent forsterite

and 93 percent liquid. As the liquid X cools, it intersects
the liquidus freezing curve at a temperature of 1,600 °C,
where forsterite begins to crystallize. As the temperature
drops further, the liquid follows the liquidus down toward
R, the peritectic point (incongruent melting point in a
binary system), while it continually crystallizes more for-
sterite. It should be noted that the liquid composition is
becoming enriched in silica, until at R, it has more silica
than enstatite. At this point the forsterite reacts with the
liquid to yield two moles of MgSiO3 (enstatite) for every
mole of Mg2SiO4 that combines with one mole of SiO2
removed from the liquid R. This can be written as a chem-
ical equation: Mg2SiO4 + SiO2 ⇌ 2MgSiO3. Because SiO2
is removed from the liquid R, a proportionate amount of
enstatite must be crystallized from the liquid to keep its
composition at point R. In the case of the starting com-
position X, which is depleted in SiO2 relative to enstatite,
the peritectic liquid, R, will be consumed by the reaction
prior to the forsterite, and the resultant mixture will con-
sist of forsterite and enstatite. However, in the case in
which the starting composition is Y, which is enriched in
silica relative to enstatite, the forsterite will be depleted
before the liquid, and the reaction will yield the liquid and
enstatite. Only in the case where the starting composition
matches that of enstatite will the liquid and the forster-
ite be consumed at the same time, leaving only enstatite.
The starting composition X represents the most common
crystallization behaviour for saturated tholeiitic basaltic
magmas; consequently, these magmas will experience a
reaction between the liquid and the olivine, forsterite, at
some point during their crystallization. This means that
the liquid will be consumed by the reaction with forsterite
and crystallization will cease. If, however, forsterite can
be removed physically from the liquid before the reaction

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can occur, the reaction will be prevented and the peritec-

tic liquid will remain to crystallize the pyroxene, enstatite,
and move down toward the eutectic temperature where
cristobalite and enstatite will crystallize.

The Albite-Anorthite System

Most of the common minerals found in igneous rocks
are solid-solution phases. These include olivine, pyrox-
ene, amphibole, biotite, and plagioclase feldspars.
Crystallization behaviour is illustrated best by using the
NaAlSi3O8 (albite or Ab)–CaAl2Si2O8 (anorthite or An)
plagioclase system.
Consider a liquid of composition L (60 percent An
+ 40 percent Ab) which is at an initial temperature of

Phase diagram of the albite (Ab)–anorthite (An) system at one atmo-

sphere of pressure. After N. Bowen, “Melting Phenomena of the Plagioclase
Feldspars,” American Journal of Science, vol. 34 (1913). Copyright
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; rendering for this edition by Rosen
Educational Services

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 7 Igneous Rock 7

1,500 °C (about 2,730 °F). On cooling it will begin crys-

tallizing plagioclase with 85 percent An at the liquidus
temperature of about 1,470 °C (about 2,680 °F). As
cooling continues further, the liquid will move down
the liquidus while simultaneously reacting continu-
ously with the early-formed plagioclase to convert it to
a homogeneous plagioclase that is more albitic and in
equilibrium with the liquid. For example, at 1,400 °C
(about 2,550 °F), about 65 percent plagioclase with about
73 percent An has crystallized from the liquid, which is
now at about 36 percent An and 64 percent Ab. Finally,
when the temperature of about 1,330 °C (about 2,425 °F)
is reached, the last small amount of the liquid of compo-
sition 20 percent An + 80 percent Ab is consumed in the
reaction and a homogeneous plagioclase of 60 percent
An + 40 percent Ab remains.
Now consider the case in which the liquid is prevented
from reacting with the early-formed plagioclase. This may
be achieved by physically removing the plagioclase imme-
diately after its formation or by cooling the liquid faster
than the reaction process can consume the plagioclase.
The liquid could theoretically reach the pure Ab composi-
tion at 1,100 °C (about 2,000 °F), where it will disappear
into the crystallizing albite. A whole range of plagioclase
compositions from An84 to An00 will be preserved in the
cooling process.

Bowen’s Reaction Series

These two examples illustrate two principal reactions that
occur during crystallization of common magmas, one dis-
continuous (the olivine-liquid-pyroxene reaction) and the
other continuous (the plagioclase-liquid reaction). This
was recognized first by the American petrologist Norman
L. Bowen; in his honour, the mineral series has since been
called the Bowen’s reaction series.

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A Y-shaped diagram can be constructed linking the

two principal reactions. The left branch of the Y-shaped
arrangement consists of the discontinuous series that
begins with olivine at the highest temperature and pro-
gresses through pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite as
the temperature decreases. This series is discontinuous
because the reaction occurs at a fixed temperature at
constant pressure wherein the early-formed mineral is
converted to a more stable crystal. Each mineral in the
series displays a different silicate structure that exhib-
its increased polymerization as the temperature drops;
olivine belongs to the island silicate structure type;
pyroxene, the chain; amphibole, the double chain; and
biotite, the sheet. On the other hand, the right branch
is the continuous reaction series in which plagioclase is
continuously reacting with the liquid to form a more
albitic phase as the temperature decreases. In both cases,
the liquid is consumed in the reaction. When the two
reaction series converge at a low temperature, minerals
that will not react with the remaining liquid approach
eutectic crystallization. Potash feldspar, muscovite, and
quartz are crystallized. The phases that are crystallized
first are the common minerals that compose basalt or
gabbro, like bytownite or labradorite with pyroxene and
minor amounts of olivine. Andesite or diorite minerals,
such as andesine with either pyroxene or amphibole,
crystallize next and are followed by orthoclase and
quartz, which are the essential constituents of rhyo-
lite or granite. A basaltic liquid at the top of the Y can
descend to the bottom of the series to crystallize quartz
only if the earlier reactions are prevented. As demon-
strated above, complete reactions between early-formed
minerals and the liquid depletes the supply of the liquid,
thereby curtailing the progression down the series. One

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 7 Igneous Rock 7

Bowen’s reaction series showing the sequence of minerals that would be

formed and removed during fractional crystallization of a melt. The mag-
mas relating to the crystallizing minerals are shown on the left. Copyright
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; rendering for this edition by Rosen
Educational Services

means by which basaltic magma can be transformed to

rocks lower in the series is by fractional crystallization.
In this process, the early-formed minerals are removed
from the liquid by gravity (such minerals as olivine and
pyroxene are denser than the liquid from which they
crystallized), and so unreacted liquid remains later in
the series.

Assimilation
Another method of creating different daughter magmas
from a parent is by having the latter react with its wall
rocks. Consider a magma that is crystallizing pyroxene
and labradorite. If the magma tears from its wall minerals,
say, olivine and anorthite, which are formed earlier than
pyroxene and labradorite in the series, they will react with

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the liquid to form these same minerals with which the

magma is in equilibrium. The heat for driving this reaction
comes directly from the magma itself. More pyroxene and
labradorite will crystallize during the reaction and will
release their latent heats of crystallization. On the other
hand, if a mineral (quartz, for example) formed at a later
stage than pyroxene or labradorite falls from the rock
wall into the magma, the latent heat provided by further
crystallization of pyroxene and labradorite will cause it to
dissolve. This situation will occur only if the quartz from
the wall rock is at a lower temperature than the magma. It
will cause the magma to transfer its heat to the quartz in a
cooling process. The cooling of the magma will necessar-
ily be accompanied by the crystallization of the minerals
already present. In both cases, the composition of the
parent magma will be changed by the xenolithic (foreign
rock) contamination. The contaminant need not belong to
the reaction series in order for it to cause reactions or dis-
solution. In most cases, the end result will be a shift from
the original composition of the parent magma toward
that of the contaminant. This process in which wall rocks
are incorporated into the magma is called assimilation.
Because assimilation is accompanied by crystallization,
it is likely that both fractional crystallization and assim-
ilation will take place simultaneously. This combined
process, referred to as AFC for assimilation–fractional
crystallization, has been proposed as the mechanism by
which andesites are produced from basalts.

Volatile Constituents and

Late Magmatic Processes
Water and most other volatile substances profoundly
influence the properties and behaviour of magmas in

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which they are dissolved. They reduce viscosity, lower

temperatures of crystallization by tens to hundreds of
degrees, and participate directly in the formation of min-
erals that contain essential hydroxyl (OH) or elements
such as the halogens. They also increase rates of crystal-
lization and reaction, especially when they are present as
a fluid phase distinct from the magma. In general, how-
ever, they have only a limited influence on the sequence of
magmatic crystallization, except in the latest stages of the
reaction series.
The relatively low confining pressures in volca-
nic environments permit ready escape of volatile
constituents, which nonetheless leave their imprint in
the form of special mineral assemblages and a variety
of textural and structural features among the volcanic
rocks. Under the higher pressures of plutonic environ-
ments, these constituents tend to be maintained in
magmatic solution and to be increasingly concentrated
as crystallization progresses with falling temperature.
Few members of the reaction series require them as
compositional contributors; water, for example, is not
thus used until amphiboles or micas begin to form,
and even then the amounts removed from the melt
rarely are large. Escape of volatiles from the system can
occur “osmotically” if the enclosing rocks are pervious
to them but not to the magma, but in general they are
fractionated in favour of the residual melt until their
concentration reaches the limit of solubility under the
prevailing conditions of temperature and effective con-
fining pressure. When this happens, normally at a very
late stage of magmatic crystallization, they are exsolved
from the melt as a separate fluid phase that under
most circumstances is a supercritical gas. This process
has been referred to as resurgent boiling, a somewhat

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misleading term because the exsolved fluid is not neces-

sarily expelled from the system.
Coexistence of residual magma and a volatile-rich
fluid (generally aqueous) promotes the partitioning and
segregation of constituents, as well as the growth of very
large crystals. The exsolved fluid, with its very low vis-
cosity, not only can move readily through open spaces
in the nearly solid igneous rock and in adjacent rocks
but also serves as a medium through which various sub-
stances can diffuse rapidly in response to concentration
gradients. Thus, it plays an important role in the forma-
tion of such special rock types as the pegmatites and
lamprophyres, special features such as miaroles and plu-
mose mineral aggregates, and many kinds of ore deposits
whose constituents are derived from the original magma.
Most plutonic systems remain at elevated tempera-
tures for long periods of time after all magma has been
used up, and during these periods hydrothermal condi-
tions normally obtain. These depend upon the continued
presence of a typically aqueous fluid that further facili-
tates crystallization and exchanges of materials. It speeds
up exsolution within homogeneous solid phases and
devitrification of any glass that may be present, and it is a
potent agent in the alteration, leaching, and replacement
of minerals. Rock textures thereby are modified, espe-
cially along boundaries between original mineral grains,
and details of composition also can be much changed. In
some instances the bulk chemistry of the rock is mark-
edly affected.
The hydrothermal alterations favour development of
phases such as albite, carbonates, chlorites, clay miner-
als, epidotes, iron oxides, micas, silica minerals, talc, and
zeolites, and many of them are accompanied by gross
changes in volume.

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Forms of Occurrence
Igneous rocks can be divided into two categories: extru-
sive igneous rocks and intrusive igneous rocks. Extrusive
rocks are the products of magma that has cooled and
hardened on Earth’s surface, whereas intrusive igneous
rocks result from the crystallization of magma within
Earth itself. On Earth’s surface, igneous rocks tend to be
concentrated near the boundaries of tectonic plates and in
regions characterized by flood basalts.

Extrusive Igneous Rocks

Extrusive igneous rocks are the products of volcanic activ-
ity. They appear at the surface as molten lava that spreads
in sheets and hardens, or they are made up of fragments of
magma ejected from vents by violent gaseous explosions.
Large-scale extrusive features include stratovolcanoes
(composite cones), shield volcanoes, lava domes, and cin-
der cones. Smaller extrusive features include lava flows
known as pahoehoe and aa.

Obsidian
Obsidian is a natural glass of volcanic origin that is formed by the
rapid cooling of viscous lava. Obsidian is extremely rich in silica
(about 65 to 80 percent), is low in water, and has a chemical compo-
sition similar to rhyolite. Obsidian has a glassy lustre and is slightly
harder than window glass. Though obsidian is typically jet-black
in colour, the presence of hematite (iron oxide) produces red and
brown varieties, and the inclusion of tiny gas bubbles may create
a golden sheen. Other types with dark bands or mottling in gray,
green, or yellow are also known.
Obsidian generally contains less than 1 percent water by
weight. Under high pressure at depth, rhyolitic lavas may contain
up to 10 percent water, which helps to keep them fluid even at a

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low temperature.
Eruption to the
surface, where pres-
sure is low, permits
rapid escape of this
volatile water and
increases the vis-
cosity of the melt.
Increased viscosity
impedes crystalliza-
tion, and the lava
solidifies as a glass.
Different
The natural glass obsidian, an extrusive igneous obsidians are com-
rock, is formed by cooling lava. [Link] posed of a variety
of crystalline mate-
rials. Their abundant, closely spaced crystallites (microscopic
embryonic crystal growths) are so numerous that the glass is opaque
except on thin edges. Many samples of obsidian contain spherical
clusters of radially arranged, needlelike crystals called spherulites.
Microlites (tiny polarizing crystals) of feldspar and phenocrysts
(large, well-formed crystals) of quartz may also be present.
Most obsidian is associated with volcanic rocks and forms
the upper portion of rhyolitic lava flows. It occurs less abundantly
as thin edges of dikes and sills. The obsidians of Mount Hekla in
Iceland, the Eolie Islands off the coast of Italy, and Obsidian Cliff
in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, U.S., are all well-known
occurrences.
Obsidian was used by American Indians and many other peo-
ples for weapons, implements, tools, and ornaments and by the
ancient Aztecs and Greeks for mirrors. Because of its conchoidal
fracture (smooth curved surfaces and sharp edges), the sharpest
stone artifacts were fashioned from obsidian; some of these—
mostly arrowheads—have been dated by means of the hydration
rinds that form on their exposed surfaces through time. Obsidian
in attractive and variegated colours is sometimes used as a semipre-
cious stone.

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 7 Igneous Rock 7

Intrusive Igneous Rocks

Erosion of volcanoes will immediately expose shallow
intrusive bodies such as volcanic necks and diatremes. A
volcanic neck is the “throat” of a volcano and consists of
a pipelike conduit filled with hypabyssal rocks. Ship Rock
in New Mexico and Devil’s Tower in Wyoming are rem-
nants of volcanic necks, which were exposed after the
surrounding sedimentary rocks were eroded away. Many
craterlike depressions may be filled with angular frag-
ments of country rock (breccia) and juvenile pyroclastic
debris. When eroded, such a depression exposes a vertical

Forms of intrusive igneous rock bodies in hypothetical sections of

Earth strata. Note the change of scale from A through D. Copyright
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; rendering for this edition by Rosen
Educational Services

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 7 Rocks 7

funnel-shaped pipe that resembles a volcanic neck with

the exception of the brecciated filling. These pipes are
dubbed diatremes. Many diatremes are formed by explo-
sion resulting from the rapid expansion of gas—carbon
dioxide and water vapour. These gases are released by the
rising magma owing to the decrease in pressure as it nears
the surface. Some diatremes contain kimberlite, a peri-
dotite that contains a hydrous mineral called phlogopite.
Kimberlite may contain diamonds.
Dikes are usually tabular bodies that may radiate
from the central vent of a volcano or from a volcanic
neck. Not all dikes are associated with volcanoes, but
they can be distinguished by their discordant relation-
ship with the structure of the country rock that they
cut across. Many dikes are only a few metres wide,
but large ones, such as the dike that feeds the Muskox
intrusion in the Northwest Territories of Canada,
reach widths of more than 150 metres (about 500 feet).
Related to dikes are features that maintain a concor-
dant relationship with the structure of the country
rocks. Magmas may force their way between layers of
country rock and solidify parallel to them to form sills.
On the west bank of the Hudson River opposite New
York City, the 300-metre- (984-foot-) thick Palisades
sill is exposed and can be traced for 80 km (about 50
miles). A laccolith also is concordant with country rock,
but it is distinguished from a sill by having a flat floor
with a domed (mushroom-shaped) roof. Laccoliths
were first described in the Henry Mountains of Utah,
where they may measure up to 200 metres (about 660
feet) thick with basal diameters exceeding 3 km (about
2 miles). Rocks of intermediate silica content generally
make up these domed intrusions. In contrast, lopoliths
are saucer-shaped bodies with a concave upward roof

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and floor and are commonly composed of mafic rocks.

Lopoliths are huge in size; the Bushveld intrusive com-
plex in South Africa, for example, has an area of about
66,000 square km (about 25,500 square miles) and an
exposed thickness of 8 km (5 miles). The Muskox intru-
sion, mentioned above, is another large lopolith, which
is estimated to be about 80 km long and 11 km (about 7
miles) wide (roof rocks covering part of the intrusion
prevent an exact measurement). These lopoliths are
commonly layered with igneous minerals and rocks; in
the Bushveld intrusion, one layer about 1 metre thick
consisting of almost pure chromite (an ore of chro-
mium) extends for tens of kilometres. Large irregularly
shaped plutons are called either stocks or batholiths,
depending on their sizes. Plutons larger than 100 square
km (about 39 square miles) in area are termed batho-
liths, while those of lesser size are called stocks. It may
be possible, however, that some stocks are the visible
portions of batholiths that have not been exposed by
erosion. Batholiths (from the Greek word bathos, mean-
ing depth) are deep-seated crustal intrusions, whereas
stocks may be formed at shallow depths only a few kilo-
metres below the surface. Rocks ranging from quartz
diorite to granite are commonly found in batholiths.
Large batholiths in North America include the Sierra
Nevada, the Idaho, and the Coast Range, which is
about 600 km (about 375 miles) long and 200 km (about
125 miles) wide and extends from the Alaskan border
through British Columbia to Washington state. Many
pulses of intrusions contribute to the formation of
these large bodies; for example, eight episodes of activ-
ity have been recognized in the Sierra Nevada batholith.
They are formed, therefore, by the coalescence of many
smaller batholiths and stocks.

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Distribution of Igneous Rocks

on Earth’s Surface

Igneous rocks occur widely. They are the products of

activities that take place at divergent and convergent
boundaries between Earth’s tectonic plates. Igneous rocks
also form far from plate boundaries as a result of hot spot
activity (which produce flood basalts) and rising basaltic
magma that intrudes between layers of rock. Igneous rocks
also occur on the Moon and on other celestial bodies.

Divergent Plate Boundaries

Most of the igneous activity on Earth is restricted to a
narrow zone that is related intimately with the motions
of the lithospheric plates. Indeed, the composition of
the magma, the types of volcanism, and the characteris-
tics of intrusions are governed to a large extent by plate
tectonics. The magmatism at divergent plate bound-
aries along the crests of the oceanic rises and ridges is
mostly unseen except in places where the volcanic activ-
ity occurs subaerially (e.g., Iceland, which sits on the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge). Along these divergent boundaries,
the erupted basalts have such a restricted compositional
range that they are referred to as mid-ocean-ridge basalt
(MORB). They are subalkaline tholeiites that contain
olivine in the norm and less than 0.25 percent potash.
The chemistry suggests that MORB was generated from
a mantle that was depleted of volatile elements (e.g., lan-
thanum [La], cerium [Ce], sodium, and potassium) in a
previous partial melting process. A wide rift valley marks
the crest of most of the oceanic ridges and rises. The val-
ley is bounded by faults created by the divergent forces
and is floored in its centre by a fracture zone (a mass
of rock with many small breakages). These faults and

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Idealized cross section of a divergent plate boundary showing the structure of

the oceanic lithosphere. Copyright Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; ren-
dering for this edition by Rosen Educational Services

fractures are the conduits for the MORB magmas that

flood the valley, build volcanoes, and produce dikes by
filling the conduits. Layer 2 of the oceanic crust results
from these magmatic activities. As the plates diverge,
MORB becomes the ocean floor on which oceanic sedi-
ments (layer 1) are deposited. This makes MORB the
most abundant rock on Earth’s surface.
Below the collection of lavas and dikes in layer 2
are found gabbro and diorite. They represent the plu-
tonic rocks formed as a result of differentiation of the
MORB magma that fed the volcanic activity along the
rift. (Differentiation is the process in which more than
one rock type is derived from a single parent magma.)
These coarse-grained intrusives account for about 4 to 5
km (2.5 to 3 miles) of layer 3, which rests on a sequence
of layered ultramafic rocks. The rocks were formed by
the gravitative accumulation of mafic minerals from the

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original MORB magma that filled a large chamber below

the ridge axis. Below this layered sequence is mantle rock
that is highly deformed and depleted (of elements such
as lanthanum, cerium, sodium, and potassium that have
been removed by repeated partial melting). Because seis-
mic waves cannot distinguish between layered ultramafic
rocks, which are not true mantle rocks, and ultramafic
mantle rocks, the Moho actually is positioned between
layer 3 and the layered ultramafics. The sequences con-
sisting of layer 1 (limestone and chert sedimentary rocks),
layer 2 of MORB lavas and dikes, and layer 3 of gabbro
and diorite and the ultramafic rocks are known as ophio-
lites. Many geologists believe that ophiolites formed at
oceanic ridges were emplaced by tectonic forces at con-
vergent plate boundaries and then became exposed in
highly deformed orogenic (mountain) belts. In fact, the
same sequences of rocks were first reported in the Alps
and were considered deep-seated intrusions. Some geol-
ogists still argue that all ophiolites were not formed at
divergent plate boundaries.
Away from the axis of divergence, the composition
of the volcanic rocks becomes more diverse. Most of
the magmatism is related to hot spots, which are hot
rising plumes of mantle rock that are anchored beneath
the moving lithospheric plates. The Hawaiian Islands
owe their existence to the magmatism associated with
a hot spot that currently is located just southeast of the
large island of Hawaii. This mantle plume not only pro-
vides magma for the eruptions at Kilauea Volcano but
also is responsible for the submarine volcano named
Loihi that will eventually become a new island. Most
of the islands are built on a tholeiite basalt base, but
the caps of the volcanoes are alkali basalts. The final
episodes of volcanic activity on an island are extremely

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A lava flow from Kilauea, Hawaii. Kilauea is the world’s largest active vol-
cano. ©[Link] / Ashok Rodrigues

undersaturated; nephelinites and olivine melilite neph-

elinites are common products. The alkali basalts have
differentiated to more silica-rich compositions, with
hawaiites, mugearites, and trachytes being erupted in
minor amounts. The two active volcanoes on Hawaii,
Mauna Loa and Kilauea, are still erupting tholeiite
basalts. Tholeiites on all the islands far from the ocean
ridge crests are different from MORB in that they are
enriched in lanthanum, cerium, sodium, and potassium.
Early in Earth’s history, a high-magnesium, high-
temperature mafic magma called komatiite erupted
from hot spots. Since most komatiites are found only
in Archean regions, they are thought to be evidence for
Earth being hotter than when it was initially formed.
The youngest komatiite was recently discovered on the
island of Gorgona, Colom.

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Convergent Plate Boundaries

Igneous rocks associated with convergent plate bound-

aries have the greatest diversity. In this case, granite
batholiths underlie the great composite volcanoes and
consist of rocks ranging from basalt through andesite to
dacite and rhyolite. These boundaries are destructive and
consume the subducting oceanic lithosphere formed at
the divergent centres. The rocks generated, however, are
added on (accreted) to the continent. Oceanic trenches
outline the junction of the colliding plates, but the igne-
ous activity takes place on the overriding plate along a
line at least about 100 km (about 60 miles) above the sub-
ducting plate. In other words, almost no volcanism occurs
between this 100-km line (called the volcanic front) and
the trench. The horizontal distance between the trench
and the volcanic front depends on the angle of subduc-
tion; the steeper the angle, the shorter the distance.
Volcanism occurs from this volcanic axis inland for a few
hundred kilometres. The dominant rock constituting the
composite volcanoes is andesite, but in some younger
island arcs basalt tends to be more common, and in older
volcanic areas dacite or rhyolite becomes prominent.
Two different series of rocks are found in some volca-
nic chains. In Japan a tholeiitic series and a calc-alkalic
series sometimes erupt from the same volcano. The for-
mer is characterized by lower magnesium, potassium,
nickel, chromium, uranium, and thorium and a higher
iron:magnesium ratio. Mineralogically, the tholeiitic
series characteristically contains pigeonite (a low-calcium
monoclinic pyroxene) in the groundmass of the basalts
and andesites. The calc-alkalic series lacks pigeonite but
instead has hypersthene. Most of the composite volca-
noes of the Cascades Range in Oregon and Washington
in the northwestern United States are characteristically

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calc-alkalic. In some volcanic arcs in areas farthest from

the trench, a potassic series is found. In Japan the volca-
noes within the Sea of Japan and farthest from the Japan
Trench have alkali basalt compositions. Recent discover-
ies in modern convergent margins have identified igneous
rocks within the oceanic trench sediments. These occur
in regions where a mid-ocean ridge is being subducted.
This creates higher heat flow and different types of igne-
ous rocks, termed trondhjemite-tonalite-dacite (TTD)
suites and alkaline, mafic, and felsic types.
In older areas of convergence, the composite volca-
noes have been eroded, exposing the deeper plutonic
granite batholiths that extend the entire length of the
convergent boundaries. The batholiths are predominantly
granodiorite, but gabbro through granite occur as well. It
seems anomalous to find diorite, the plutonic equivalent
of andesite, in low abundance since andesite is the domi-
nant rock type of the volcanoes that were above these
batholiths. Two basic types of granite have been recog-
nized. The more common variety is located closer to the
trench, has hornblende as its mafic mineral, is enriched
in sodium and calcium, and has mantle chemical signa-
tures; it is called I-type granite. The other type, called
S-type granite, has muscovite and biotite and is depleted
in sodium but enriched in aluminum such that corundum
occurs in the norm and isotopic signatures. This suggests
that such granites were formed by partial fusion of sedi-
mentary rocks.

Flood Basalts
On the continental plates at areas away from active con-
vergence, the magmatism is confined to rift valleys and
local hot spots. The volume of magma produced is minor
in comparison to that generated at oceanic rises and at
convergent plate boundaries. Flood basalts are the most

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common form of occurrence. They span the rock record

from the Precambrian to the Neogene Period (from about
4.6 billion to 2.6 million years ago) and are found world-
wide. The 1.1-billion-year-old Keweenawan flood basalts
in the Lake Superior region of northern Michigan may
have formed in a rift that failed. The rifting of Pangaea
that began during Jurassic time (approximately 200 mil-
lion to 146 million years ago) generated flood basalt
eruptions all along the newly opened Atlantic Ocean. Two
voluminous eruptions associated with the opening of
the South Atlantic produced the Paraná basalt in Brazil
and the Karoo (or Karroo) in South Africa. The Deccan
basalts in India were formed in the rift valleys associated
with the breakup of Gondwana during the Cretaceous
Period (approximately 146 million to 65.5 million years
ago). Chemically, the most abundant basalts are super-
saturated tholeiites with normative quartz, but olivine
tholeiites and alkali basalts also are found. Feeder dike
swarms (groups consisting of many parallel dikes) and
sills are common in flood basalt plateaus. Alkaline rocks,
such as those found in the East African Rift System,
occur as well but are less abundant. This rift system
stretches southward from the Red Sea–Gulf of Aden to
Lake Victoria. Undersaturated basalts are most common
in these rifts. During one eruption, a magma composed
mostly of sodium carbonate issued from a volcanic vent
that had been erupting alkali basalts.

Other Terrestrial Occurrences

Other diverse and unusual igneous rocks are found in the
stable continental areas far from plate boundaries. These
include the large layered basaltic intrusions—namely, the
Stillwater Complex in Montana, the Muskox intrusion
in the Northwest Territories of Canada, the Bushveld
Complex in South Africa, and the Skaergaard intrusion

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in eastern Greenland. Tholeiitic magma underwent a

fractional crystallization process that deposited layers
of ultramafic rocks overlain by gabbroic and anortho-
sitic layers. The end products of this fractionation are
quartz- and feldspar-bearing rocks with a peculiar tex-
ture (known as graphic intergrowth) in which quartz and
feldspar are intimately intergrown with each other. These
rocks are called granophyres. Such layered intrusions have
some economic importance; some of them contain thick
(a few metres) layers of chromite, which is the source
of chromium and also platinum. Two other rare occur-
rences in cratonic (stable) areas of Earth’s crust are the
kimberlites and carbonatites. Both are of economic value
because they yield diamonds and niobium, respectively.
Kimberlites are mica peridotites that are found in pipes.
The stable interiors of South Africa and Siberia have
widespread occurrences, but these pipes also are found
in North America, Australia, Brazil, and India. In North
America, near Murfreesboro, Ark., individuals can pay a
fee to search for diamonds in the Prairie Creek kimber-
lite pipe located in the Crater of Diamonds State Park.
Not all kimberlites contain diamonds. When diamonds
do occur, they constitute less than one part per million of
the rock. Carbonatites are igneous rocks rich in carbonate
(containing at least 50 percent) that commonly occur in
ring complexes in association with other silica-poor rocks
such as nepheline syenites. In North America, carbon-
atites have been found in dozens of localities in northern
Ontario and western Quebec.

Extraterrestrial Occurrences
The dominant igneous rock on Earth’s surface is basalt.
It appears that such is also the case on Earth’s close
neighbours. The lunar maria are covered with basalt
lava flows. These lunar basalts have a mineralogy similar

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 7 Rocks 7

to that of terrestrial basalts, but chemically they have

no water, a lower amount of alkalis and alumina, and
a higher iron oxide and chromium content. On the
lunar highlands, plagioclase-rich rocks are most com-
mon; these include anorthosites, gabbros, troctolites
(olivine-plagioclase rock), and minor basalt. It appears
that basalt is common on Mars as well. The large shield
volcano Olympus Mons must have been formed from
eruptions of fluid basalt flows. The X-ray fluorescence
analyses performed by the Vikings 1 and 2 landers
showed that the rocks are basaltic. In contrast, compo-
sitions of meteorites that originated from Mars include
both basalts and ultramafic rocks such as dunite, clino-
pyroxenite, and iherzolite. The Mars Pathfinder and
Rover show that andesite may also be present, but that
result is still debated. Venus apparently has volcanic fea-
tures with granitic to basaltic compositions.

110
chapter 3
Sedimentary Rock

S edimentary rock is formed at or near Earth’s surface by

the accumulation and lithification of sediment (detri-
tal rock) or by the precipitation from solution at normal
surface temperatures (chemical rock). Sedimentary rocks
are the most common rocks exposed on Earth’s surface
but are only a minor constituent of the entire crust, which
is dominated by igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are produced by the weathering of
preexisting rocks and the subsequent transportation and
deposition of the weathering products. Weathering refers
to the various processes of physical disintegration and
chemical decomposition that occur when rocks at Earth’s
surface are exposed to the atmosphere (mainly in the form
of rainfall) and the hydrosphere. These processes produce
soil, unconsolidated rock detritus, and components dis-
solved in groundwater and runoff. Erosion is the process
by which weathering products are transported away from
the weathering site, either as solid material or as dissolved
components, eventually to be deposited as sediment. Any
unconsolidated deposit of solid weathered material con-
stitutes sediment. It can form as the result of deposition
of grains from moving bodies of water or wind, from the
melting of glacial ice, and from the downslope slumping
(sliding) of rock and soil masses in response to gravity, as
well as by precipitation of the dissolved products of weath-
ering under the conditions of low temperature and pressure
that prevail at or near Earth’s surface.
Sedimentary rocks are the lithified equivalents of
sediments. They typically are produced by cement-
ing, compacting, and otherwise solidifying preexisting

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unconsolidated sediments. Some varieties of sedimen-

tary rock, however, are precipitated directly into their
solid sedimentary form and exhibit no intervening exis-
tence as sediment. Organic reefs and bedded evaporites
are examples of such rocks. Because the processes of
physical (mechanical) weathering and chemical weath-
ering are significantly different, they generate markedly
distinct products and two fundamentally different kinds
of sediment and sedimentary rock: (1) terrigenous clastic
sedimentary rocks and (2) allochemical and orthochemi-
cal sedimentary rocks.
Clastic terrigenous sedimentary rocks consist of
rock and mineral grains, or clasts, of varying size, ranging
from clay-, silt-, and sand-size up to pebble-, cobble-, and
boulder-size materials. These clasts are transported by
gravity, mudflows, running water, glaciers, and wind and
eventually are deposited in various settings (e.g., in desert
dunes, on alluvial fans, across continental shelves, and in
river deltas). Because the agents of transportation com-
monly sort out discrete particles by clast size, terrigenous
clastic sedimentary rocks are further subdivided on the
basis of average clast diameter. Coarse pebbles, cobbles,
and boulder-size gravels lithify to form conglomerate and
breccia; sand becomes sandstone; and silt and clay form
siltstone, claystone, mudrock, and shale.
Chemical sedimentary rocks form by chemical and
organic reprecipitation of the dissolved products of chem-
ical weathering that are removed from the weathering site.
Allochemical sedimentary rocks, such as many limestones
and cherts, consist of solid precipitated nondetrital frag-
ments (allochems) that undergo a brief history of transport
and abrasion prior to deposition as nonterrigenous clasts.
Examples are calcareous or siliceous shell fragments and
oöids, which are concentrically layered spherical grains of
calcium carbonate. Orthochemical sedimentary rocks, on

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 7 Sedimentary Rock 7

Colorful Bryce Canyon in Utah provides a spectacular example of sedimentary

rocks. Natural spires such Thor’s Hammer, seen here, are known as hoodoos
and are formed by rain- and wind-eroded limestone. [Link]

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 7 Rocks 7

Banded-Iron
Formation (Bif)
BIF is a chemically precipitated sediment, typically thin bedded
or laminated, consisting of 15 percent or more iron of sedimentary
origin and layers of chert, chalcedony, jasper, or quartz. Such for-
mations occur on all the continents and usually are older than 1.7
billion years. They also are highly metamorphosed. Most BIFs con-
tain iron oxides—hematite with secondary magnetite, goethite, and
limonite—and are commonly used as low-grade iron ore (e.g., as in
the Lake Superior region of North America). Because BIFs appar-
ently have not formed since Precambrian time, special conditions are
thought to have existed at the time of their formation. Considerable
controversy exists over BIF origin, and a number of theories have
been proposed. Their formation has been variously ascribed to vol-
canic activity; rhythmic deposition from iron and silica solutions due
to seasonal variations; oxidation of iron-rich sediments contempora-
neous with deposition; and precipitation from solution as a result of
special oxidation-reduction conditions.

the other hand, consist of dissolved constituents that are

directly precipitated as solid sedimentary rock and thus
do not undergo transportation. Orthochemical sedimen-
tary rocks include some limestones, bedded evaporite
deposits of halite, gypsum, and anhydrite, and banded iron
formations.
Sediments and sedimentary rocks are confined to
Earth’s crust, which is the thin, light outer solid skin
of Earth ranging in thickness from 40–100 km (25–62
miles) in the continental blocks to 4–10 km (2.5–6 miles)
in the ocean basins. Igneous and metamorphic rocks
constitute the bulk of the crust. The total volume of
sediment and sedimentary rocks can be either directly
measured using exposed rock sequences, drill-hole data,
and seismic profiles or indirectly estimated by compar-
ing the chemistry of major sedimentary rock types to
the overall chemistry of the crust from which they are

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weathered. Both methods indicate that Earth’s sediment-

sedimentary rock shell forms only about 5 percent by
volume of the terrestrial crust, which in turn accounts for
less than 1 percent of Earth’s total volume. On the other
hand, the area of outcrop and exposure of sediment and
sedimentary rock comprises 75 percent of the land surface
and well over 90 percent of the ocean basins and conti-
nental margins. In other words, 80–90 percent of Earth’s
surface area is mantled with sediment or sedimentary
rocks rather than with igneous or metamorphic varieties.
The sediment-sedimentary rock shell forms only a thin
superficial layer. The mean shell thickness in continental
areas is 1.8 km (about 1 mile); the sediment shell in the
ocean basins is roughly 0.3 km (0.2 mile). Rearranging
this shell as a globally encircling layer (and depending on
the raw estimates incorporated into the model), the shell
thickness would be roughly 1–3 km (0.6–2 miles).
Despite the relatively insignificant volume of the sedi-
mentary rock shell, not only are most rocks exposed at the
terrestrial surface of the sedimentary variety, but many of
the significant events in Earth history are most accurately
dated and documented by analyzing and interpreting the
sedimentary rock record instead of the more voluminous
igneous and metamorphic rock record. When properly
understood and interpreted, sedimentary rocks provide
information on ancient geography, termed paleogeogra-
phy. A map of the distribution of sediments that formed
in shallow oceans along alluvial fans bordering rising
mountains or in deep, subsiding ocean trenches will indi-
cate past relationships between seas and landmasses. An
accurate interpretion of paleogeography and depositional
settings allows conclusions to be made about the evolu-
tion of mountain systems, continental blocks, and ocean
basins, as well as about the origin and evolution of the
atmosphere and hydrosphere. Sedimentary rocks contain

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the fossil record of ancient life-forms that enables the doc-

umentation of the evolutionary advancement from simple
to complex organisms in the plant and animal kingdoms.
Also, the study of the various folds or bends and breaks or
faults in the strata of sedimentary rocks permits the struc-
tural geology or history of deformation to be ascertained.
Finally, it is appropriate to underscore the economic
importance of sedimentary rocks as they contain essen-
tially the world’s entire store of oil and natural gas, coal,
phosphates, salt deposits, groundwater, and other natu-
ral resources.
Several subdisciplines of geology deal specifically with
the analysis, interpretation, and origin of sediments and
sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary petrology is the study of
their occurrence, composition, texture, and other over-
all characteristics, while sedimentology emphasizes the
processes by which sediments are transported and depos-
ited. Sedimentary petrography involves the classification
and study of sedimentary rocks using the petrographic
microscope. Stratigraphy covers all aspects of sedimen-
tary rocks, particularly from the perspective of their age
and regional relationships as well as the correlation of
sedimentary rocks in one region with sedimentary rock
sequences elsewhere.

Classification Systems
In general, geologists have attempted to classify sedi-
mentary rocks on a natural basis, but some schemes have
genetic implications (i.e.,knowledge of origin of a particu-
lar rock type is assumed), and many classifications reflect
the philosophy, training, and experience of those who pro-
pound them. No scheme has found universal acceptance,
and discussion here will centre on some proposals.

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 7 Sedimentary Rock 7

Terms designating composition

and physical characteristics
Detrital rocks
Rudites (coarse)
conglomerates (rounded clasts)
breccias (angular clasts)
basal, or transgression
fanglomerates (in alluvial fans)
tillites (glacially transported)
Arenites (medium-grained)
sandstone
arkose (feldspar-rich)
graywacke (sandstone with mud matrix)
quartzite (orthoquartzite)
Lutites (fine-grained)
siltstone
shale
mudstone or claystone
argillite
loess (transported and deposited by wind)
Nondetrital rocks
Precipitates
chemical precipitates (rocks formed by precipitation from seawater
or fresh water)
evaporites (products of evaporation from saline brines)
duricrust rocks (hardened surface or mean-surface layer of any
composition)
Organic
zoogenic (made up of hard parts of animals; e.g., crinoidal limestone)
phytogenic (made up of plant remains; e.g., algal limestone)

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 7 Rocks 7

The book Rocks and Rock Minerals by Louis V. Pirsson

was first published in 1908, and it has enjoyed various
revisions. Sedimentary rocks are classified there rather
simplistically according to physical characteristics and
composition into detrital and nondetrital rocks.
Numerous other attempts have been made to classify
sedimentary rocks. The most significant advance occurred
in 1948 with the publication in the Journal of Geology of
three definitive articles by the American geologists Francis
J. Pettijohn, Robert R. Shrock, and Paul D. Krynine. Their
classifications provide the basis for all modern discussion
of the subject. The nomenclature associated with several
schemes of classifying clastic and nonclastic rocks will be
discussed throughout this chapter.
For the purposes of the present discussion, three
major categories of sedimentary rocks are recognized:
(1) terrigenous clastic sedimentary rocks, (2) carbon-
ates (limestone and dolomite), and (3) noncarbonate
chemical sedimentary rocks. Terrigenous clastic sedi-
mentary rocks are composed of the detrital fragments
of preexisting rocks and minerals and are convention-
ally considered to be equivalent to clastic sedimentary
rocks in general. Because most of the clasts are rich in
silica, they are also referred to as siliciclastic sedimentary
rocks. Siliciclastics are further subdivided on the basis of
clast diameter into conglomerate and breccia, sandstone,
siltstone, and finer-than-silt-sized mudrock (shale, clay-
stone, and mudstone). The carbonates, limestones and
dolomites, consist of the minerals aragonite, calcite, and
dolomite. They are chemical sedimentary rocks in the
sense that they possess at least in part a crystalline, inter-
locking mosaic of precipitated carbonate mineral grains.
However, because individual grains such as fossil shell
fragments exist for some period of time as sedimentary
clasts, similar to transported quartz or feldspar clasts,

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 7 Sedimentary Rock 7

most carbonates bear some textural affinities to the ter-

rigenous clastic sedimentary rocks. The noncarbonate
chemical sedimentary rocks include several rock types
that are uncommon in the sedimentary rock record but
remain important either from an economic point of view
or because their deposition requires unusual settings.
Specific varieties described in this chapter include sili-
ceous rocks (cherts), phosphate rocks (phosphorites),
evaporites, iron-rich sedimentary rocks (iron formations
and ironstones), and organic-rich (carbonaceous) depos-
its in sedimentary rocks (coal, oil shale, and petroleum).
Despite the diversity of sedimentary rocks, direct
measurement of the relative abundance of the specific
types based on the study of exposed sequences sug-
gests that only three varieties account for the bulk of
all sedimentary rocks: mudrock, 47 percent; sandstone,
31 percent; and carbonate, 22 percent. Another method,
which involves comparing the chemical composition
of major sedimentary rock types with the chemistry of
Earth’s continental crust, yields somewhat different
numbers: mudrock, 79 percent; sandstone, 13 percent;
and carbonate, 8 percent. Most sedimentary petrolo-
gists concede that the sedimentary rock record preserved
and exposed within the continental blocks is selectively
biased in favour of shallow-water carbonates and sand-
stones. Mudrocks are preferentially transported to the
ocean basins. Consequently, indirect estimates based on
chemical arguments are probably more accurate.

Terrigenous Clastic Rocks

A prominent physical feature of terrigenous clastic rocks
is texture—that is, the size, shape, and arrangement of
the constituent grains. These rocks have a fragmental
texture: discrete grains are in tangential contact with one

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 7 Rocks 7

another. Terrigenous clastic sedimentary rocks are fur-

ther subdivided on the basis of the mean grain diameter
that characterizes most fragments, using the generally
accepted size limits. Granules, pebbles, cobbles, boulders,
and blocks constitute the coarse clastic sediments; sand-
size (arenaceous) clasts are considered medium clastic
sediments; and fine clastics sediments consist of silt- and
clay-size materials.
The simplest way of classifying coarse clastic sedimen-
tary rocks is to name the rock and include a brief description
of its particular characteristics. Conglomerates and brec-
cias differ from one another only in clast angularity. The
former consist of abraded, somewhat rounded, coarse
clasts, whereas the latter contain angular, coarse clasts.
Thus, a pebble conglomerate is a coarse clastic sedimen-
tary rock whose discrete particles are rounded and range
from 4 to 64 mm (0.2 to 2.5 inches) in diameter. A more
precise description reveals the rock types of the mineral
fragments that compose the conglomerate—for example,
a granite-gneiss pebble conglomerate.
Sandstones have long intrigued geologists because
they are well exposed, are abundant in the geologic
record, and provide an enormous amount of information
about depositional setting and origin. Many classifica-
tion schemes have been developed for sandstones, only
the most popular of which are reviewed below. Most
schemes emphasize the relative abundance of sand-size
quartz, feldspar, and rock fragment components, as well
as the nature of the material housed between this sand-
size “framework” fraction.
Fine clastics are commonly, but rather simplistically,
referred to as mudrocks. Mudrocks actually can include
any clastic sedimentary rock in which the bulk of the
clasts have diameters finer than 1⁄16 mm (0.0025 inch).
Varieties include siltstone (average grain size between

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1⁄ and 1⁄256 mm [0.0025 and 0.00015 inch]) and claystone

16
(discrete particles are mostly finer than 1⁄256 mm [0.00015
inch]). Mud is a mixture of silt- and clay-size material, and
mudrock is its indurated product. Shale is any fine clastic
sedimentary rock that exhibits fissility, which is the abil-
ity to break into thin slabs along narrowly spaced planes
parallel to the layers of stratification. Despite the great
abundance of the fine clastics, disagreement exists as to
what classification schemes are most useful for them, and
an understanding of their origin is hindered by analytical
complexities.

Carbonate Rocks: Limestones and Dolomites

Limestones and dolostones (dolomites) make up the bulk
of the nonterrigenous sedimentary rocks. Limestones
are for the most part primary carbonate rocks. They con-
sist of 50 percent or more calcite and aragonite (both
CaCO3). Dolomites are mainly produced by the secondary
alteration or replacement of limestones; i.e., the mineral
dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2] replaces the calcite and arago-
nite minerals in limestones during diagenesis. A number
of different classification schemes have been proposed
for carbonates, and the many categories of limestones and
dolomites in the geologic record represent a large variety
of depositional settings.

Noncarbonate Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Noncarbonate chemical sedimentary rocks differ in many
respects from carbonate sedimentary rocks and terrig-
enous clastic sedimentary rocks, and there is no single
classification that has been universally accepted. This is a
reflection of the great variation in mineral composition,
texture, and other properties of these rock types. Such

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Common noncarbonate, nonclastic sedimentary rocks. Copyright

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; rendering for this edition by Rosen
Educational Services

rocks as ironstones and banded iron formations (limonite,

goethite, hematite, siderite, and chamosite), phosphorites,
evaporites (rock salt, gypsum, and other salts), siliceous
rocks (cherts), and organic-rich (carbonaceous) deposits
of oil, natural gas, and coal in sedimentary rocks occur
in much less abundance than carbonates and siliciclastic
sedimentary rocks, although they may form thick and
widespread deposits. Classification schemes that incor-
porate all types of noncarbonate chemical sedimentary
rocks do not exist because no triangular or tetrahedral
scheme can accommodate all of them.

Texture
Texture refers to the physical makeup of rock—namely,
the size, shape, and arrangement (packing and orienta-
tion) of the discrete grains or particles of a sedimentary
rock. Two main natural textural groupings exist for

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sedimentary rocks: clastic (or fragmental) and nonclastic

(essentially crystalline). Noncarbonate chemical sedimen-
tary rocks in large part exhibit crystalline texture, with
individual mineral grains forming an interlocking arrange-
ment. Depositional setting is an insignificant factor in
both determining crystal size and altering crystalline tex-
ture. The size of crystals is controlled to a greater degree
by the rate of precipitation, and their texture is modified
by postdepositional recrystallization (reflecting the diage-
netic environment). As a result, little attention is paid to
crystalline textures other than providing a simple descrip-
tion of it (for example, coarsely crystalline versus finely
crystalline). Also, even though carbonate rocks commonly
include allochems that behave as clasts, they too are com-
monly diagenetically altered. Consequently, only cursory
efforts are made to texturally characterize limestones and
dolomites. Therefore, the following discussion deals in
detail only with the textural techniques applied to terrig-
enous (siliciclastic) sedimentary rocks.

Grain Size
Particle size is an important textural parameter of clastic
rocks because it supplies information on the conditions
of transportation, sorting, and deposition of the sediment
and provides some clues to the history of events that
occurred at the depositional site prior to final induration.
Determining the sizes of the discrete particles that consti-
tute a sedimentary rock can be difficult, particularly if the
rock is firmly indurated. Various methods of measuring
grain-size distribution have been devised; likewise several
different grade-size schemes exist.
The size of particulate materials that make up sedi-
ments and sedimentary rocks are measured by weighing
the proportions that accumulate in a series of wire mesh

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screen sieves, by visually counting grains with a petro-

graphic microscope, or by determining the rate at which
particles of varying diameter accumulate in a water-filled
glass cylinder (known as a settling tube).
The millimetre and phi unit grade scales and ter-
minology are the standard ones used for sediments and
sedimentary rocks. In the millimetre scale, each size
grade differs from its predecessor by the constant ratio of
1:2; each size class has a specific class name used to refer
to the particles included within it. This millimetre, or
Udden-Wentworth, scale is a geometric grain-size scale
since there is a constant ratio between class limits. Such
a scheme is well suited for the description of sediments
because it gives equal significance to size ratios, whether
they relate to gravel, sand, silt, or clay. The phi scale is a
useful, logarithmic-based modification of the Udden-
Wentworth scale. Grain-size diameters in millimetres are
converted to phi units using the conversion formula: phi
(ϕ) = - log2S, where ϕ is size expressed in phi units and S is
the grain size in millimetres. Phi values for grains coarser
than 1 mm (0.04 inch) are negative, while those for grains
finer than 1 mm are positive.
After the grain-size distribution for a given sediment
or sedimentary rock has been determined by sieving,
microscopic analysis, or use of a settling tube, it can be
characterized using standard statistical measures in either
of two ways: (1) visual inspection of various types of graphs
that plot overall percent abundance versus grain-size diam-
eter (e.g., histograms or bar diagrams, size frequency and
cumulative size frequency curves, and probability curves
that compare the actual grain-size distribution to a normal
straight-line Gaussian distribution) or (2) arithmetic cal-
culations made using diameter values in either millimetres
or phi units that are read off the graphic plots and inserted
into standard formulas. For siliciclastic sedimentary rocks,

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the following standard statistical measures are conven-

tionally described for grain-size distributions: (1) mode,
the most frequently occurring particle size or size class, (2)
median, the midpoint size of any grain-size distribution,
(3) mean, an estimate of the arithmetic average particle
size, (4) sorting or standard deviation, a measure of the
range, scatter, or variation in grain size, (5) skewness, the
degree of symmetry or asymmetry of the grain-size dis-
tribution, which is in turn a function of the coincidence
or noncoincidence of mean, median, and mode, and (6)
kurtosis (peakedness) of a grain-size distribution, which
compares sorting in the central portion of the population
with that in the tails.
Analysis of grain-size distribution is conducted with
the disputed assumption that particular transporting
agents and depositional settings (e.g., river delta depos-
its versus shallow marine longshore-bar sands) impose a
distinctive textural “fingerprint” on the sediments they
produce. Despite continuing efforts, the success of the var-
ious graphic and arithmetic approaches in characterizing
grain-size distributions is debatable, as is their reliability
in pinpointing ancient depositional settings. The grain-
size distribution of sediments in many settings commonly
appears to be inherited or to exhibit as much variation
within a single environment as between different ones.

Particle Shape
Three different but related properties determine par-
ticle shape: form, roundness, and surface texture. Particle
form is the overall shape of particles, typically defined in
terms of the relative lengths of the longest, shortest, and
intermediate axes. Particles can be spherical, prismatic,
or bladelike. Roundness or angularity is a measure of the
smoothness of particles. Surface texture refers to the

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presence or absence of small, variously shaped markings

(pits, polish, scratches) that may occur on grain surfaces.
Each of these attributes of particle shape is tradition-
ally measured in a standard fashion for the purpose of
identifying the transporting agent and the depositional
environment. Form is determined either by painstakingly
measuring individual particles in three dimensions or by
Fourier shape analysis, which uses harmonics analysis and
computer digitizing to provide a precise description of
particles in two dimensions. Form alone has limited useful-
ness in inferring depositional setting but more accurately
reflects the mineralogy of the grains involved. Roundness
is characterized by visually comparing grains to standard
silhouette profiles. It is largely the result of abrasion his-
tory, which is controlled by the depositional agent and
environment. For example, windblown and surf zone sands
are well-rounded, while glacial sands and turbidity current
deposits are angular. Particle roundness or angularity also
reflects mineralogy (soft minerals are abraded more read-
ily than hard minerals), clast size (coarse particles become
rounded more rapidly than do fine ones), and transport
distance (sands become more abraded and hence rounder
as the distance traveled increases). Particle surfaces can be
visually examined for pitting, markings, and polish through
the use of a microscope or hand lens, or in some cases, a
scanning electron microscope (SEM). Certain surface tex-
tures have been genetically linked to specific depositional
agents; for example, classic V-shaped percussion marks
identify quartz grains of the beach and nearshore zones.

Fabric
The fabric of a sedimentary rock controls the rock’s poros-
ity and permeability and therefore its ability to hold and/
or transmit fluids such as oil and water. The orientation, or

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lack thereof, of the crystals or grains that make up a sedi-

mentary rock constitutes one aspect of fabric. Genetically,
there are two principal varieties of oriented fabrics: primary
(or depositional) and secondary (or deformational). Primary
fabrics are produced while the sediment is accumulating. For
example, river currents and some submarine gravity flows
generate sediments whose flaky and prismatic constituent
particles have long or short axes parallel with one another to
produce an oriented fabric. Secondary fabrics result from a
rotation of the constituent elements under stress or from the
growth of new elements during diagenesis. Fabrics in coarse
clastic sedimentary rocks like conglomerates and sandstones
can be determined by measuring and plotting dimen-
sional directions, such as the long axes of pebbles or sand
grains. In mudrocks, fabrics can be ascertained by studying
the platelike arrangement of mica and clay minerals.
In addition to orientation, a factor known as packing
contributes to a rock’s fabric. Packing refers to the distri-
bution of grains and intergranular spaces (either empty or
filled with cement or fine-grained matrix) in a sedimen-
tary rock. It is controlled by grain size and shape and by
the degree of compaction of a sedimentary rock; in turn
it determines the rock’s bulk density. A description of
packing is generally based on the analysis of thin sections
of a sedimentary rock using a petrographic microscope.
Particular attention is paid to the number of grain-to-grain
contacts (packing proximity) and to comparisons between
the sum of the lengths of grains to the total length of a
traverse across a thin section (packing density).

Mineralogical and
Geochemical Composition
Minerals that make up sedimentary rocks are of two prin-
cipal types—namely, detrital and authigenic. Detrital

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minerals, such as grains of quartz and feldspar, survive

weathering and are transported to the depositional site as
clasts. Authigenic minerals, such as calcite, halite, and gyp-
sum, form in situ within the depositional site in response
to geochemical processes. The chemical compounds that
constitute them ultimately are generated by chemical
weathering and are transported from the weathering site
to the point of precipitation primarily in solution. Clay
minerals are abundant in sedimentary rocks, particularly
mudrocks, and some are detrital. They may have been
produced at the weathering site by the partial decompo-
sition of minerals like feldspar. They are transported as
clasts, however, and thus can be regarded simply as fine- to
very fine-textured detrital particles. Other clay minerals

Chemical composition of sedimentary rocks. Copyright Encyclopædia

Britannica, Inc.; rendering for this edition by Rosen Educational
Services

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form authigenically at the site of deposition. Some of the

important clay minerals are kaolinite, halloysite, mont-
morillonite, illite, vermiculite, and chlorite.
The mean chemical composition of the major varieties
of sedimentary rocks exhibits wide variation. Significant
contrasts in overall composition among sandstones, car-
bonates, and mudrocks reflect fundamental differences
not only in the mechanisms by which detrital minerals of
different sizes are transported and deposited but also in
the chemical conditions that permit precipitation of vari-
ous authigenic minerals.
Diagenesis includes all physicochemical, biochemi-
cal, and physical processes (short of metamorphism) that
modify sediments in the time between their deposition
and their analysis. Lithification, the process by which
sediment is converted into solid sedimentary rock, is one
result of diagenesis. Many diagenetic processes such as
cementation, recrystallization, and dolomitization are
essentially geochemical processes; others such as compac-
tion are fundamentally physical processes. All diagenetic
changes occur at the low temperatures and pressures char-
acteristic of surface and near-surface environments. These
changes can take place almost immediately after sediment
formation, or they can occur hundreds or even millions of
years later.

Sedimentary Structures
Sedimentary structures are the larger, generally three-
dimensional physical features of sedimentary rocks; they
are best seen in outcrop or in large hand specimens rather
than through a microscope. Sedimentary structures
include features such as bedding, ripple marks, fossil tracks
and trails, and mud cracks. They conventionally are subdi-
vided into categories based on mode of genesis. Structures

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that are produced at the same time as the sedimentary

rock in which they occur are called primary sedimentary
structures. Examples include bedding or stratification,
graded bedding, and cross-bedding. Sedimentary struc-
tures that are produced shortly after deposition and as a
result of compaction and desiccation are called penecon-
temporaneous sedimentary structures. Examples include
mud cracks and load casts. Still other sedimentary struc-
tures such as concretions, vein fillings, and stylolites form
well after deposition and penecontemporaneous modifi-
cation; these are known as secondary structures. Finally,
others such as stromatolites and organic burrows and
tracks, though they may in fact be primary, penecontem-
poraneous, or even secondary, may be grouped as a fourth
category—organic sedimentary structures.
Considerable attention is paid to the sedimentary
structures exhibited by any sedimentary rock. Primary sed-
imentary structures are particularly useful because their
abundance and size suggest the probable transporting and
depositional agents. Certain varieties of primary sedimen-
tary structures like cross-bedding and ripple marks display
orientations that are consistently related to the direction
of current movement. Such structures are referred to as
directional sedimentary structures because they can be
used to infer the ancient paleocurrent pattern or dispersal
system by which a sedimentary rock unit was deposited.
Other sedimentary structures are stratigraphic “top and
bottom” indicators. For example, the progressive upward
decrease in clastic grain size diameters, known as graded
bedding, would allow a geologist to determine which way
is stratigraphically “up”—i.e., toward the younger beds in
a dipping sedimentary bed. The suite (repeated sequence)
of sedimentary structures in any single stratigraphic unit
is another attribute by which that unit may be physically
differentiated from others in the region.

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External Stratification

Stratification (or bedding) is expressed by rock layers (units)

of a general tabular or lenticular form that differ in rock
type or other characteristics from the material with which
they are interstratified (sometimes stated as interbedded, or
interlayered). These beds, or strata, are of varying thickness
and areal extent. The term stratum identifies a single bed, or
unit, normally greater than 1 cm (0.4 inch) in thickness and
visibly separable from superjacent (overlying) and subjacent
(underlying) beds. “Strata” refers to two or more beds, and
the term lamina is sometimes applied to a unit less than 1
cm in thickness. Thus, lamination consists of thin units in
bedded, or layered, sequence in a natural rock succession,
whereas stratification consists of bedded layers, or strata, in
a geologic sequence of interleaved sedimentary rocks.
For most stratified sedimentary rocks, the arrange-
ment of layers is one of unequal thickness, ranging from
very thin laminae to discrete beds that measure a few to
many metres in thickness. The terms thick and thin as
applied to bedding, or stratification, are relative, reflecting
the training of a particular geologist as well as experience
with a specific stratigraphic section or sections.

Bedding Types and Bedding-Plane Features

It is common to discover a rhythmic pattern in a pile of
stratified sedimentary rocks represented by a repetitive
sequence of rock types. In most instances of such cyclic
sedimentation, the bedding, or stratification, is horizon-
tal or essentially so; that is, the transporting, sorting, and
depositing agents of wind, running water, and lake and
ocean currents and waves accumulated the laminae and
strata in a flat-lying or horizontal arrangement. They are
termed well-bedded, a type of primary stratification.

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Primary stratification in sediments and sedimentary

rocks can be cross-bedded (cross-stratified), graded, and
imbricate and can also display climbing laminae, ripples,
and beds.
Graded bedding simply identifies strata that grade
upward from coarse-textured clastic sediment at their
base to finer-textured materials at the top. The stratifi-
cation may be sharply marked so that one layer is set off
visibly from those above and beneath it. More commonly,
however, the layers are blended. This variety of bedding
results from a check in the velocity of the transporting
agent, and thus coarse-textured sediment (gravel, for

(A) Graded bedding. (B) Imbricate bedding. Copyright Encyclopædia

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Services

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example) is deposited first, followed upward by pebbles,

granules, sand, silt, and clay. It is commonly associated
with submarine density currents.
Imbricate bedding is a shingle structure in a deposit of
flattened or disk-shaped pebbles or cobbles. That is to say,
elongated and commonly flattened pebbles and cobbles in
gravelly sediment are deposited so that they overlap one
another like roofing shingles. Imbricate bedding forms
where high-velocity currents move over a streambed or
where strong currents and waves break over a gradually
sloping beach, thereby forming beach shingle.
Growth structures in sedimentary rocks are in situ
features that accumulate largely as the result of organic
buildups within otherwise horizontal or nearly flat-lying
strata. Reefs and stromatolites are two common varieties
of such growth structures.
Upper surfaces of beds commonly display primary
sedimentary features that are classified as bedding-plane
structures. A three-dimensional view may be obtained if
some of these can be seen from the side as well as from
the top of a pile of strata. They include such features as
ripples (ripple marks), climbing ripples, rills, pits, mud
cracks, trails and tracks, salt and ice casts and molds, and
others. Bedding-plane markings and irregularities can be
allocated to one of three classes: (1) those on the base of
a bed (load and current structures and organic markings),
(2) those within a bed (parting lineation), and (3) those on
top of a bed (ripple marks, pits, impressions, mud cracks,
tracks and trails of organisms, and others).

Deformation Structures
In addition to sedimentary structures that are normally
associated with bedding planes, there are other such struc-
tures that result from deformation during or shortly after

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sedimentation but before induration of the sediment into

rock. These are nontectonic features—i.e., they are not
bends and folds brought about by metamorphism or other
such causes. Deformation structures can be grouped into
several classes, as follows: (1) founder and load structures,
(2) convoluted structures, (3) slump structures, (4) injec-
tion structures, such as sandstone dikes or sills, and (5)
organic structures.
Structures found on the bottom of a bed are called
sole markings, because they formed on the “sole” of the
bed. Sole marks are commonly formed on sandstone and
limestone beds that rest upon shale beds. They are termed
casts, because they are fillings of depressions that formed
on the surface of the underlying mud. They originate (1)
by unequal loading upon the soft and plastic wet mud, (2)
by the action of currents across the upper mud surface,
or (3) by the activities of organisms on this surface. Load
casts form as the result of downsinking of sandstone or
limestone into the mud beneath. Current marks can form
by the action of water currents on upper surfaces of the
beds or by “tools” (such as wood and fossils) that are trans-
ported by currents over soft sediment.

Sedimentary Environments
The sedimentary environment is the specific depositional
setting of a particular sedimentary rock and is unique in
terms of physical, chemical, and biological characteris-
tics. The physical features of a sedimentary environment
include water depth and the velocity and persistence of
currents. Chemical characteristics of an environment
include the salinity (proportion of dissolved salts), acidity
or basicity (pH), oxidation potential (Eh), pressure, and
temperature. The biological characteristics are mainly the
assemblage of fauna and flora that populate the setting.

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These conditions, combined with the nature of the trans-

porting agent and the source area, largely determine the
properties of the sediments deposited within the envi-
ronment. A number of ways of classifying depositional
environments exist, but most modern schemes employ a
geomorphologic approach. That is to say, an environment
is defined in terms of a distinct geomorphic unit or land-
form, modern examples of which are readily visible for
comparative purposes—e.g., a river delta, an alluvial fan, a
submarine fan, or the abyssal floor of an ocean basin.
Individual environments are further grouped into (1)
marine environments, which include the nearshore, shal-
low littoral zone and the offshore, deep littoral zone, as
well as deepwater realms, (2) mixed marine and nonmarine
settings such as the beach and supratidal zones, and (3)
nonmarine settings like lacustrine and various alluvial set-
tings. Each environment is associated with a set of criteria
that constitutes its distinguishing features.

Sedimentary Facies
Sedimentary facies are the physical, chemical, and biological aspects
of a sedimentary bed and the lateral change within sequences of beds
of the same geologic age. Sedimentary rocks can be formed only
where sediments are deposited long enough to become compacted
and cemented into hard beds or strata. Sedimentation commonly
occurs in areas where the sediment lies undisturbed for many years
in sedimentary basins. Whereas some such basins are small, oth-
ers occupy thousands of square kilometres and usually have within
them several different local depositional environments. Physical,
chemical, and biological factors influence these environments, and
the conditions that they produce largely determine the nature of
the sediments that accumulate. Several different local (sedimentary)
environments may thus exist side by side within a basin as condi-
tions change laterally; the sedimentary rocks that ultimately are
produced there can be related to these depositional environments.
These different but contemporaneous and juxtaposed sedimentary

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rocks are known as sedimentary facies, a term that was first used by
the Swiss geologist Amanz Gressly in 1838.
Sedimentary facies are either terrigenous, resulting from the
accumulation of particles eroded from older rocks and transported to
the depositional site; biogenic, representing accumulations of whole
or fragmented shells and other hard parts of organisms; or chemi-
cal, representing inorganic precipitation of material from solution.
As conditions change with time, so different depositional sites may
change their shapes and characteristics. Each facies thus has a three-
dimensional configuration and may in time shift its position.
There are several ways of describing or designating sedimentary
facies. By noting the prime physical (or lithological) characteristics,
one is able to recognize lithofacies. The biological (or more correctly,
paleontological) attributes—the fossils—define biofacies. Both are
the direct result of the depositional history of the basin. By ascribing
modes of origin to different facies (i.e., interpreting the lithofacies
or biofacies) one can visualize a genetic system of facies. It is also
common to speak of alluvial facies, bar facies, or reef facies, using the
environment as a criterion. This may lead to confusion when revisions
of interpretation have to be made because of new or more accurate
information about the rocks themselves.
Just as there are regular associations of different local environ-
ments in modern sedimentary basins, associations of facies also
are known to follow similar patterns in the stratigraphic column. A
common example of the latter is that of regular lithofacies and bio-
facies successions being formed between the edge, or shoreline, of
a water-filled basin and the deeper water at its middle. Coarse sedi-
ment gives way to finer sediment in the deepening water. Changes in
sea level as time passes are a common cause of successive changes
in the stratigraphic column. As sea level rises and the sea spreads
across what was land, shallow-water sediments are laid down in the
newest area to receive such material while areas that were shallow
are now deeper and receive finer, or otherwise different, sediments.
As the sea advances inland, the belts of sedimentation follow and
the retreat of the sea causes the belts to move back offshore.
Johannes Walther, a German geologist, noted in 1894 that the
vertical facies sequence in a sedimentary basin undergoing expansion

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and deepening so that the sea transgresses the land surface (or the
reverse, a regression) is the same as the horizontal sequence. This has
enabled geologists, knowing the pattern of facies at the surface, to
predict accurately what may also be found at depth within a sedimen-
tary basin. It is clear, however, that Walther’s observation only applies
where there is no major break (i.e., an erosional interval) in the conti-
nuity of the succession.

Sedimentary Rock Types

Sedimentary rocks come in a variety of different forms.
They include conglomerates, sandstones, mudrocks, and
limestones, as well as siliceous rocks, phosphorites, and
evaporites. Most sedimentary rocks contain some amount
of iron, but certain sedimentary rocks, such as banded iron
formation (BIF) and ironstone, are rich in the element.
Other rocks, such as coal and shale, contain organic accu-
mulations of tissues and other parts that did not undergo
the process of decomposition.

Conglomerates and Breccias

Conglomerates and breccias are sedimentary rocks com-
posed of coarse fragments of preexisting rocks held
together either by cement or by a finer-grained clastic
matrix. Both contain significant amounts (at least 10
percent) of coarser-than-sand-size clasts. Breccias are
consolidated rubble; their clasts are angular or subangu-
lar. Conglomerates are consolidated gravel whose clasts
are subrounded to rounded. Sometimes the term rudite
(or rudaceous) is used to collectively refer to both breccias
and conglomerates.

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Classification Schemes

A number of classification schemes have been proposed

to further subdivide conglomerates and breccias. One
scheme is purely descriptive, partitioning these coarse
clastic sedimentary rocks on the basis of grain size (e.g.,
boulder breccia versus cobble conglomerate) or com-
position or both (chert pebble breccia versus limestone
cobble conglomerate). Yet another scheme differenti-
ates individual conglomerates and breccias according to
depositional agency and environmental setting (alluvial
fan conglomerate as opposed to beach conglomerate).
The best classification systems incorporate objective
physical characteristics of both composition and texture
as well as mode of genesis. Conglomerates and breccias
belong to four genetic categories: (1) epiclastic, produced
by the physical disintegration (weathering) of preexisting
rocks, (2) pyroclastic, produced by the explosive activity
of volcanoes, (3) cataclastic, formed by local earth move-
ments (fault breccias) or solution phenomena (collapse
breccias), and (4) meteoritic, produced by the impact
of extraterrestrial bodies on Earth’s surface. In a strict
sense, epiclastic conglomerates and breccias are the only
true sedimentary rocks, because they alone are produced
by weathering.

Epiclastic Conglomerates and Breccias

There are two principal types of epiclastic conglomerates
and breccias: intraformational, derived penecontempora-
neously by eroding, transporting, and depositing material
from within the depositional basin itself; and interforma-
tional, derived from source rocks that lie outside the area
in which the deposit occurs. Epiclastic conglomerates and
breccias together probably make up no more than 1 or 2
percent of the conventional sedimentary rock record.

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Intraformational conglomerates and breccias are

widespread in the geologic record but are volumetrically
unimportant. They occur as laterally continuous bands
or horizons within sequences of shallow-water marine or
nonmarine deposits. Their origin is commonly related to
the existence of brief episodes of strong bottom-hugging
currents capable of ripping up recently deposited, uncon-
solidated sediment. For example, shallow marine limestone
deposits commonly have thin bands of boulder-, cobble-,
and pebble-size carbonate clasts (edgewise conglomer-
ate or breccia beds) that are generated when storm waves
erode and redeposit carbonate mud layers. Likewise, high-
velocity river currents that accompany torrential rains give
rise to shale pebble conglomerates and breccias within
sequences of floodplain alluvium. Other intraformational
conglomerates and breccias mix shallow- and deep-water
sedimentary rock clasts encased in a finer-grained matrix
of deeper-water material. Such deposits accumulate as
depositional aprons that flank the scarps (steep slopes)
bounding shallow-water platformal areas such as the mod-
ern Great Bahama and Little Bahama banks off Florida in
the southeastern United States.
Interformational conglomerates and breccias, the
coarse clastic sedimentary rocks derived by the weather-
ing of preexisting rocks outside the depositional basin, are
most important from the points of view of both volume
and geologic significance. They can be subdivided into
two specific categories: (1) clast-supported conglomerates
(and breccias) and (2) matrix-supported conglomerates.

Clast-Supported Conglomerates
These rocks contain less than 15 percent matrix—i.e.,
material composed of clasts finer than granule size (2-mm
[0.08-inch] diameter or less). They typically exhibit an
intact fabric that has a clast-supported framework such

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that the individual granules, pebbles, cobbles, and boulders

touch each other. The space between framework compo-
nents either is empty or is filled with chemical cement,
finer-than-granule clasts, or both. Clast-supported con-
glomerates may be composed of large clasts of a single
rock or mineral type (oligomictic orthoconglomerates), or
they may contain a variety of rock and mineral clast types
(petromictic orthoconglomerates). If the clasts are all of
quartz, then it is called a quartzose conglomerate.
Clast-supported conglomerates (and orthobreccias)
are deposited by highly turbulent water. For example,
beach deposits commonly contain lenses and bands of
oligomictic orthoconglomerate, composed mainly (95
percent or more) of stable, resistant, coarse clasts of
vein quartz, quartzite, quartz sandstone, and chert. Such
deposits are typically generated in the upper reaches
of winter storm beaches where strong surf can sift, win-
now, and abrade coarse pebbles and boulders. The most
indestructible components are thereby consolidated as
conglomeratic lenses that are interfingered with finer-
grained, quartz-rich beach sandstones. Petromictic
conglomerates and breccias, on the other hand, reflect
the existence of high-relief (mountainous) source areas.
Topographically high source areas signify tectonic mobil-
ity in the form of active folding or faulting or both. The
existence of petromictic conglomerates and breccias in
the geologic record is therefore significant: their pres-
ence and age not only pinpoint the timing and location of
mountain building accompanied by sharp uplift and the
possibility of regionally significant fault scarps but also can
be used to infer the past distribution of physiographic fea-
tures such as mountain fronts, continental block margins,
continental shelf-continental slope boundaries, and the
distribution of oceanic trenches and volcanic island arcs.
Deep marine conglomerates may be called resedimented

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conglomerates. These were retransported from seashore

areas by turbidity currents.
Bedding (layering and stratification) in clast-supported
conglomerates, if apparent at all, is typically thick and
lenticular. Graded bedding, in which size decreases from
bottom to top, is common: because agitated waters rarely
subside at once, declining transport power causes a grad-
ual upward decrease in maximum clast size. Relative to
the bedding, the pebbles in sandy conglomerates tend to
lie flat, with their smallest dimension positioned vertically
and the greatest aligned roughly parallel to the current.
In closely packed orthoconglomerates, however, there is
often a distinct imbrication; i.e., flat pebbles overlap in the
same direction like roof shingles. Imbrication is upstream
on riverbeds and seaward on beaches.
Clast-supported conglomerates are quite important
economically because they hold enormous water reserves
that are easily released through wells. This feature is
attributable to their high porosity and permeability.
Porosity is the volume percentage of “void” (actually
fluid- or air-filled) space in a rock, whereas permeability is
defined as the rate of flow of water at a given pressure gra-
dient through a unit volume. The interconnectedness of
voids in conglomerates contributes to their permeability.
Also, because the chief resistance to flow is generally due
to friction and capillary effects, the overall coarse grain
size makes conglomerates even more permeable. The high
degree of porosity and permeability causes conglomerates
to generate excellent surface drainage, so they are to be
avoided as dam and reservoir sites.

Matrix-Supported Conglomerates
Matrix-supported conglomerates, also called diamic-
tites, exhibit a disrupted, matrix-supported fabric; they
contain 15 percent or more (sometimes as much as 80

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percent) sand-size and finer clastic matrix. The coarse

detrital clasts “float” in a finer-grained detrital matrix.
They actually are mudrocks in which there is a sprinkling
of granules, pebbles, cobbles, or boulders, or some combi-
nation of them. Accordingly, they are sometimes referred
to as conglomerate mudstones or pebbly mudstones.
Although matrix-supported conglomerates originate
in a variety of ways, they are not deposited by normal cur-
rents of moving water. Some are produced by submarine
landslides, massive slumping, or dense, sediment-laden,
gravity-driven turbidity flows. Matrix-supported con-
glomerates that can be definitively related to such
mechanisms are called tilloids. Tilloids commonly make
up olistostromes, which are large masses of coarse blocks
chaotically mixed within a muddy matrix. The terms till
(when unconsolidated) and tillite (when lithified) are used
for diamictites that appear to have been directly depos-
ited by moving sheets of glacial ice. Tillites typically
consist of poorly sorted angular and subangular, polished
and striated blocks of rock floating in an unstratified
clay matrix. The clasts may exhibit a weak but distinct
alignment of their long axes approximately parallel to
the direction of ice flow. Tillites are notoriously hetero-
geneous in composition: clasts appear to be randomly
mixed together without respect to size or compositional
stability. These clasts are derived mainly from the under-
lying bedrock. Extremely coarse, far-traveled blocks and
boulders are called erratics.
Other rarer diamictites, known as laminated pebbly
(or cobbly or bouldery) mudstones, consist of delicately
laminated mudrocks in which scattered coarser clasts
occur. Laminations within the muddy component are
broken and bent. They are located beneath and adjacent
to the larger clasts but gently overlap or arch over them,

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suggesting that the coarse clasts are dropstones (i.e., ice-

rafted blocks released as floating masses of ice melt).

Sandstones
Sandstones are siliciclastic sedimentary rocks that con-
sist mainly of sand-size grains (clast diameters from 2 to
1⁄ mm [0.08 to 0.0025 inch]) either bonded together
16
by interstitial chemical cement or lithified into a cohe-
sive rock by the compaction of the sand-size framework
component together with any interstitial primary (detri-
tal) and secondary (authigenic) finer-grained matrix
component. They grade, on the one hand, into the
coarser-grained siliciclastic conglomerates and breccias
described above, and, on the other hand, into siltstones
and the various finer-grained mudrocks described below.
Like their coarser analogues—namely, conglomerates and
breccias—sand-size (also called arenaceous) sedimentary
rocks are not exclusively generated by the physical disin-
tegration of preexisting rocks. Varieties of limestone that
contain abundant sand-size allochems such as oöids and
fossil fragments are, in at least a textural sense, types of
sandstones, although they are not terrigenous siliciclas-
tic rocks. Such rocks, called micrites when lithified or
carbonate sands when unconsolidated, are more properly
discussed as limestones. Also, pyroclastic sandstones or
tuffs formed by lithifying explosively produced volca-
nic ash deposits can be excluded from this discussion
because their origin is unrelated to weathering.
Sandstones are significant for a variety of reasons.
Volumetrically they constitute between 10 and 20 percent
of Earth’s sedimentary rock record. They are resistant
to erosion and therefore greatly influence the landscape.
When they are folded, they create the backbone of

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mountain ranges like the Appalachians of eastern North

America, the Carpathians of east-central Europe, the
Pennines of northern England, and the Apennine Range of
Italy; when flat-lying, they form broad plains and plateaus
like the Colorado and Allegheny plateaus. Sandstones
are economically important as major reservoirs for both
petroleum and water, as building materials, and as valuable
sources of metallic ores. Most significantly, they are the
single most useful sedimentary rock type for deciphering
Earth history. Sandstone mineralogy is the best indicator
of sedimentary provenance: the nature of a sedimentary
rock source area, its composition, relief, and location.
Sandstone textures and sedimentary structures also are
reliable indexes of the transportational agents and depo-
sitional setting.

Sandstone Components and Colour

There are three basic components of sandstones: (1) detri-
tal grains, mainly transported, sand-size minerals such as
quartz and feldspar, (2) a detrital matrix of clay or mud,
which is absent in “clean” sandstones, and (3) a cement
that is chemically precipitated in crystalline form from
solution and that serves to fill up original pore spaces.
The colour of a sandstone depends on its detrital grains
and bonding material. An abundance of potassium feldspar
often gives a pink colour; this is true of many feldspathic
arenites, which are feldspar-rich sandstones. Fine-grained,
dark-coloured rock fragments, such as pieces of slate, chert,
or andesite, however, give a salt-and-pepper appearance to
a sandstone. Iron oxide cement imparts tones of yellow,
orange, brown, or red, whereas calcite cement imparts
a gray colour. A sandstone consisting almost wholly of
quartz grains cemented by quartz may be glassy and white.
A chloritic clay matrix results in a greenish black colour
and extreme hardness; such rocks are wackes.

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Uluru and the Olgas

Ayers Rock, Northern Territory, Australia. Paul Steel/Photo Index

Uluru, which is also commonly known as Ayers Rock, is a giant

monolith, one of the tors (isolated masses of weathered rock) in south-
western Northern Territory, Australia. It is perhaps the world’s largest
monolith. The Aboriginals of the region call it Uluru. Composed of
arkosic sandstone, which changes colour according to the position of
the sun, the rock is most impressive at sunset, when it is coloured a
fiery orange-red by the sun’s rays.
Rising 335 metres (1,100 feet) above the surrounding desert plain,
Uluru/Ayers Rock is oval in shape, 3.6 km (2.2 miles) long by 2 km
(1.5 miles) wide. Its lower slopes have become fluted by the erosion of
weaker rock layers, while the top is scored with gullies and basins that
produce giant cataracts after infrequent rainstorms. Shallow caves at
the base of the rock, which is within Uluru–Kata Tjuta National Park
(established in 1958 as Ayers Rock–Mount Olga National Park), are
sacred to several Aboriginal tribes and contain carvings and paint-
ings. Sighted in 1872 by Ernest Giles, the rock was named for former
South Australian premier Sir Henry Ayers. In 1985 official ownership
of Uluru/Ayers Rock was given to the Aboriginals, who thereupon
leased the rock and the national park to the government for 99 years.
The national park is one of Australia’s best-known tourist destina-
tions. Visitors arrive at the rock via Alice Springs, 450 km (280 miles)

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northeast by road. The buildings of the tourist resort near Uluru/Ayers

Rock are coloured to blend in with the surrounding desert. Hiking
around the base of the rock is a popular activity, as is climbing up
the rock itself. However, the local Aboriginal people have sought to
ban climbing on it. The rock and the surrounding park were named
a World Heritage site in 1987, and the park was redesignated in 1994
for its cultural significance.
The Olga Rocks (Aboriginal: Kaja Tjuta) are a group of tors (iso-
lated weathered rocks) in southwestern Northern Territory, Australia.
The Olgas are a circular grouping of some 36 red conglomerate domes
rising from the desert plains north of the Musgrave Ranges. They
occupy an area of 11 square miles (28 square km) within Uluru–Kata
Tjuta National Park (established in 1958 as Ayers Rock–Mount Olga
National Park) and culminate at Mount Olga, 460 metres (1,500 feet)
above the plain and 1,069 metres (3,507 feet) above sea level. Mount
Olga is the most westerly of Australia’s three giant tors; the others
are Uluru/Ayers Rock and Mount Conner (Artilla). They were visited
and named in 1872 after Queen Olga of Württemberg by the explorer
Ernest Giles. Their Aboriginal name, Kata Tjuta, means “many
heads.” The rocks offer visitors a constantly changing array of colour
as the sun moves overhead and illuminates the luxurious vegetation in
deep clefts between the domes.

Formation of Sandstones Today

Sandstones occur in strata of all geologic ages. Much sci-
entific understanding of the depositional environment
of ancient sandstones comes from detailed study of sand
bodies forming at the present time. One of the clues
to origin is the overall shape of the entire sand deposit.
Inland desert sands today cover vast areas as a uniform
blanket; some ancient sandstones in beds a few hundred
metres thick but 1,600 km (about 1,000 miles) or more
in lateral extent, such as the Nubian Sandstone of North
Africa, of Mesozoic age (about 245 to 66.4 million years
old), also may have formed as blankets of desert sand.

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Deposits from alluvial fans form thick, fault-bounded

prisms. River sands today form shoestring-shaped bodies,
tens of metres thick, a few hundred metres wide, up to
60 km (about 37 miles) or more long, and usually oriented
perpendicularly to the shoreline. In meandering back and
forth, a river may construct a wide swath of sand depos-
its, mostly accumulating on meander-point bars. Beaches,
coastal dunes, and barrier bars also form “shoestring”
sands, but these are parallel to the shore. Deltaic sands
show a fanlike pattern of radial, thick, finger-shaped sand
bodies interbedded with muddy sediments. Submarine
sand bodies are diverse, reflecting the complexities of
underwater topography and currents. They may form
great ribbons parallel with the current; huge submarine
“dunes” or “sand waves” aligned perpendicularly to the
current; or irregular shoals, bars, and sheets. Some sands
are deposited in deep water by the action of density cur-
rents, which flow down submarine slopes by reason of
their high sediment concentrations and, hence, are called
turbidity currents. These characteristically form thin beds
interbedded with shales; sandstone beds often are graded
from coarse grains at the base to fine grains at the top of
the bed and commonly have a clay matrix.

Bedding Structure
One of the most fruitful methods of deciphering the
environment of deposition and direction of transport of
ancient sandstones is detailed field study of the sedimen-
tary structures.
Bedding in sandstones, expressed by layers of clays,
micas, heavy minerals, pebbles, or fossils, may be tens
of feet thick, but it can range downward to paper-thin
laminations. Flagstone breaks in smooth, even layers a
few centimetres thick and is used in paving. Thin, nearly
horizontal lamination is characteristic of many ancient

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beach sandstones. Bedding surfaces of sandstones may be

marked by ripples (almost always of subaqueous origin),
by tracks and trails of organisms, and by elongated grains
that are oriented by current flow (fossils, plant fragments,
or even elongated sand grains). Sand-grain orientation
tends to parallel direction of the current; river-channel
trends in fluvial sediments, wave-backwash direction in
beach sands, and wind direction in eolian sediments are
examples of such orientation.
A great variety of markings, such as flutes and scour
and fill grooves, can be found on the undersides of some
sandstone beds. These markings are caused by swift cur-
rents during deposition; they are particularly abundant in
sandstones deposited by turbidity currents.
Within the major beds, cross-bedding is common.
This structure is developed by the migration of small
ripples, sand waves, tidal-channel large-scale ripples, or
dunes and consists of sets of beds that are inclined to the
main horizontal bedding planes. Almost all sedimentary
environments produce characteristic types of cross-beds;
as one example, the lee faces of sand dunes (side not facing
the wind) may bear cross-beds as much as 33 metres (108
feet) high and dipping 35°.
Some sandstones contain series of graded beds. The
grains at the base of a graded bed are coarse and gradu-
ally become finer upward, at which point there is a sharp
change to the coarse basal layer of the overlying bed.
Among the many mechanisms that can cause these changes
in grain size are turbidity currents, but in general they can
be caused by any cyclically repeated waning current.
After the sand is deposited, it may slide downslope or
subside into soft underlying clays. This shifting gives rise
to contorted or slumped bedding on a scale of centime-
tres to tens of metres. Generally these are characteristic
of unstable areas of rapid deposition.

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Local cementation may result in concretions of cal-

cite, pyrite, barite, and other minerals. These can range
from sand crystals or barite roses to spheroidal or discoi-
dal concretions tens of metres across.
The fossil content also is a useful guide to the depo-
sitional environment of sandstones. Desert sandstones
usually lack fossils. River-channel and deltaic sandstones
may contain fossil wood, plant fragments, fossil foot-
prints, or vertebrate remains. Beach and shallow marine
sands contain mollusks, arthropods, crinoids, and other
marine creatures, though marine sandstones are much less
fossiliferous than marine limestones. Deepwater sands
are frequently devoid of skeletal fossils, although tracks
and trails may be common. The fossils are not actually
structures, of course, but the living organisms were able
to produce them. Burrowing by organisms, for example,
may cause small-scale structures, such as eyes and pods or
tubules of sand.

Texture
The texture of a sandstone is the sum of such attributes
as the clay matrix, the size and sorting of the detrital
grains, and the roundness of these particles. To evaluate
this property, a scale of textural maturity that involved
four textural stages was devised in 1951. These stages are
described as follows.
Immature sandstones contain a clay matrix, and the
sand-size grains are usually angular and poorly sorted.
This means that a wide range of sand sizes is present. Such
sandstones are characteristic of environments in which
sediment is dumped and is not thereafter worked upon by
waves or currents. These environments include stagnant
areas of sluggish currents such as lagoons or bay bottoms
or undisturbed seafloor below the zone of wave or cur-
rent action. Immature sands also form where sediments

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are rapidly deposited in subaerial environments, such as

river floodplains, swamps, alluvial fans, or glacial margins.
Submature sandstones are created by the removal of the
clay matrix by current action. The sand grains are, however,
still poorly sorted in these rocks. Submature sandstones
are common as river-channel sands, tidal-channel sands,
and shallow submarine sands swept by unidirectional cur-
rents. Mature sandstones are clay-free, and the sand grains
are subangular, but they are well sorted—that is, of nearly
uniform particle size. Typically, these sandstones form in
environments of current reversal and continual washing,
such as beaches. Supermature sandstones are those that
are clay-free and well sorted and, in addition, in which
the grains are well rounded. These sandstones probably
formed primarily as desert dunes, where intense eolian
abrasion over a very long period of time may wear sand
grains to nearly spherical shapes.
The methodology used for detailed study of silici-
clastic sedimentary rock textures, particularly grain-size
distribution and grain shape (angularity and sphericity)
has been described earlier. The information that results
from textural analyses is especially useful in identifying
sandstone depositional environments. Dune sands in all
parts of the world, for example, tend to be fine-sand-size
(clast diameters from 1⁄4 to 1⁄8 mm [0.01 to 0.005 inch])
because sand of that dimension is most easily moved
by winds. Desert (eolian) sandstones also tend to be
bimodal or polymodal—i.e., having two (or more) abun-
dant grain-size classes separated by intervening, less
prevalent size classes. Dune and beach sands exhibit the
best sorting; river and shallow marine sands are less well
sorted. River-floodplain, deltaic, and turbidity-current
sand deposits show much poorer sorting. Skewness (the
symmetry or asymmetry of a grain-size distribution)
also varies as a function of depositional setting. Beach

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sands are commonly negatively skewed (they have a tail

of more poorly sorted coarse grains), whereas dune and
river sands tend to be positively skewed (a tail of more
poorly sorted fine grains).
Careful analysis of grain roundness and grain shape also
can aid in distinguishing the high-abrasion environments
of beach and especially dune sands from those of fluvial or
marine sands. Rounding takes place much more rapidly in
sands subjected to wind action than in water-laid sands.
In general, coarser sand grains are better rounded than
finer grains because the coarser ones hit bottom more fre-
quently and also hit with greater impact during transport.
Sand grains may also have polished, frosted, pitted, or oth-
erwise characteristic surfaces. These depend on the grain
size, the agent of transport, and the amount of chemical
attack. For example, polish can occur on medium-grained
beach sands and fine-grained desert sands and can also be
produced chemically by weathering processes.

Classification of Sandstones
There are many different systems of classifying sand-
stones, but the most commonly used schemes incorporate
both texture (the presence and amount of either intersti-
tial matrix—i.e., clasts with diameters finer than 0.03 mm
[about 0.001 inch]—or chemical cement) and mineralogy
(the relative amount of quartz and the relative abun-
dance of rock fragments to feldspar grains). Although
not intended to have tectonic significance, the relative
proportions of quartz, feldspar, and fragments are good
indicators of an area’s tectonic regime. It is possible to
discriminate between stable cratons (rich in quartz and
feldspar), orogens (rich in quartz and fragments), and
magmatic arcs (rich in feldspar and fragments).
Sandstones are first subdivided into two major tex-
tural groups, arenites and wackes. Arenites consist of a

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sand-size framework component surrounded by pore

spaces that are either empty (in the case of arenite sands)
or filled with crystalline chemical cement (in the case of
arenites). Wackes consist of a sand-size framework com-
ponent floating in a finer-grained pasty matrix of grains
finer than 0.03 mm whose overall abundance exceeds 15
percent by volume.
Both arenites and wackes can be further subdivided
into three specific sandstone families based on the rela-
tive proportions of three major framework grain types:
quartz, feldspar, and rock fragments. For example,
quartz arenites are rocks whose sand grains consist of
at least 95 percent quartz. If the sand grains consist of
more than 25 percent feldspar (and feldspar grains are
in excess of rock fragments), the rock is termed arkosic
arenite or “arkose,” although such sandstones are also
somewhat loosely referred to as feldspathic sandstones.
In subarkosic arenite (or subarkose), feldspar sand grains
likewise exceed rock fragments but range in abundance
from 5 to 15 percent. Lithic arenites have rock fragments
that exceed feldspar grains; the abundance of rock frag-
ments is greater than 25 percent. Sublithic arenites
likewise contain more rock fragments than feldspar, but
the amount of rock fragments is lower, ranging from 5
to 25 percent. Lithic arenites can be further subdivided
according to the nature of the rock fragments. This clas-
sification scheme also recognizes three major types of
wackes or graywackes that are roughly analogous with
the three major arenite groups: quartz wacke, feld-
spathic wacke (with the subvariety arkosic wacke), and
lithic wacke. The three major arenite sandstone families
are separately described in the following sections, but
the varieties of wacke can be conveniently considered
together as a single group.

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Quartz Arenites

Quartz arenites are usually white, but they may be any

other colour; cementation by hematite, for example,
makes them red. They are usually well sorted and well
rounded (supermature) and often represent ancient dune,
beach, or shallow marine deposits. Characteristically, they
are ripple-marked or cross-bedded and occur as wide-
spread thin blanket sands. On chemical analysis, some
are found to contain more than 99 percent SiO2 (quartz).
Most commonly they are cemented with quartz, but cal-
cite and iron oxide frequently serve as cements as well.
This type of sandstone is widespread in stable areas of
continents surrounding the craton, such as central North
America (St. Peter Sandstone of Ordovician age [about 505
to 438 million years old]), central Australia, or the Russian
Platform, and are particularly common in Paleozoic strata
(that formed from 570 to 245 million years ago). Quartz
arenites have formed in the past when large areas of sub-
continental dimensions were tectonically stable (not
subject to uplift or deformation) and of low relief, so that
extensive weathering could take place, accompanied by
prolonged abrasion and sorting. This process eliminated
all the unstable or readily decomposed minerals such as
feldspar or rock fragments and concentrated pure quartz
together with trace amounts of zircon, tourmaline, and
various other resistant heavy minerals.
Quartz arenites have also accumulated to thicknesses of
hundreds and even thousands of metres on the continental
shelf areas produced as passive continental margins develop
during the early stages of continental rifting and the opening
of an ocean basin. These thick, continental margin deposits
form only if source areas are sufficiently stable to permit
beach abrasion and intense chemical weathering capable

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of destroying rock fragments and feldspars. Subsequent

ocean basin closure and continental collision deforms the
continental shelf and rise assemblages, incorporating clean
quartz arenite units into the resulting folded and faulted
mountain system, typically as major ridges. Examples
include the Cambrian Chilhowee Group and Silurian
Tuscarora Sandstone and Clinch Sandstone formations
in the Appalachian Mountains of eastern North America
and the Flathead Sandstone and Tapeats Sandstone of the
Rocky Mountains in the western part of the continent.

Arkosic Sandstones
Arkosic sandstones are of two types. The most common
of these is a mixture of quartz, potash feldspar, and gra-
nitic rock fragments. Chemically, these rocks are 60–70
percent silica (or silicon dioxide) and 10–15 percent alumi-
num oxide (Al2O3), with significant amounts of potassium
(K), sodium (Na), and other elements. This type of arkosic
sandstone, or arkose, can form wherever block faulting
of granitic rocks occurs, given rates of uplift, erosion,
and deposition that are so great that chemical weather-
ing is outweighed and feldspar can survive in a relatively
unaltered state. These rocks are usually reddish, generally
immature, very poorly sorted, and frequently interbedded
with arkose conglomerate; alluvial fans or fluvial aprons
are the main depositional environments. The Triassic
Newark Group of Connecticut is a classic example of this
type of arkosic sandstone.
Arkoses also form under desert (or rarely, Arctic) con-
ditions in which the rate of chemical decomposition of
the parent granite or gneiss is very slow. These arkoses are
generally well sorted and rounded (supermature) and show
other desert features, such as eolian cross-beds, associated
gypsum, and other evaporitic minerals. The Precambrian
Torridonian Arkose of Great Britain is thought to be of

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desert origin. Basal sands deposited on a granitic-gneissic

craton also are usually arkosic. Subarkose sandstones (e.g.,
Millstone Grit from the Carboniferous of England) have
a feldspar content that is diminished by more extensive
weathering or abrasion or by dilution from nonigneous
source rocks.

Lithic Arenites
Lithic arenites occur in several subvarieties, but they are
normally gray or of salt-and-pepper appearance because
of the inclusion of dark-coloured rock fragments. Most
commonly, fragments of metamorphic rocks such as slate,
phyllite, or schist predominate, producing phyllarenite.
If volcanic rock fragments such as andesite and basalt are
most abundant, the rock is termed a volcanic arenite. If
chert and carbonate rock fragments are predominant, the
name chert or calclithite is applied.
Lithic arenites are usually rich in mica and texturally
immature; the silicon dioxide content is 60–70 percent;
aluminum oxide is 15 percent; and potassium, sodium,
iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) are present
in lesser amounts. Lithic arenites are very common in the
geologic record, are widespread geographically, and are
of all ages. They generally were formed as the result of
rapid uplift, intense erosion, and high rates of deposition.
Many of the classic postorogenic clastic wedge systems
found in the major mountain systems of the world con-
tain abundant lithic arenites. In the Appalachians, these
include the Ordovician Juniata Formation of the Taconic
clastic wedge, the Devonian Catskill Formation of the
Acadian clastic wedge, and the Pocono and Mauch Chunk
formations of the Alleghenian clastic wedge. Most lithic
arenites are deposited as fluvial apron, deltaic, coastal
plain, and shallow marine sandstones, interbedded with
great thicknesses of shale and frequently with beds of coal

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or limestone. If they are deposited in an oxidizing environ-

ment such as a well-drained river system, they are reddish
(e.g., the Catskill Formation of the northeastern United
States and the Devonian Old Red Sandstone of England).

Wackes
Wacke, or graywacke, is the name applied to generally dark-
coloured, very strongly bonded sandstones that consist of
a heterogeneous mixture of rock fragments, feldspar, and
quartz of sand size, together with appreciable amounts of
mud matrix. Almost all wackes originated in the sea, and
many were deposited in deep water by turbidity currents.
Wackes typically are poorly sorted, and the grain sizes
present range over three orders of magnitude—e.g., from
2 to 2,000 micrometres (8×10−5 to 8×10−2 inch). Commonly,
the coarsest part of a wacke bed is its base, where pebbles
may be abundant. Shale fragments, which represent lumps
of mud eroded from bottom sediments by the depositing
current, may be concentrated elsewhere in the bed.
Many wackes contain much mud, typically 15–40 per-
cent, and this increases as the mean grain size of the rock
decreases. The particles forming the rock are typically
angular. This, and the presence of the interstitial mud
matrix, has led to these rocks being called “microbrec-
cias.” The fabric and texture indicate that the sediments
were carried only a short distance and were subject to very
little reworking by currents after deposition.
The most widespread internal structure of wackes is
graded bedding, although some sequences display it poorly.
Sets of cross strata more than 3 cm (1.2 inches) thick are rare,
but thinner sets are very common. Parallel lamination is
widespread, and convolute bedding is usually present. These
internal structures are arranged within wacke beds in a regu-
lar sequence. They appear to result from the action of a single
current flow and are related to changes in the hydraulics of

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the depositing current. In some beds, the upper part of the

sequence of structures is missing, presumably because of
erosion or nondeposition. In others, the lower part is miss-
ing. This has been attributed to change in the hydraulic
properties of the depositing current as it moves away from
its source and its velocity decreases to the point at which the
first sediment deposited is laminated, rather than massive
and graded as is the case closer to the source.
The most typical external structures of wacke beds are
sole markings, which occur on their undersurfaces. Flute
and groove molds are the most characteristic, but many
other structures have been recorded.
The upper surfaces of wacke beds are less well char-
acterized by sedimentary structures. The most typical are
current lineation and various worm tracks, particularly of
the highly sinuous form Nereites. Apart from these trace
fossils, wackes are usually sparsely fossiliferous. Where
fossils occur they are generally free-floating organisms
(graptolites, foraminiferans) that have settled to the bot-
tom, or bottom-living (benthic), shallow-water organisms
displaced into deeper water as part of the sediment mass.
Wackes are chemically homogeneous and are generally
rich in aluminum oxide (Al2O3), ferrous oxide (FeO) + ferric
oxide (Fe2O3), magnesium oxide (MgO), and soda (Na2O).
The abundance of soda relative to potash (K2O) (reflecting
a typically high sodium plagioclase feldspar content) and
dominance of ferrous oxide over ferric oxide (reflecting large
amounts of chlorite in the matrix) chemically distinguishes
wackes from the three arenite families. The bulk composi-
tion of most wackes mimics that of their source owing to a
lack of chemical differentiation by weathering and sorting.
The matrix component, which is by definition any clasts
30 micrometres or finer, allows wackes to be differenti-
ated from the other major sandstones. To be characterized
as a wacke, its matrix component must equal or exceed 15

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percent; in some cases more than 50 percent matrix has been

reported. The origin of the matrix component, however, is
controversial. Even though laboratory studies demonstrate
that gravity-driven, bottom-hugging turbidity currents
deposit sand-size grains together with mud-size clasts, mod-
ern deep-sea fan and abyssal plain sands (turbidites) have a
matrix component that seldom exceeds 10 percent. A large
portion of the matrix in ancient wackes must therefore be
secondary, derived either from the disaggregation of feld-
spar and fine-grained lithic fragments like shale, phyllite,
and volcanic rocks or from the postdepositional infiltration
of clay- and silt-size clasts from overlying beds.
Wackes are widespread in the geologic record and occur
throughout geologic history. They typically are not found in
association with sedimentary rocks that accumulate upon
stable continental blocks and are instead confined either
to intensely deformed mountain systems or to their mod-
ern analogues: ocean trenches, the continental slope and
rise, and abyssal plain areas. Many, perhaps most, wackes
are redeposited marine sands derived from source areas in
which weathering, erosion, and deposition are too rapid
to permit chemical differentiation and the breakdown
of unstable components. Wackes of Archean age (those
formed from 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago) constitute the dom-
inant sandstone type in the classic greenstone belts of the
Precambrian shields (large areas of basement rocks in a cra-
ton that formed 3.8 billion to 570 million years ago around
which younger sedimentary rocks have been deposited).
They probably accumulated in rapidly subsiding trenches
and ocean basins that surrounded primitive continental
blocks. Proterozoic wackes (those formed from about 2.5
billion to 570 million years ago) are dominantly trench and
ocean basin deposits, as are wackes of Phanerozoic age
(those formed from 570 million years ago to the present
day). They represent the accumulation of sand-size prisms

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of material that today are deposited both within ocean

trenches (e.g., the modern trenches off Indonesia) and as
submarine fan aprons (e.g., the Astoria Fan off the Pacific
coast of Washington and Oregon in the United States) devel-
oped at the base of the continental slope at the mouths of
submarine canyons. More distal carpets of wacke sand can
extend for thousands of square kilometres across oceanic
abyssal plains. Classic examples of the continental mar-
gin and ocean basin deposits include the late Precambrian
Ocoee Supergroup and Ordovician Martinsburg Formation
of the Appalachians, the Jurassic and Cretaceous Franciscan
Formation of the Pacific Coast Ranges of California, much
of the Alpine flysch of Switzerland and France, and many of
the famous turbidite sands found in the Italian Apennines.
The feature common to all modern depositional sites
is that they adjoin landmasses in areas of high submarine
relief. The landmass may be a continent bordered by either
a passive, aseismic margin (for example, the eastern mar-
gin of North America) or a seismically active margin such
as that found along the western coast of both North and
South America. The landmass can also be an active volcanic
arc such as the Aleutian Islands chain or the Japan islands
arc. The critical factor is the close proximity of topograph-
ically high and emergent clastic source areas and steeply
sloped submarine depositional slopes, basins, or trenches.

Mudrocks
In terms of volume, mudrocks are by far the most impor-
tant variety of sedimentary rock, probably constituting
nearly 80 percent of Earth’s sedimentary rock column.
Despite this abundance, the literature on mudrocks
does not match in extent or detail that dealing with
sandstones, carbonate rocks, and the various rarer sedi-
mentary rock varieties like evaporite and phosphorite.

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This paradox reflects the difficulties inherent both in

analyzing such rocks, owing to their poor exposure and
fine grain size, and in interpreting any data obtained
from their analysis because of the effects of diagen-
esis. Mudrocks include all siliciclastic sedimentary
rocks composed of silt- and clay-size particles: siltstone
(1⁄16 mm to1⁄256 mm [0.0025 inch to 0.00015 inch] diam-
eters), claystone (less than 1⁄256 mm), and mudstone (a mix
of silt and clay). Shale refers specifically to mudrocks that
regularly exhibit lamination or fissility or both. Mudrocks
are also loosely referred to as both lutites and pelites and
as argillaceous sedimentary rocks.
Though mudrocks are composed mainly of detritus
weathered from preexisting rocks, many contain large
amounts of chemically precipitated cement (either cal-
cium carbonate or silica), as well as abundant organic
material. Mudrocks produced from the alteration of vol-
canic lava flows and ash beds to clay and zeolite minerals
are called bentonites.

General Properties of Shales

The properties of shales are largely determined by the fine
grain size of the constituent minerals. The accumulation of
fine clastic detritus generally requires a sedimentary envi-
ronment of low mechanical energy (one in which wave and
current actions are minimal), although some fine material
may be trapped by plants or deposited as weakly coherent
pellets in more agitated environments. The properties of the
clay mineral constituents of lutites are particularly impor-
tant, even when they do not make up the bulk of a rock.
The mineralogy of shales is highly variable. In addition
to clay minerals (60 percent), the average shale contains
quartz and other forms of silica, notably amorphous silica
and cristobalite (30 percent), feldspars (5 percent), and
the carbonate minerals calcite and dolomite (5 percent).

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Iron oxides and organic matter (about 0.5 and 1 percent,

respectively) are also important. Older calculations greatly
underestimated clay minerals because of incorrect assign-
ment of potassium to feldspar minerals. The most abundant
clay mineral is illite; montmorillonite and mixed-layer
illite-montmorillonite are next in abundance, followed by
kaolinite, chlorite, chlorite-montmorillonite, and vermic-
ulite. The quartz-to-feldspar ratio generally mirrors that
of associated sands. In pelagic (deep-sea) sediments, how-
ever, feldspar may be derived from local volcanic sources,
whereas quartz may be introduced from the continents by
wind, upsetting simple patterns. A large number of acces-
sory minerals occur in shales. Some of these are detrital,
but diagenetic or in situ varieties (e.g., pyrite, siderite, and
various phosphates) and volcanically derived varieties (e.g.,
zeolites, zircon, and biotite) have been noted.

Origin of Shales
The formation of fine-grained sediments generally
requires weak transporting currents and a quiet deposi-
tional basin. Water is the common transporting medium,
but ice-rafted glacial flour (silt produced by glacial grind-
ing) is a major component in high-latitude oceanic muds,
and windblown dust is prominent, particularly in the open
ocean at low and intermediate latitudes. Shale environ-
ments thus include the deep ocean; the continental slope
and rise; the deeper and more protected parts of shelves,
shallow seas, and bays; coastal lagoons; interdistributory
regions of deltas, swamps, and lakes (including arid basin
playas); and river floodplains. The deep-sea muds are very
fine, but an orderly sequence from coarse sediments in
high-energy nearshore environments to fine sediments
at greater depths is rarely found. Sediments at the outer
edges of present-day continental shelves are commonly
sands, relict deposits of shallower Pleistocene (from about

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2.6 million to 11,700 years ago) glacial conditions, whereas

muds are currently being deposited in many parts of the
inner shelf. The nearshore deposition of clay minerals is
enhanced by the tendency of riverborne dispersed plate-
lets to flocculate in saline waters (salinity greater than
about four parts per thousand) and to be deposited just
beyond the agitated estuarine environment as aggregates
hydraulically equivalent to coarser particles. Differential
flocculation leads to clay-mineral segregation, with illite
and kaolinite near shore and montmorillonite farther out
to sea. Advance of silty and sandy delta-slope deposits over
clays also leads to complex grain-size patterns.
Shales may be deposited in environments of periodic
agitation. Sediments deposited on submarine slopes are
frequently mechanically unstable and may be redistrib-
uted by slumping and turbidity currents to form thick
accumulations (possible present-day eugeosynclinal equiv-
alents) on the lower continental slope and rise. Part of the
shale in many wacke-shale alternations may be of turbidite
origin. Fine sediment can be deposited in marshes and on
tidal flats. Trapping by marsh plants and binding of muds
in fecal pellets are important. Because of electrochemi-
cal interactions among fine particles, muds plastered on
a tidal flat by an advancing tide are difficult to reerode on
the ebb. This may lead, as in the present-day Waddenzee,
in the Netherlands, to a size increase from nearshore tidal
flat muds to lag sands seaward. Fine floodplain sediments
may dry out to coherent shale pellets, and these, on reero-
sion, can be redistributed as sands and gravels.

Shales of Economic Value

Black shales are often of economic importance as sources

of petroleum products and metals, and this importance
will probably increase in the future. The lacustrine Eocene

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Green River Shales of Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah are

potentially rich petroleum sources and are undergoing
exploratory extraction. Bituminous layers of the Early
Permian Irati Shales of Brazil are similarly important.
These shales contain the remains of the marine rep-
tile Mesosaurus, also found in South Africa, and played a
prominent part in the development of the concepts of
continental drift. The widespread thin Chattanooga Shale
(Devonian-Mississippian) of the eastern United States has
been exploited for its high (up to 250 parts per million) ura-
nium content. The Kupferschiefer of the Permian (286 to
245 million years old) is a bituminous shale rich in metallic
sulfides of primary sedimentary or early diagenetic origin;
it covers a large area of central Europe as a band generally
less than one metre thick, and in eastern Germany and in
Poland there is sufficient enrichment in copper, lead, and
zinc for its exploitation as an ore.

Limestones and
Dolomites
Limestones and dolo-
mites are collectively
referred to as carbon-
ates because they consist
predominantly of the car-
bonate minerals calcite
(CaCO3) and dolomite
(CaMg[CO3]2). Almost
all dolomites are believed
to be produced by recrys-
tallization of preexisting
limestones, although
Photomicrograph showing micritic limestone
the exact details of this from the Triassic Period (magnified 18×).
dolomitization process Courtesy of A. Bosellini

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Photomicrograph showing micritic limestone from the Triassic Period (mag-

nified 18×). Courtesy of A. Bosellini

Photomicrograph showing skeletal oolitic limestone, with clean calcite

cement, from the Lower Triassic Period (magnified 18×). Courtesy of A.
Bosellini

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continue to be debated. Consequently, the following dis-

cussion initially deals with limestones and dolomites as a
single rock type and subsequently considers the complex
process by which some limestones become dolomite.
Carbonates are by far the only volumetrically impor-
tant nonsiliciclastic sedimentary rock type. Most are
marine, and thick sequences of carbonate rocks occur in all
the continental blocks, a surviving record of the transgres-
sions and regressions of shallow marine (epeiric) seas that
repeatedly blanketed the stable continental cratonic areas
from time to time mainly during the late Precambrian,
Paleozoic, and Mesozoic eras. Modern marine carbonate
sediments, whose formation is favoured by warm, shallow
water, are presently being deposited in a broad band strad-
dling the Equator. The texture, sedimentary structures,
composition, and organic content of carbonates provide
numerous insights into the environment of deposition and
regional paleogeography. Many important oil reservoirs of
the world, especially those of the Middle East, occur in
carbonate rocks.

Photomicrograph showing pisolitic dolomite from the Upper Triassic Period

(magnified 5×).Courtesy of A. Bosellini

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Photomicrograph showing recrystallized lump limestone from the Permian

Period (magnified 18×). Courtesy of A. Bosellini

Photomicrograph showing diagenetic dolomite from the Middle Triassic

Period growing at the expense of existing micritic material (magnified 15×).
Courtesy of A. Bosellini

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Mineralogy

Though ancient limestones and dolomites are composed

of calcite and dolomite, respectively, other calcite group
minerals such as magnesite (MgCO3), rhodochrosite
(MnCO3), and siderite (FeCO3) occur in limited amounts
in restricted environments. Modern carbonate sediments
are composed almost entirely of metastable aragonite
(CaCO3) and magnesium-rich calcite, both of which
readily recrystallize during diagenesis to form calcite.
Carbonate rocks commonly grade naturally into siliciclas-
tic sedimentary rocks as the proportion of terrigenous
grains of varying size and mineralogy increases. Such
mixtures are the consequence of the infringement of a
dominantly siliciclastic depositional setting (e.g., a quartz
arenitic beach area) into, for example, a lagoon or tidal flat
in which carbonate mud accumulates.

Textural Components
Carbonate minerals present in ancient limestones and
dolomites occur in one of three textural forms: (1) discrete
silt to sand to coarser carbonate grains, or allochems, such
as oöids or skeletal fragments, (2) mud-size interstitial cal-
cium carbonate matrix called microcrystalline calcite or
micrite, and (3) interlocking, 0.02- to 0.1-mm- [0.0008-
to 0.0004-inch-] diameter crystals of clear interstitial
calcium carbonate cement or spar. In a rather simplistic
sense, these three carbonate rock textural components are
comparable, respectively, to the three possible constitu-
ents in a sandstone: (1) the coarser rock and mineral grains,
(2) interstitial matrix, and (3) interstitial chemical cement.
Several types of allochems exist: oöids, skeletal grains,
carbonate clasts, and pellets. Oöids (also known as oölites
or oöliths) are sand-size spheres of calcium carbonate
mud concentrically laminated about some sort of nucleus

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grain, perhaps a fossil fragment or a silt-size detrital

quartz grain. Oöids develop today on shallow shelf areas
where strong bottom currents can wash the various kinds
of material that form oöid nuclei back and forth in well-
agitated, warm water that is supersaturated with calcium
carbonate. The concentric layers of aragonite (in modern
oöids) is produced by blue-green algae that affix them-
selves to the grain nucleus. Skeletal fragments, also known
as bioclasts, can be whole fossils or broken fragments of
organisms, depending on current and wave strength as
well as depositional depth. The content and texture of
the bioclast component in any carbonate will vary notice-
ably as a function of both age (due to evolution) and
depositional setting (because of subsequent abrasion and
transport as well as ecology). Carbonate clasts include
fragments weathered from carbonate source rocks outside
the depositional basin (lithoclasts) as well as fragments of
carbonate sediment eroded from within the basin almost
immediately after it was deposited (intraclasts). Silt- to
sand-size particles of microcrystalline calcite or arago-
nite that lack the internal structure of oöids or bioclasts
generally are called pellets or peloids. Most are fecal pel-
lets generated by mud-ingesting organisms. Pellets can
be cemented together into irregularly shaped composite
grains dubbed lumpstones or grapestones.
Microcrystalline carbonate mud (micrite) and sparry
carbonate cement (sparite) are collectively referred
to as orthochemical carbonate because, in contrast to
allochems, neither exhibits a history of transport and
deposition as clastic material. Micrite can occur either
as matrix that fills or partly fills the interstitial pores
between allochems or as the main component of a car-
bonate rock. It originates mainly as the result of organic
activity: algae generate tiny needles of aragonite within
their tissues, and after their death such needles fall to the

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depositional surface as unconsolidated mud, which soon

recrystallizes to calcite. Some micrite is produced by inor-
ganic precipitation of aragonite; grain-to-grain collision
and the resulting abrasion of allochems also can gener-
ate modest amounts of micrite. Most of the coarser and
clearer crystals of sparry calcite that fill interstitial pores
as cement represent either recrystallized micrite or essen-
tially a direct inorganic precipitate.
A number of carbonate classification schemes have
been developed, but most modern ones subdivide and
name carbonate rock types on the basis of the kinds of
allochems present and the nature of the interstitial pore
filling, whether it is micrite or spar. The most widely used
scheme of this type is the descriptive classification devised
by the American petrologist Robert L. Folk.

Origin of Limestones
Limestones originate mainly through the lithification of
loose carbonate sediments. Modern carbonate sediments
are generated in a variety of environments: continental,
marine, and transitional, but most are marine. The present-
day Bahama banks is the best known modern carbonate
setting. It is a broad submarine shelf covered by shallow,
warm seawater. The Bahama shelf, or carbonate platform,
mimics the setting that repeatedly prevailed across the
stable cratonic areas of the major continental blocks dur-
ing late Precambrian, Paleozoic, and Mesozoic time and
serves as a model for explaining the various limestone
types that make up such ancient carbonate successions.
The edge of the shelf is marked by a topographically
sharp escarpment flanked by coarse, angular limestone
breccia. Submarine channels etched into the escarpment
serve as waterways down which shallow-water carbonate
sediment can be transported by turbidity currents capable
of redistributing them as apronlike deposits on the oceanic

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abyssal plain. In many areas, the fringe of the Bahama

banks is marked by wave-resistant reef rocks (sometimes
classified as boundstone). Abrasion of these reefs by wave
activity generates abundant skeletal debris. Variations in
depth and current strength control the relative amounts
of micrite and sparite, the prevalence of specific organisms
and their productivity, and the likelihood of generating
oöids, pellets, and carbonate rock fragments. Micrite and
micritic allochemical sediments accumulate in deep-water,
low-energy, protected areas like lagoons and tidal flats
and on the leeward side of major islands. In high-energy,
shallow-water locales such as beaches, coastal dunes, and
tidal channels, currents winnow out any micrite, and these
become the sites of sparry allochemical sediment depo-
sition. Pinpointing the exact depositional setting for an
ancient carbonate deposit requires detailed analysis of its
texture, composition, sedimentary structures, geometry,
fossil content, and stratigraphic relationships with mod-
ern carbonate depositional sites.
In addition to the ancient analogues of the modern
carbonate deposits described above are freshwater lime-
stones (marls) and limestone muds (or calcilutites) of
deep-water abyssal plains. Freshwater limestones of lim-
ited extent represent a spectrum of small-scale settings
developed within and along the margins of lacustrine
basins. Deep-water abyssal plain limestones are quite
restricted in volume and age in the geologic record for a
number of reasons. First of all, abyssal plain sequences are
less likely to be incorporated into the orogenic belts that
develop as continental margins are compressed during
ocean basin closure. Second, pelagic calcareous oozes are
the obvious modern analogues of ancient abyssal plain cal-
cilutites. These oozes are produced by aragonite-secreting
plankton that float near the surface (such as foraminiferans

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and coccoliths), which upon their death leave their shells,

or tests, to settle slowly to the ocean bottom and accu-
mulate. The development of such deep-sea deposits
is therefore obviously dependent on the existence of
calcium-secreting planktonic organisms, and these did
not evolve until Mesozoic time. Finally, calcareous ooze
accumulation is severely restricted both by latitude (being
largely confined to a band extending 30° to 40° north and
south of the Equator) and abyssal plain depth (approxi-
mately 2,000 metres [about 6,500 feet]). Below a depth
of about 4,500 metres (about 14,800 feet), which is the
carbonate compensation depth (CCD), the pressure and
temperature of seawater produces a rate of dissolution in
excess of the rate of pelagic test accumulation.

Biogenic Ooze
Biogenic ooze, which is also called biogenic sediment, is the term
for any pelagic sediment that contains more than 30 percent skeletal
material. These sediments can be made up of either carbonate (or
calcareous) ooze or siliceous ooze. The skeletal material in carbonate
oozes is calcium carbonate usually in the form of the mineral calcite
but sometimes aragonite. The most common contributors to the
skeletal debris are such microorganisms as foraminiferans and cocco-
liths, microscopic carbonate plates that coat certain species of marine
algae and protozoa. Siliceous oozes are composed of opal (amorphous,
hydrated silica) that forms the skeleton of various microorganisms,
including diatoms, radiolarians, siliceous sponges, and silicoflagel-
lates. The distribution of biogenic oozes depends mainly on the
supply of skeletal material, dissolution of the skeletons, and dilution
by other sediment types, such as turbidites or clays.
Primary productivity, the production of organic substances
through photosynthesis and chemosynthesis, in the ocean surface
waters controls the supply of material to a large extent. Productivity
is high at the Equator and in zones of coastal upwelling and also
where oceanic divergences occur near Antarctica. Productivity is low-
est in the central areas of the oceans (the gyres) in both hemispheres.

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Siliceous oozes are more reliable indicators of high productivity than

carbonate oozes. This is because silica dissolves quickly in surface
waters and carbonate dissolves in deep water; hence, high surface pro-
ductivity is required to supply siliceous skeletons to the ocean floor.
Carbonate oozes dominate the deep Atlantic seafloor, while siliceous
oozes are most common in the Pacific; the floor of the Indian Ocean
is covered by a combination of the two.
Carbonate oozes cover about half of the world’s seafloor. They
are present chiefly above a depth of 4,500 metres (about 14,800
feet); below that they dissolve quickly. This depth is named the
Calcite Compensation Depth (or CCD). It represents the level at
which the rate of carbonate accumulation equals the rate of car-
bonate dissolution. In the Atlantic basin the CCD is 500 metres
(about 1,600 feet) deeper than in the Pacific basin, reflecting both
a high rate of supply and low rate of dissolution in comparison to
the Pacific. The input of carbonate to the ocean is through rivers
and deep-sea hydrothermal vents. Variation in input, productivity,
and dissolution rates in the geologic past have caused the CCD to
vary over 2,000 metres (about 6,600 feet). The CCD intersects the
flanks of the world’s oceanic ridges, and as a result these are mostly
blanketed by carbonate oozes.
Siliceous oozes predominate in two places in the oceans:
around Antarctica and a few degrees of latitude north and south of
the Equator. At high latitudes the oozes include mostly the shells
of diatoms. South of the Antarctic Convergence diatom oozes
dominate the seafloor sediment cover and mix with glacial marine
sediments closer to the continent. Seventy-five percent of all the
oceans’ silica supply is being deposited in the area surrounding
Antarctica. Radiolarian oozes are more common near the Equator
in the Pacific. Here, both siliceous oozes and calcareous oozes
occur, but carbonate deposition dominates the region immediately
near the Equator. Siliceous oozes bracket the carbonate belt and
blend with pelagic clays farther north and south. Because siliceous
skeletons dissolve so quickly in seawater, only the more robust skel-
etal remains are found in the siliceous oozes. Thus, fossils of this
kind are not completely representative of the organisms living in
the waters above.

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Dolomites and Dolomitization

Dolomite is produced by dolomitization, a diagenetic

process in which the calcium carbonate minerals arago-
nite and calcite are recrystallized and converted into the
mineral dolomite. Dolomitization can obscure or even
obliterate all or part of the original limestone textures
and structures; in the case where such original features
survive, carbonate nomenclature and interpretation can
still be applied to the rock with emphasis on the effects
of alteration.
The exact processes by which limestones are dolo-
mitized are not thoroughly understood, but dolomites
occur widely in the geologic record. The relative propor-
tion of dolomite to limestone progressively increases
with age in carbonate rocks. This secular trend probably
either reflects the earlier existence of geochemical set-
tings that were more favourable to dolomitization or
is the logical result of the fact that the likelihood for a
limestone to undergo dolomitization increases propor-
tionally with its age.
Geochemists have been unable to precipitate normal
dolomite under the conditions of temperature and pres-
sure that exist in nature; temperatures within the 200 °C
(392 °F) range are required to support precipitation. A few
modern, so-called primary marine dolomite localities have
been studied, but close investigation of these areas sug-
gests that even these penecontemporaneous dolomites are
produced by altering calcite or aragonite almost immedi-
ately after their initial precipitation. Dolomites generated
by later alteration of older limestones are known as diage-
netic dolomites.
The study of the few reported penecontemporane-
ous dolomite sites allows some conclusions to be formed

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regarding the dolomitization process. These modern

dolomites develop mainly under conditions of high salin-
ity (hypersalinity), which commonly exist in arid regions
across supratidal mud flats as well as on the flat, saline
plains and playa lake beds known as sabkhas. In highly
saline environments, the ratio of dissolved magnesium
ions to dissolved calcium ions progressively increases
above the norm for seawater (5:1) as a result of the selec-
tive formation of calcium-rich evaporite minerals like
gypsum and anhydrite. These magnesium-rich brines
then tend to be flushed downward owing to their high
density; the entire process is named evaporative reflux.
Penecontemporaneous dolomites would result from the
positioning of sabkhas and arid supratidal flats in a site
that is in immediate contact with carbonate sediment;
diagenetic dolomites would logically result when such
dolomite-producing settings overlie older limestone
deposits. The presence of fissures or highly permeable
zones serving as channelways for downward percolation
of dolomitizing fluids would also promote the altera-
tion. Other studies have emphasized a possible role in
dolomitization for dense brackish (salty) fluids formed
when seawater and meteoric waters (those precipitated
from the atmosphere as rain or snow) are produced along
coastal zones.

Siliceous Rocks
Those siliceous rocks composed of an exceptionally high
amount of crystalline siliceous material, mainly the min-
eral quartz (especially microcrystalline quartz and fibrous
chalcedony) and amorphous opal, are most commonly
known as chert. A wide variety of rock names are applied
to cherty rocks reflecting their colour (flint is dark chert;

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jasper is usually red; prase is green) and geographic ori-

gin (novaculite of Arkansas, U.S.; silexite of France). The
term chert is applied here to all fine-grained siliceous sedi-
ments and sedimentary rocks of chemical, biochemical,
and organic origin.

Types of Cherts
Two major varieties of chert deposits exist—namely,
bedded chert and nodular chert. Bedded cherts occur
in individual bands or layers ranging in thickness from
one to several centimetres or even tens of metres. They
are intimately associated with volcanic rocks, com-
monly submarine volcanic flows as well as deep-water
mudrocks. Classic examples include the Miocene
Monterey Formation of the Coast Ranges of California,
the Permian Rex Chert of Utah and Wyoming, the
Arkansas Novaculite of the Ouachita Mountains, and the
Mesozoic chert deposits of the Franciscan Formation of
California. Nodular cherts occur as small to large (mil-
limetres to centimetres) knotlike and fistlike clusters
of quartz, chalcedony, and opal concentrated along or
parallel with bedding planes in shallow-water marine
carbonate rocks as well as pelagic limestones. Individual
nodules may be ovoid or semispherical in shape; masses
of chert typically form a network.

Origin of Cherts
Many bedded cherts are composed almost entirely of the
remains of silica-secreting organisms like diatoms and
radiolarians. Such deposits are produced by compacting
and recrystallizing the organically produced siliceous
ooze deposits that accumulate on the present-day abys-
sal ocean floor. The modern oozes gather in latitudes
where high organic productivity of floating planktonic

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radiolarians and diatoms takes place in the warm surface

waters. As individual organisms die, their shells settle
slowly to the abyssal floor and accumulate as uncon-
solidated siliceous ooze. Siliceous oozes are particularly
prominent across areas of the ocean floor located far
from continental blocks, where the rate of terrigenous
sediment supply is low, and in deeper parts of the abys-
sal plain lying below the carbonate compensation depth,
where the accumulation of calcareous oozes cannot
occur. Some bedded cherts might not be of organic
origin. They instead may be produced by precipitating
silica gels derived from the same magma chambers from
which the submarine basalts (pillow lava) that are inti-
mately associated with bedded cherts are precipitated.
The origin of nodular cherts has long been debated,
but most are produced by the secondary replacement of
the carbonate minerals and fossils within shallow marine
shelf deposits. Evidence of secondary origin includes
relict structures of allochems such as skeletal fragments
and oöids preserved entirely within chert nodules.
Silica can be mobilized from elsewhere within a rock
and transported in solution under proper conditions of
temperature and geochemistry. Likely sources of silica
found scattered within shallow-water shelf carbonates
include siliceous sponge spicules, radiolarians or diatom
shells, and windblown sand grains. The details of the
process and the possible role of microscopic organisms
like bacteria in dissolving, mobilizing, and reconcen-
trating the silica remains uncertain.
Finally, geysers and hot springs such as those of
the Yellowstone National Park area of northwest-
ern Wyoming, U.S., are also sites of chert deposition.
Encrustations of silica, known as sinter or geyser-
ite, are volumetrically unimpressive but nevertheless

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are curiosities. The geyser and hot springs activity at

Yellowstone is probably typical, with a subterranean
body of magma as the source of silica-rich hydrothermal
solutions rising periodically near or to the surface.

Phosphorites
Many sedimentary rocks contain phosphate in the form of
scattered bones composed of the mineral apatite (calcium
phosphate), but rocks composed predominantly of phos-
phate are rare. Nevertheless, three principal types exist:
(1) regionally extensive, crystalline nodular, and bedded
phosphorites, (2) localized concentrations of phosphate-
rich clastic deposits (bone beds), and (3) guano deposits.

Evaporites
Evaporites are layered crystalline sedimentary rocks that
form from brines generated in areas where the amount
of water lost by evaporation exceeds the total amount of
water from rainfall and influx via rivers and streams. The
mineralogy of evaporite rocks is complex, with almost 100
varieties possible, but less than a dozen species are volu-
metrically important. Minerals in evaporite rocks include
carbonates (especially calcite, dolomite, magnesite, and
aragonite), sulfates (anhydrite and gypsum), and chlo-
rides (particularly halite, sylvite, and carnallite), as well as
various borates, silicates, nitrates, and sulfocarbonates.
Evaporite deposits occur in both marine and nonmarine
sedimentary successions.
Though restricted in area, modern evaporites
contribute to genetic models for explaining ancient
evaporite deposits. Modern evaporites are limited to
arid regions (those of high temperature and low rates

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of precipitation), for example, on the floors of semidry

ephemeral playa lakes in the Great Basin of Nevada and
California, across the coastal salt flats (sabkhas) of the
Middle East, and in salt pans, estuaries, and lagoons
around the Gulf of Suez. Ancient evaporates occur
widely in the Phanerozoic geologic record, particularly
in those of Cambrian (from 570 to 505 million years ago),
Permian (from 286 to 245 million years ago), and Triassic
(from 245 to 208 million years ago) age, but are rare in
sedimentary sequences of Precambrian age. They tend
to be closely associated with shallow marine shelf car-
bonates and fine (typically rich in iron oxide) mudrocks.
Because evaporite sedimentation requires a specific cli-
mate and basin setting, their presence in time and space
clearly constrains inferences of paleoclimatology and
paleogeography. Evaporite beds tend to concentrate and
facilitate major thrust fault horizons, so their presence is
of particular interest to structural geologists. Evaporites
also have economic significance as a source of salts and
fertilizer.
All evaporite deposits result from the precipitation
of brines generated by evaporation. Laboratory experi-
ments can accurately trace the evolution of brines as
various evaporite minerals crystallize. Normal seawater
has a salinity of 3.5 percent (or 35,000 parts per mil-
lion), with the most important dissolved constituents
being sodium and chlorine. When seawater volume is
reduced to one-fifth of the original, evaporite precipi-
tation commences in an orderly fashion, with the more
insoluble components (gypsum and anhydrite) forming
first. When the solution reaches one-tenth the volume of
the original, more soluble minerals like sylvite and halite
form. Natural evaporite sequences show vertical changes
in mineralogy that crudely correspond to the orderly

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appearance of mineralogy as a function of solubility but

are less systematic.

Nonmarine Environment
Evaporite deposition in the nonmarine environment
occurs in closed lakes—i.e., those without outlet—in arid
and semiarid regions. Such lakes form in closed interior
basins or shallow depressions on land where drainage is
internal and runoff does not reach the sea. If water depths
are shallow or, more typically, somewhat ephemeral, the
term playa or playa lake is commonly used.
Water inflow into closed lakes consists principally of
precipitation and surface runoff, both of which are small
in amount and variable in occurrence in arid regions.
Groundwater flow and discharge from springs may pro-
vide additional water input, but evaporation rates are
always in excess of precipitation and surface runoff.
Sporadic or seasonal storms may give rise to a sudden
surge of water inflow. Because closed lakes lack outlets,
they can respond to such circumstances only by deepening
and expanding. Subsequent evaporation will reduce the
volume of water present to prestorm or normal amount;
fluctuation of closed lake levels therefore characterizes
the environment.
Such changing lake levels and water volumes lead to
fluctuating salinity values. Variations in salinity effect equi-
librium relations between the resulting brines and lead to
much solution and subsequent reprecipitation of evapo-
rites in the nonmarine environment. As a result of these
complexities as well as the distinctive nature of dissolved
constituents in closed lake settings, nonmarine evapo-
rite deposits contain many minerals that are uncommon
in marine evaporites—e.g., borax, epsomite, trona, and
mirabilite.

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Shallow Marine Environment

Evaporite deposition in the shallow marine environment

(sometimes termed the salina) occurs in desert coastal
areas, particularly along the margins of such semi-restricted
water bodies as the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Gulf of
California. Restriction is, in general, one of the critical
requirements for evaporite deposition, because free and
unlimited mixing with the open sea would allow the bod-
ies of water to easily overcome the high evaporation rates
of arid areas and dilute these waters to near-normal salin-
ity. This semi-restriction cannot, in fact, prevent a large
amount of dilution by mixing; coastal physiography is the
principal factor involved in brine production. Shallow-
water evaporites, almost exclusively gypsum, anhydrite,
and halite, typically interfinger with tidal flat limestone
and dolomite and fine-grained mudrock.

Deep-Basin Environment
Most of the thick, laterally extensive evaporite deposits
appear to have been produced in deep, isolated basins
that developed during episodes of global aridity. The most
crucial requirement for evaporite production is aridity;
water must be evaporated more rapidly than it can be
replenished by precipitation and inflow. In addition, the
evaporite basin must somehow be isolated or at least par-
tially isolated from the open ocean so that brines produced
through evaporation are prevented from returning there.
Restricting brines to such an isolated basin over a period
of time enables them to be concentrated to the point
where evaporite mineral precipitation occurs. Periodic
breaching of the barrier, due either to crustal downwarp-
ing or to global sea-level changes, refills the basin from
time to time, thereby replenishing the volume of seawater

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Three models for deposition of marine evaporites in basins of restricted water

circulation. Copyright Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; rendering for
this edition by Rosen Educational Services

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to be evaporated and making possible the inordinately

thick, regionally extensive evaporite sequences visible in
the geologic record.
Debate continues over the exact mechanisms for gen-
erating thick evaporite deposits. Three possible models for
restricting “barred” evaporite basins have been developed.
They differ in detail, and none has garnered a consensus
of support. The deep-water, deep-basin model accounts
for replenishment of the basin across the barrier or sill,
with slow, continual buildup of thick evaporites made pos-
sible by the seaward escape of brine that allows a constant
brine concentration to be maintained. The shallow-water,
shallow-basin model produces thick evaporites by continual
subsidence of the basin floor. The shallow-water, deep-
basin model shows the brine level in the basin beneath the
level of the sea as a result of evaporation; brines are replen-
ished by groundwater recharge from the open ocean.

Iron-Rich Sedimentary Rocks

Almost all sedimentary rocks are iron-bearing in the sense
that mudrocks, sandstones, and carbonates typically have
an iron content of several percent. Nevertheless, sedi-
mentary rocks in which the proportion of iron exceeds 15
percent are separately categorized as iron-rich. Two major
types of iron-rich sedimentary rocks are recognized:
(1) iron formation, or banded iron formation (BIF)—
regionally extensive, locally thick sequences composed of
alternating thin (millimetre to centimetre thick) layers of
mainly crystalline-textured iron-rich minerals and chert—
and (2) ironstone—noncherty, essentially clastic-textured,
iron-rich minerals of local extent.
Banded iron formations are predominantly
Precambrian in age; most are 1.8 to 2.2 billion years old;
none are younger than Cambrian age. The most important

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iron-bearing minerals in iron formations are hematite,

magnetite, and greenalite. These deposits constitute the
world’s major source of iron ore. Classic examples are
found in the Mesabi Range of Minnesota, U.S., and the
Kiruna ores of Sweden.
Ironstones are principally of Phanerozoic age, mainly
Early Paleozoic (roughly 440 to 570 million years old) and
Jurassic (about 144 to 208 million years old), but can be as
old as Middle Precambrian age (about 1.6 to 3 billion years
old). They appear to be restricted to basins no larger than
150 km (93 miles) in any direction. Major iron minerals are
goethite, hematite, and chamosite.

Origin of Banded Iron Formation

The origin of banded iron formation is not clearly under-
stood. Banded iron formation units are typically 50 to
600 metres (about 165 to 1,970 feet) thick. Their complex
mineralogy includes various iron oxides, iron carbonates,
iron silicates, and iron sulfides. The essentially crystal-
line texture of these minerals together with the definitive
crystalline texture of the laminated chert bands with
which the iron mineral layers alternate is perplexing. At
present, iron is not easily dissolved, nor can it be readily
transported in solution and subsequently precipitated as
crystalline-textured, iron-rich minerals, because of the
presence of free atmospheric oxygen. Many sedimentary
petrologists consequently conclude that banded iron for-
mation deposition is a uniquely Precambrian occurrence
made possible by, and supporting the existence of, an
earlier anaerobic Earth atmosphere (one lacking free oxy-
gen) quite unlike that in existence today. Controversy also
continues over the ultimate source of iron (weathering as
opposed to magmatic iron escaping from Earth’s interior)
and over the possible role of microorganisms such as bac-
teria and algae in the precipitation of the iron.

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Origin of Ironstones

The origin of ironstones also is not well understood, but

most appear to be derived from the erosion and redeposi-
tion of lateritic (iron-rich, red) soils. Ironstones occur as
thin (a few tens of metres at most) units interbedded with
shallow marine and transitional carbonates, mudrocks,
and sandstones. They generally have an oölitic texture.
Cross-bedding, ripple marks, and small scour and fill
channels are abundant. Slight uplift and erosion of reddish
soils developed in coastal regions drained by rivers that
transport and deposit such material in deltas and embay-
ments along the coast is compatible with the features and
fossils found in deposits of this sort. Classical ironstone
deposits include the Ordovician Wabana Formation of
Newfoundland and the Silurian Clinton Group of the cen-
tral and southern Appalachians.

Organic-Rich Sedimentary Deposits

Coal, oil shale, and petroleum are not sedimentary
rocks per se; they represent accumulations of unde-
cayed organic tissue that can either make up the bulk
of the material (e.g., coal), or be disseminated in the
pores within mudrocks, sandstones, and carbonates
(e.g., oil shale and petroleum). Much of the undecom-
posed organic matter in sediment and sedimentary
rocks is humus, plant matter that accumulates in soil.
Other important organic constituents include peat,
humic organic matter that collects in bogs and swamps
where oxidation and bacterial decay is incomplete, and
sapropel, fine-grained organic material—mainly the soft
organic tissue of phytoplankton and zooplankton, along
with bits and pieces of higher plants—that amass sub-
aqueously in lakes and oceans.

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Organic-rich sedimentary rock deposits are collec-

tively referred to as fossil fuels because they consist of the
undecayed organic tissue of plants and animals preserved
in depositional settings characterized by a lack of free
oxygen. Fossil fuels constitute the major sources of energy
in the industrial world, and their unequal distribution in
time (exclusively Phanerozoic) and space (more than half
of the proved petroleum reserves are in the Persian Gulf
region of the Middle East) has a significant effect on the
world’s political and economic stability.

Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels constitute a class of materials of biological origin that
occur within Earth’s crust that can be used as a source of energy.
Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum, natural gas, oil shales, bitu-
mens, tar sands, and heavy oils. All contain carbon and were formed as
a result of geologic processes acting on the remains of organic matter
produced by photosynthesis, a process that began in the Archean Eon
more than 3 billion years ago. Most carbonaceous material occurring
before the Devonian Period (approximately 415 million years ago) was
derived from algae and bacteria.
All fossil fuels can be burned in air or with oxygen derived from air
to provide heat. This heat may be employed directly, as in the case of
home furnaces, or utilized to produce steam to drive generators that
can supply electricity. In still other cases—for example, gas turbines
used in jet aircraft—the heat yielded by burning a fossil fuel serves to
increase both the pressure and the temperature of the combustion
products to furnish motive power.
Since the late 18th century, fossil fuels have been consumed at an
ever-increasing rate. Today they supply nearly 90 percent of all the
energy consumed by the industrially developed countries of the world.
Although new deposits continue to be discovered, the reserves of the
principal fossil fuels remaining in Earth are limited. The amounts of
fossil fuels that can be recovered economically are difficult to esti-
mate, largely because of changing rates of consumption and future
value as well as technological developments. For example, using cur-
rent technology, a typical coal bed must be no less than about 60 cm
(2 feet) thick and buried no more than about 2,000 m (6,600 feet) to

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be mined economically. However, advances in technology may make

it possible in the future to mine thinner beds at greater depths at rea-
sonable cost, increasing the amount of recoverable coal. Estimates
of remaining petroleum resources are equally difficult. As recover-
able supplies of conventional (light-to-medium) oil become depleted,
it is expected that heavy oil, and oil extracted from tar sands and oil
shales, will be exploited as sources of liquid petroleum on a wide scale.

Coal
Coals are the most abundant organic-rich sedimentary
rock. They consist of undecayed organic matter that
either accumulated in place or was transported from
elsewhere to the depositional site. The most important
organic component in coal is humus. The grade or rank of
coal is determined by the percentage of carbon present.
The term peat is used for the uncompacted plant mat-
ter that accumulates in bogs and brackish swamps. With
increasing compaction and carbon content, peat can be
transformed into the various kinds of coal: initially brown
coal or lignite, then soft or bituminous coal, and finally,
with metamorphism, hard or anthracite coal. In the geo-
logic record, coal occurs in beds, called seams, which are
blanketlike coal deposits a few centimetres to metres or
hundreds of metres thick.
Many coal seams occur within cyclothems, rhyth-
mic successions of sandstone, mudrock, and limestone
in which nonmarine units are regularly and systemati-
cally overlain by an underclay, the coal seam itself, and
then various marine lithologies. The nonmarine units
are thought to constitute the floor of ancient forests
and swamps developed in low-lying coastal regions; the
underclay is a preserved relict of the soil in which the coal-
producing vegetation was rooted; and the marine units

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overlying the coal record the rapid transgression of the

sea inland that killed the vegetation by drowning it and
preventing its decomposition by rapid burial. The exact
mechanism responsible for generating the rapid episodes
of marine transgression and regression necessary to gen-
erate coal-bearing cyclothems is not definitively known.
A combination of episodic upwarping and downwarping
of the continental blocks or global (eustatic) changes in
sea level or both, coupled with normal changes in the rate
of sediment supply that occurs along coasts traversed by
major laterally meandering river systems, may have been
the cause.
In any case, coal is a rare, though widely distributed,
lithology. Extensive coal deposits overall occur mainly in
rocks of Devonian age (those from 408 to 360 million
years old) and younger because their existence is clearly
contingent on the evolution of land plants. Nevertheless,
small, scattered coal deposits as old as early Proterozoic
have been described. Coal-bearing cyclothem deposits
are especially abundant in the middle and late Paleozoic
sequences of the Appalachians and central United States
and in the Carboniferous of Great Britain, probably
because during this time interval global climates were
warm and humid and large portions of the continen-
tal blocks were low-lying platforms located only slightly
above sea level.

Oil Shale
Mudrock containing high amounts of organic matter in
the form of kerogen is known as oil shale or kerogen shale.
Kerogen is altered, undecayed, fatty organic matter, mainly
sapropel, and is very fine-grained. It can be generated in
place or transported. The most famous oil shale deposit in
the world, located in the United States, is the Green River
Formation of Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado of Eocene

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age (i.e., formed 57.8 to 36.6 million years ago). This vast
deposit contains fossils and sedimentary structures, sug-
gesting rapid deposition and burial of unoxidized organic
matter in shallow lakes or marine embayments. The quan-
tity of oil entrapped in the Green River Formation is
significant. The cost of extracting the oil trapped in the
mudrock by heating the oil shale, however, far exceeds
the cost of extracting equivalent quantities of oil, natural
gas, or coal. Also, the refractory process not only requires
extensive strip mining and immense volumes of water but
also results in a volume expansion of the original oil shale.
Despite these considerable economic and technical prob-
lems, oil shales potentially represent a significant future
energy resource.

Oil and Natural Gas

Natural gas refers collectively to the various gaseous hydro-
carbons generated below Earth’s surface and trapped in
the pores of sedimentary rocks. Major natural gas varieties
include methane, ethane, propane, and butane. These nat-
ural gases are commonly, though not invariably, intimately
associated with the various liquid hydrocarbons—mainly
liquid paraffins, naphthenes, and aromatics—that collec-
tively constitute oil.
Hydrocarbons can also exist in a semisolid or solid
state such as asphalt, asphaltites, mineral waxes, and
pyrobitumens. Bitumens can occur as seepages, impreg-
nations filling the pore space of sediments (e.g., tar sands
of the Canadian Rocky Mountains), and in veins or
dikes. Asphaltites occur primarily in dikes and veins that
cross sedimentary rocks such as gilsonite deposits in the
Green River Formation of Utah. These natural bitumens
probably form from the loss of volatiles, oxidation, and
biological degradation resulting from oil seepage to the
surface. Solid hydrocarbons are of interest to geologists as

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their presence is a good indicator of petroleum below the

surface in that region. Also, solid hydrocarbons have com-
mercial value.
The exact process by which oil and natural gas are
produced is not precisely known, despite the extensive
efforts made to determine the mode of petroleum gen-
esis. Crude oil is thought to form from undecomposed
organic matter, principally single-celled floating phyto-
plankton and zooplankton that settle to the bottom of
marine basins and are rapidly buried within sequences
of mudrock and limestone. Natural gas and oil are gen-
erated from such source rocks only after heating and
compaction. Typical petroleum formation (maturation)
temperatures do not exceed 100 °C (212 °F), meaning that
the depth of burial of source rocks cannot be greater than
a few kilometres. After their formation, oil and natural
gas migrate from source rocks to reservoir rocks com-
posed of sedimentary rocks largely as a consequence of
the lower density of the hydrocarbon fluids and gases.
Good reservoir rocks, by implication, must possess high
porosity and permeability. A high proportion of open
pore spaces enhances the capacity of a reservoir to store
the migrating petroleum; the interconnectedness of the
pores facilitates the withdrawal of the petroleum once
the reservoir rock is penetrated by drill holes.

Secular Trends in the

Sedimentary Rock Record
Reexamination of the sedimentary rock record pre-
served within the continental blocks suggests systematic
changes through time in the relative proportions of the
major sedimentary rock types deposited. These changes
can be linked to the evolution of the atmosphere and
hydrosphere and to the changing global tectonic setting.

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Carbonates and quartz sands, for example, require

long-term source area stability as well as the existence
of broad, shallow-water epeiric seas that mantle conti-
nental blocks. Marine transgressions and regressions
across broad stable continental cratons occurred only in
Proterozoic and Phanerozoic time; Archean continental
blocks were smaller and tectonically unstable, and most
likely less granitic than those of today. Consequently,
the early Precambrian sedimentary rock record con-
sists largely of volcanogenic sediments, wackes, and
arkoses physically disintegrated from small, high-relief
island arcs (the Archean greenstone belts of the various
Precambrian shields) and microcontinental fragments.
The fact that iron formations are restricted to rocks of
Archean and Proterozoic time supports the conclusion
that atmospheric oxygen levels in earlier stages of Earth
history were lower, promoting the dissolution, transport,
and precipitation of iron by chemical or biochemical
means. The total lack of evaporites from the Archean
record and their subsequent steady buildup probably
reflects a number of factors. Such deposits can be eas-
ily destroyed by metamorphism, and presumably, given
enough time, they will have been completely erased.
Also, evaporite formation requires seawater with ele-
vated salinity, a condition that is established with time.
Finally, significant volumes of bedded evaporites can
occur only once broad, stable continents have evolved,
because the requisite restricted evaporite basins develop
exclusively adjacent to cratons.

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chapter 4
Metamorphic Rock

M etamorphic rocks are a class of rocks that result

from the alteration of preexisting rocks in response
to changing environmental conditions, such as variations
in temperature, pressure, and mechanical stress, and the
addition or subtraction of chemical components. The
preexisting rocks may be igneous, sedimentary, or other
metamorphic rocks.
The word metamorphism is taken from the Greek for
“change of form”; metamorphic rocks are derived from
igneous or sedimentary rocks that have altered their
form (recrystallized) as a result of changes in their physi-
cal environment. Metamorphism comprises changes
both in mineralogy and in the fabric of the original rock.
In general, these alterations are brought about either
by the intrusion of hot magma into cooler surround-
ing rocks (contact metamorphism) or by large-scale
tectonic movements of Earth’s lithospheric plates that
alter the pressure-temperature conditions of the rocks
(regional metamorphism). Minerals within the original
rock, or protolith, respond to the changing conditions
by reacting with one another to produce a new mineral
assemblage that is thermodynamically stable under the
new pressure-temperature conditions. These reactions
occur in the solid state but may be facilitated by the
presence of a fluid phase lining the grain boundaries of
the minerals. In contrast to the formation of igneous
rocks, metamorphic rocks do not crystallize from a sili-
cate melt, although high-temperature metamorphism
can lead to partial melting of the host rock.

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Because metamorphism represents a response to

changing physical conditions, those regions of Earth’s sur-
face where dynamic processes are most active will also be
regions where metamorphic processes are most intense
and easily observed. The vast region of the Pacific margin,
for example, with its seismic and volcanic activity, is also
an area in which materials are being buried and metamor-
phosed intensely. In general, the margins of continents
and regions of mountain building are the regions where
metamorphic processes proceed with intensity. But in
relatively quiet places, where sediments accumulate at
slow rates, less spectacular changes also occur in response
to changes in pressure and temperature conditions.
Metamorphic rocks are therefore distributed throughout
the geologic column.
Because most of Earth’s mantle is solid, metamorphic
processes may also occur there. Mantle rocks are sel-
dom observed at the surface because they are too dense
to rise, but occasionally a glimpse is presented by their
inclusion in volcanic materials. Such rocks may represent
samples from a depth of a few hundred kilometres, where
pressures of about 100 kilobars (10 gigapascal or 3 mil-
lion inches of mercury) may be operative. Experiments
at high pressure have shown that few of the common
minerals that occur at the surface will survive at depth
within the mantle without changing to new high-density
phases in which atoms are packed more closely together.
Thus, the common form of SiO2, quartz, with a density
of 2.65 grams per cubic cm (1.53 ounces per cubic inch),
transforms to a new phase, stishovite, with a density of
4.29 grams per cubic cm (2.48 ounces per cubic inch).
Such changes are of critical significance in the geophysi-
cal interpretation of the Earth’s interior.
In general, temperatures increase with depth within
Earth along curves referred to as geotherms. The specific

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shape of the geotherm beneath any location on Earth is

a function of its corresponding local tectonic regime.
Metamorphism can occur either when a rock moves
from one position to another along a single geotherm
or when the geotherm itself changes form. The former
can take place when a rock is buried or uplifted at a rate
that permits it to maintain thermal equilibrium with
its surroundings; this type of metamorphism occurs
beneath slowly subsiding sedimentary basins and also
in the descending oceanic plate in some subduction
zones. The latter process occurs either when hot magma
intrudes and alters the thermal state of a stationary rock
or when the rock is rapidly transported by tectonic pro-
cesses (e.g., thrust faulting or large-scale folding) into a
new depth-temperature regime in, for example, areas of
collision between two continents. Regardless of which
process occurs, the result is that a collection of minerals
that are thermodynamically stable at the initial condi-
tions are placed under a new set of conditions at which
they may or may not be stable. If they are no longer in
equilibrium with one another under the new conditions,
the minerals will react in such a way as to approach a new
equilibrium state. This may involve a complete change in
mineral assemblage or simply a shift in the compositions
of the preexisting mineral phases. The resultant mineral
assemblage will reflect the chemical composition of the
original rock and the new pressure-temperature condi-
tions to which the rock was subjected.
Because protolith compositions and the pressure-
temperature conditions under which they may be placed
vary widely, the diversity of metamorphic rock types is
large. Many of these varieties are repeatedly associated
with one another in space and time, however, reflecting a
uniformity of geologic processes over hundreds of millions
of years. For example, the metamorphic rock associations

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that developed in the Appalachian Mountains of east-

ern North America in response to the collision between
the North American and African lithospheric plates dur-
ing the Paleozoic are very similar to those developed in
the Alps of south-central Europe during the Mesozoic-
Cenozoic collision between the European and African
plates. Likewise, the metamorphic rocks exposed in the
Alps are grossly similar to metamorphic rocks of the same
age in the Himalayas of Asia, which formed during the con-
tinental collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates.
Metamorphic rocks produced during collisions between
oceanic and continental plates from different localities
around the world also show striking similarities to each
other yet are markedly different from metamorphic rocks
produced during continent-continent collisions. Thus, it
is often possible to reconstruct tectonic events of the past
on the basis of metamorphic rock associations currently
exposed at Earth’s surface.

Metamorphic Variables
Metamorphism results from a complex interplay between
physical and chemical processes that operate on a scale
ranging from micrometres (e.g., fine mineral grain sizes,
thickness of intergranular fluid, diffusion distances for
chemical species) to tens or hundreds of kilometres
(e.g., crustal thickness, width of collision zone between
lithospheric plates, depth to subducting plate). Despite
this wide range and the many processes involved in the
recrystallization of sedimentary and igneous protoliths
into metamorphic rocks, there are relatively few vari-
ables that effect metamorphic changes. Those of greatest
importance are temperature, pressure, and the original
chemical composition of the protolith; each is briefly
discussed here.

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Temperature

Temperatures at which metamorphism occurs range from

the conditions of diagenesis (approximately 150°–200 °C
[about 300–400 °F]) up to the onset of melting. Rocks of
different compositions begin to melt at different tempera-
tures, with initial melting occurring at roughly 650–750 °C
(about 1,200–1,382 °F) in rocks of granitic or shaley
composition and approximately 900–1,200 °C (about
1,650–2,200 °F) in rocks of basaltic composition. Above
these temperatures, metamorphic processes gradually
give way to igneous processes. Hence, the temperature
realm of metamorphism spans an interval of about 150°–
1,100 °C (300–2,000 °F) and is strongly dependent on the
composition of the protolith.
The temperature at any point within Earth’s crust is
controlled by the local heat-flow regime, which is a com-
posite function of heat flow upward from the mantle into
the crust, heat generated by radioactive decay in nearby
regions of the crust, heat transported into the crust by
silicate melts, and tectonic transport of hot or cold rocks
at rates faster than those needed to maintain thermal
equilibrium with the surrounding rocks. The tempera-
ture gradient at any location inside Earth, known as the
geothermal gradient, is the increase in temperature per
unit distance of depth; it is given by the tangent to the
local geotherm. The magnitude of the geothermal gradi-
ent thus varies with the shape of the geotherm. In regions
with high surface heat flow, such as areas of active volca-
nism or mantle upwelling beneath thinned continental
crust, geothermal gradients of 40–100 °C (104–212 °F) per
km (0.6 mile) prevail, giving rise to high temperatures at
relatively shallow levels of the crust. Within the stable
interiors of old continents, geothermal gradients of 25–35
°C (77–95 °F) per km are more typical, and in zones of

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active subduction, where the relatively cold oceanic crust

is rapidly transported to great depths, geothermal gradi-
ents range from 10–20 °C (50–68 °F) per km. These large
variations in geotherms and geothermal gradients give
rise to different metamorphic regimes, or combinations
of pressure-temperature conditions, associated with the
different tectonic provinces.
In addition to the variation of geotherms as a function
of position within Earth, individual geotherms at a single
location can vary with time. Geotherms are at steady state
(i.e., do not change with time) in tectonically quiescent areas
of Earth, such as the middle regions of large continents, and
also in areas where tectonic processes such as subduction
have operated at similar rates over long periods. Transient
geotherms, on the other hand, are generated in tectoni-
cally active regions, such as zones of continent-continent
collision or rapid uplift and erosion, in which the tectonic
processes are relatively short-lived; in these areas, the
temperature at a given depth in Earth is time-dependent,
and individual geotherms can have very complex shapes
that with time approach smooth curves. These complex
geotherms can produce wide temperature fluctuations
at a given depth within Earth; rocks metamorphosed in
response to these variations may show considerable textural
and chemical evidence of disequilibrium, reflecting the fact
that temperatures changed at rates that were more rapid
than reaction rates among the constituent minerals.

Pressure
The pressure experienced by a rock during metamorphism
is due primarily to the weight of the overlying rocks (i.e.,
lithostatic pressure) and is generally reported in units of
bars or kilobars. The standard scientific notation for pres-
sure is expressed in pascals or megapascals (1 pascal is

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 7 Metamorphic Rock 7

equivalent to 10 bars). For typical densities of crustal rocks

of 2 to 3 grams per cubic cm (1.15 to 1.72 ounces per cubic
inch), 1 kilobar (0.1 gigapascal) of lithostatic pressure is gen-
erated by a column of overlying rocks approximately 3.5 km
(about 2 miles) high. Typical continental crustal thicknesses
are on the order of 30–40 km (about 19–25 miles) but can
be as great as 60–80 km (37–50 miles) in mountain belts
such as the Alps and Himalayas. Hence, metamorphism of
continental crust occurs at pressures from a few hundred
bars (adjacent to shallow-level intrusions) to 10–20 kilobars
(1–2 gigapascal) at the base of the crust. Oceanic crust is
generally 6–10 km (3.7–6 miles) in thickness, and meta-
morphic pressures within the oceanic crust are therefore
considerably less than in continental regions. In subduc-
tion zones, however, oceanic and, more rarely, continental
crust may be carried down to depths exceeding 100 km
(about 60 miles), and metamorphism at very high pres-
sures may occur. Metamorphic recrystallization also occurs
in the mantle at pressures up to hundreds of kilobars.
Changes in lithostatic pressure experienced by a rock
during metamorphism are brought about by burial or uplift
of the sample. Burial can occur in response either to ongo-
ing deposition of sediments above the sample or tectonic
loading brought about, for example, by thrust-faulting or
large-scale folding of the region. Uplift, or more properly
unroofing, takes place when overlying rocks are stripped
off by erosional processes or when the overburden is tec-
tonically thinned.
Fluids trapped in the pores of rocks during metamor-
phism exert pressure on the surrounding grains. At depths
greater than a few kilometres within Earth, the magnitude of
the fluid pressure is equal to the lithostatic pressure, reflect-
ing the fact that mineral grain boundaries recrystallize in
such a way as to minimize pore space and to seal off the fluid
channelways by which solutions rise from depth. At shallow

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depths, however, interconnected pore spaces can exist, and

hence the pressure within a pore is related to the weight of
an overlying column of fluid rather than rock. Because meta-
morphic fluids (dominantly composed of water and carbon
dioxide) are less dense than rocks, the fluid pressure at these
conditions is lower than the lithostatic pressure.
Deformation of rocks during metamorphism occurs
when the rock experiences an anisotropic stress—i.e.,
unequal pressures operating in different directions.
Anisotropic stresses rarely exceed more than a few tens
or hundreds of bars but have a profound influence on the
textural development of metamorphic rocks.

Rock Composition
The chemistry of the original igneous or sedimentary
rock determines the type of metamorphic rock produced.
Although numerous types of igneous and sedimentary rocks
can be reformed into metamorphic rocks, most metamorphic
rocks develop within the realms of four chemical systems,
and the mineral composition of a given metamorphic rock
is limited by the laws of thermodynamics. In addition, the
original igneous and sedimentary rocks tend not to be radi-
cally transformed by the process of metamorphism.

Classification into Four Chemical Systems

Common metamorphic rock types have essentially the
same chemical composition as what must be their equally
common igneous or sedimentary precursors. Common
greenschists have roughly the same compositions as
basalts; marbles are like limestones; slates are similar to
mudstones or shales; and many gneisses are like grano-
diorites. In general, then, the chemical composition of a
metamorphic rock will closely reflect the primary nature
of the material that has been metamorphosed. If there are

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A marble quarry in Carrara, northern Italy. Heat, pressure, and the action of
liquids cause limestone to change into marble. [Link]

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significant differences, they tend to affect only the most

mobile (soluble) or volatile elements; water and carbon
dioxide contents can change significantly, for example.
Despite the wide variety of igneous and sedimentary
rock types that can recrystallize into metamorphic rocks,
most metamorphic rocks can be described with reference
to only four chemical systems: pelitic, calcareous, felsic,
and mafic. Pelitic rocks are derived from mudstone (shale)
protoliths and are rich in potassium (K), aluminum (Al),
silicon (Si), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), and water (H2O),
with lesser amounts of manganese (Mn), titanium (Ti), cal-
cium (Ca), and other constituents. Calcareous rocks are
formed from a variety of chemical and detrital sediments
such as limestone, dolostone, or marl and are largely com-
posed of calcium oxide (CaO), magnesium oxide (MgO),
and carbon dioxide (CO2), with varying amounts of alumi-
num, silicon, iron, and water. Felsic rocks can be produced
by metamorphism of both igneous and sedimentary proto-
liths (e.g., granite and arkose, respectively) and are rich in
silicon, sodium (Na), potassium, calcium, aluminum, and
lesser amounts of iron and magnesium. Mafic rocks derive
from basalt protoliths and some volcanogenic sediments
and contain an abundance of iron, magnesium, calcium, sil-
icon, and aluminum. Ultramafic metamorphic rocks result
from the metamorphism of mantle rocks and some oce-
anic crust and contain dominantly magnesium, silicon, and
carbon dioxide, with smaller amounts of iron, calcium, and
aluminum. For the purposes of this discussion, ultramafic
rocks are considered to be a subset of the mafic category.
€The particular metamorphic minerals that develop in
each of these four rock categories are controlled above all
by the protolith chemistry. The mineral calcite (CaCO3),
for example, can occur only in rocks that contain sufficient
quantities of calcium. The specific pressure-temperature
conditions to which the rock is subjected will further

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Common minerals of
metamorphic rocks
mineral mineral
actinolite kaolinite
adularia** kyanite**
*albite lawsonite
andalusite** magnesite
anorthite microcline**
anthophyllite *muscovite
aragonite** *omphacite
*biotite orthoclase**
*calcite** *plagioclase
*chlorite prehnite
chloritoid pumpellyite
cordierite *quartz**
diopside sanidine**
*dolomite scapolite
enstatite serpentine**
*epidote sillimanite**
forsterite staurolite
*garnet stilpnomelane
glaucophane talc
*hornblende tremolite
hypersthene wollastonite
jadeite
*Indicates wide range of stability.
**Indicates more than one form (polymorph) exists.

influence the minerals that are produced during recrys-

tallization; for example, at high pressures calcite will be
replaced by a denser polymorph of CaCO3 called arago-
nite. In general, increasing pressure favours denser mineral

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structures, whereas increasing temperature favours anhy-

drous and less dense mineral phases. Although some
minerals, such as quartz, calcite, plagioclase, and biotite,
develop under a variety of conditions, other minerals
are more restricted in occurrence; examples are lawson-
ite, which is produced primarily during high-pressure,
low-temperature metamorphism of basaltic protoliths,
and sillimanite, which develops during relatively high-
temperature metamorphism of pelitic rocks.

Common metamorphic
minerals as a function of
pressure, temperature, and
protolith composition*
protolith high p/ medium p low p/
low t and t high t
shale, mud- paragonite, muscovite, muscovite
stone (pelitic) muscovite paragonite
kyanite chlorite biotite
Mg-chloritoid biotite andalusite,
sillimanite
Mg-carpholite chloritoid cordierite
jadeite garnet plagioclase
chlorite staurolite orthopyroxene
pyrope garnet andalusite, kya- microcline,
nite, sillimanite sanidine
talc plagioclase mullite
coesite alkali feldspar spinel
cordierite tridymite
orthopyroxene
limestone, aragonite calcite wollastonite
dolostone,marl
(calcareous)

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protolith high p/ medium p low p/

low t and t high t
magnesite dolomite grossular garnet
lawsonite tremolite diopside
zoisite diopside plagioclase
jadeite epidote, vesuvianite
clinozoisite
talc grossular garnet clinozoisite
forsterite
brucite
talc
granite, grano- jadeite plagioclase plagioclase
diorite, arkose
(felsic)
paragonite alkali feldspar alkali feldspar
muscovite sillimanite
biotite cordierite
garnet
sillimanite
basalt, andes- glaucophane plagioclase plagioclase
ite (mafic)
lawsonite chlorite biotite
garnet biotite garnet
omphacite garnet hornblende
epidote epidote diopside
albite actinolite
chlorite hornblende
diopside
orthopyroxene
*Quartz may be present in all categories. Minor phases such as oxides
and sulfides have been omitted.

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Thermodynamics of Metamorphic Assemblages

Despite the large number of minerals that can be included

in each of the four bulk compositions listed in the pre-
vious table, the actual number of minerals present in an
individual metamorphic rock is limited by the laws of
thermodynamics. The number of mineral phases that
can coexist stably in a metamorphic rock at a particular
set of pressure-temperature conditions is given by the
Gibbs phase rule (named for American physicist J. Willard
Gibbs): number of mineral phases = number of chemical
components − number of degrees of freedom + 2, where the
2 stands for the two variables of pressure and temperature.
The degrees of freedom of the system are the param-
eters that can be independently varied without changing
the mineral assemblage of the rock. For example, a rock
with no degrees of freedom can only exist at a single set
of pressure-temperature conditions; if either the pressure
or the temperature is varied, the minerals will react with
one another to change the assemblage. A rock with two
degrees of freedom can undergo small changes in pressure
or temperature or both without altering the assemblage.
Most metamorphic rocks have mineral assemblages that
reflect two or more degrees of freedom at the time the
rock recrystallized. Thus, a typical pelitic rock made up
of the six chemical components silica (SiO2), aluminum
oxide (Al2O3), ferrous oxide (FeO), magnesium oxide
(MgO), potash (K2O), and water would contain no more
than six minerals; the identity of those minerals would
be controlled by the pressure and temperature at which
recrystallization occurred. In such a rock taken from
Earth’s surface, the identity of the six minerals could be
used to infer the approximate depth and temperature
conditions that prevailed at the time of its recrystalliza-
tion. Rocks that contain more mineral phases than would

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be predicted by the phase rule often preserve evidence

of chemical disequilibrium in the form of reactions that
did not go to completion. Careful examination of such
samples under the microscope can often reveal the nature
of these reactions and provide useful information on how
pressure and temperature conditions changed during the
burial and uplift history of the rock.
Metamorphic rocks only rarely exhibit a chemical
composition that is characteristically “metamorphic.”
That is, the diffusion of materials in metamorphism is a
slow process, and various chemical units do not mix on any
large scale. But occasionally, particularly during contact
metamorphism, diffusion may occur across a boundary of
chemical dissimilarity, leading to rocks of unique compo-
sition. This process is referred to as metasomatism. If a
granite is emplaced into a limestone, the contact region
may be flooded with silica and other components, leading
to the formation of a metasomatic rock. Often such con-
tacts are chemically zoned. A simple example is provided
by the metamorphism of magnesium-rich igneous rocks
in contact with quartz-rich sediments. A zonation of the
type serpentine-talc-quartz may be found such as:

In this case the talc zone has grown by silica dif-

fusion into the more silica-poor environment of the
serpentine. Economic deposits are not uncommon in such
situations—e.g., the formation of the CaWO4 (calcium
tungstate) scheelite when tungstate in the form of WO3
moves from a granite into a limestone contact. The reac-
tion can be expressed as:

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Metamorphic Reactions
The metamorphic reaction process involves burial and
heating. As pressure and temperature build, water is
released from the rock and the rock’s chemistry begins
to change. This section provides additional details on
this process following the path of kaolinite-quartz. Other
aspects of metamorphic reactions—such as the reactions
of other mineral systems, the principal types of metamor-
phic reactions, and the roles that isograds and retrograde
metamorphism play—are discussed in the following
sections.

Reactions in a Kaolinite-Quartz System

A very simple mineralogical system and its response
to changing pressure and temperature provide a good
illustration of what occurs in metamorphism. An uncom-
plicated sediment at Earth’s surface, a mixture of the
clay mineral kaolinite [Al4Si4O10(OH)8] and the mineral
quartz (SiO2), provides a good example. Most sediments
have small crystals or grain sizes but great porosity and
permeability, and the pores are filled with water. As time
passes, more sediments are piled on top of the surface
layer, and it becomes slowly buried. Accordingly, the pres-
sure to which the layer is subjected increases because of
the load on top, known as overburden. At the same time,
the temperature will increase because of radioactive heat-
ing within the sediment and heat flow from deeper levels
within Earth.
In the first stages of incremental burial and heating,
few chemical reactions will occur in the sediment layer,
but the porosity decreases, and the low-density pore water
is squeezed out. This process will be nearly complete by

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the time the layer is buried by 5 km (about 3 miles) of over-

burden. There will be some increase in the size of crystals;
small crystals with a large surface area are more soluble and
less stable than large crystals, and throughout metamor-
phic processes there is a tendency for crystals to grow in
size with time, particularly if the temperature is rising.
Eventually, when the rock is buried to a depth at which
temperatures of about 300 °C (about 570 °F) obtain, a
chemical reaction sets in, and the kaolinite and quartz are
transformed to pyrophyllite and water:

The exact temperature at which this occurs depends

on the fluid pressure in the system, but in general the fluid
and rock-load pressures tend to be rather similar during
such reactions. The water virtually fights its way out by
lifting the rocks. Thus, the first chemical reaction is a
dehydration reaction leading to the formation of a new
hydrate. The water released is itself a solvent for silicates
and promotes the crystallization of the product phases.
If heating and burial continue, another dehydration
sets in at about 400 °C (about 750 °F), in which the pyro-
phyllite is transformed to andalusite, quartz, and water:

After the water has escaped, the rock becomes vir-

tually anhydrous, containing only traces of fluid in small
inclusions in the product crystals and along grain bound-
aries. Both of these dehydration reactions tend to be fast,
because water, a good silicate solvent, is present.

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 7 Rocks 7

Although the mineral andalusite is indicated as the

first product of dehydration of pyrophyllite, there are
three minerals with the chemical composition Al2SiO5.
Each has unique crystal structures, and each is stable
under definite pressure-temperature conditions. Such
differing forms with identical composition are called
polymorphs. If pyrophyllite is dehydrated under high-
pressure conditions, the polymorph of Al2SiO5 formed
would be the mineral kyanite (the most dense polymorph).
With continued heating, the original andalusite or kya-
nite will invert to sillimanite, the highest-temperature
Al2SiO5 polymorph:

The kinetics of these polymorphic transformations

are sufficiently sluggish, however, that kyanite or andalu-
site may persist well into the stability field of sillimanite.

Reactions of Other Mineral Systems

Owing to the very simple bulk composition of the pro-
tolith in this example (a subset of the pelitic system
containing only SiO2-Al2O3-H2O), no other mineralogi-
cal changes will occur with continued heating or burial.
The original sediment composed of kaolinite, quartz, and
water will thus have been metamorphosed into a rock
composed of sillimanite and quartz, and perhaps some
metastable andalusite or kyanite, depending on the details
of the burial and heating history. In the case of a more typ-
ical pelite containing the additional chemical components
potash, ferrous oxide, and magnesium oxide, the reaction

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history would be correspondingly more complex. A typi-

cal shale that undergoes burial and heating in response to
continent-continent collision would develop the minerals
muscovite, chlorite, biotite, garnet, staurolite, kyanite, sil-
limanite, and alkali feldspar, in approximately that order,
before beginning to melt at about 700 °C (about 1,300 °F).
Each of these minerals appears in response to a chemical
reaction similar to those presented above. Most of these
reactions are dehydration reactions, and the shale thus
loses water progressively throughout the entire meta-
morphic event. As discussed above, the total number of
minerals present in the rock is controlled by the Gibbs
phase rule, and the addition of new minerals generally
results from the breakdown of old minerals. For example,
the following reaction,

occurs at temperatures of about 500–550 °C (about

930–1,022 °F) and typically consumes all the preexisting
chlorite in the rock, introduces the new mineral staurolite,
and adds more biotite and quartz to the biotite and quartz
generated by earlier reactions. Some garnet and muscovite
usually remain after the reaction, although examination of
the sample under the microscope would probably reveal
partial corrosion (wearing away due to chemical reactions)
of the garnets resulting from their consumption.

Isograds
Reactions that introduce new minerals in rocks of a
specific bulk composition are referred to as mineral
appearance isograds. Isograds can be mapped in the field

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as lines across which the metamorphic mineral assemblage

changes. Caution must be exercised to note the approxi-
mate bulk composition of the rocks throughout the map
area, however, because the same mineral can develop at
quite different sets of pressure-temperature conditions in
rocks of dissimilar chemical composition. For example,
garnet generally appears at a lower temperature in pelitic
rocks than it does in mafic rocks; hence, the garnet iso-
grad in pelitic rocks will not be the same map line as that
in metabasaltic (i.e., metamorphosed basalt) composi-
tions. Isograd patterns are discussed further in the section
on structural features.

Principal Types
Metamorphic reactions can be classified into two types
that show different degrees of sensitivity to tempera-
ture and pressure changes: net-transfer reactions and
exchange reactions. Net-transfer reactions involve the
breakdown of preexisting mineral phases and correspond-
ing nucleation and growth of new phases. (Nucleation is
the process in which a crystal begins to grow from one
or more points, or nuclei.) They can be either solid-solid
reactions (mineral A + mineral B = mineral C + mineral
D) or devolatilization reactions (hydrous mineral A =
anhydrous mineral B + water), but in either case they
require significant breaking of bonds and reorganization
of material in the rock. They may depend most strongly
on either temperature or pressure changes. In general,
devolatilization reactions are temperature-sensitive,
reflecting the large increase in entropy (disorder) that
accompanies release of structurally bound hydroxyl
groups (OH) from minerals to produce molecular water.
Net-transfer reactions that involve a significant change

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in density of the participating mineral phases are typi-

cally more sensitive to changes in pressure than in
temperature. An example is the transformation of albite
(NaAlSi3O8) to the sodic pyroxene jadeite (NaAlSi2O6)
plus quartz (SiO2); albite and quartz have similar densi-
ties of about 2.58 grams per cubic cm (1.49 ounces per
cubic inch), whereas jadeite has a density of 3.27 grams
per cubic cm (1.89 ounces per cubic inch). The increased
density reflects the closer packing of atoms in the jade-
ite structure. Not surprisingly, the denser phase jadeite
is produced during subduction zone (high-pressure)
metamorphism. Net-transfer reactions always involve a
change in mineral assemblage, and textural evidence of
the reaction often remains in the sample; isograd reac-
tions are invariably net-transfer reactions.
In contrast to net-transfer reactions, exchange reac-
tions involve redistribution of atoms between preexisting
phases rather than nucleation and growth of new phases.
The reactions result simply in compositional changes of
minerals already present in the rock and do not modify
the mineral assemblage. For example, the reaction

results in redistribution of iron and magnesium between

garnet and biotite but creates no new phases. This reac-
tion is limited by the rates at which iron and magnesium
can diffuse through the garnet and biotite structures.
Because diffusion processes are strongly controlled
by temperature but are nearly unaffected by pressure,

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 7 Rocks 7

exchange reactions are typically sensitive to changes only

in metamorphic temperature. Exchange reactions leave
no textural record in the sample and can be determined
only by detailed microanalysis of the constituent mineral
phases. The compositions of minerals as controlled by
exchange reactions can provide a useful record of the tem-
perature history of a metamorphic sample.
The types of reactions cited here are typical of all
metamorphic changes. Gases are lost (hydrous min-
erals lose water, carbonates lose carbon dioxide), and
mineral phases undergo polymorphic or other structural
changes; low-volume, dense mineral species are formed
by high pressures, and less dense phases are favoured by
high temperatures. Considering the immense chemical
and mineralogical complexity of Earth’s crust, it is clear
that the number of possible reactions is vast. In any given
complex column of crustal materials some chemical reac-
tion is likely for almost any incremental change in pressure
and temperature. This is a fact of immense importance in
unraveling Earth’s history and mechanics, for such changes
constitute a vital record and are the primary reason for the
study of metamorphic rocks.

Retrograde Metamorphism
In general, the changes in mineral assemblage and min-
eral composition that occur during burial and heating
are referred to as prograde metamorphism, whereas
those that occur during uplift and cooling of a rock rep-
resent retrograde metamorphism. If thermodynamic
equilibrium were always maintained, one might expect
all the reactions that occur during prograde metamor-
phism to be reversed during subsequent uplift of the
rocks and reexposure at Earth’s surface; in this case,

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metamorphic rocks would never be seen in outcrop. Two

factors mitigate against complete retrogression of meta-
morphic rocks, however, during their return to Earth’s
surface. First is the efficient removal of the water and
carbon dioxide released during prograde devolatilization
reactions by upward migration of the fluid along grain
boundaries and through fractures. Because almost all the
water released during heating by reactions such as

is removed from the site of reaction, the reaction cannot

be reversed during cooling unless water is subsequently
added to the rock. Thus, garnet can be preserved at
Earth’s surface even though it is thermodynamically
unstable at such low temperatures and pressures. The
second reason that metamorphic reactions do not typi-
cally operate in reverse during cooling is that reaction
rates are increased by rising temperatures. During
cooling, reaction kinetics become sluggish, and meta-
stable mineral assemblages and compositions can be
preserved well outside their normal stability fields.
Thus, prograde reactions are generally more efficient
than retrograde reactions, and metamorphic assem-
blages indicative of even extremely high temperatures
or pressures or both are found exposed throughout the
world. It is common, however, to find at least some
signs of retrogression in most metamorphic rocks. For
example, garnets are often rimmed by small amounts of
chlorite and quartz, indicating that limited quantities
of water were available for the reverse of the reaction
given above to proceed during cooling. Retrograde fea-
tures such as these reaction rims can be mapped to yield

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 7 Rocks 7

information on pathways of fluid migration through the

rocks during uplift and cooling. In other rocks, such as
high-temperature gneisses, mineral compositions often
reflect temperatures too low to be in equilibrium with
the preserved mineral assemblage; in these samples, it
is clear that certain exchange reactions operated in a
retrograde sense even when the net-transfer reactions
were frozen in during prograde metamorphism.

Textural Features
The fabric of a metamorphic rock results from the com-
bined effects of mineral reactions and deformation
throughout the metamorphic event and the subsequent
return of the rock to the terrestrial surface. The study of
metamorphic fabrics in outcrop and under the microscope
has become a highly specialized subject aimed at reveal-
ing the nature and direction of the forces acting during
dynamic processes within Earth. Much of this work is an
outgrowth of a classic investigation conducted in 1930 by
the Austrian geologist Bruno Sander, coupled with more
recent experimental work on the pressure-temperature
stabilities of metamorphic minerals and their responses
to deformation.
Observations show that pressure is only rarely hydro-
static (equal in all directions) at any point within Earth’s
crust. In real cases, consequently, anisotropic stresses
operate that may lead to flow or fracture of materials.
Such occurrences produce certain characteristic fabrics
or structures in metamorphic rocks that may be observed
at the scale of the orientation of small crystals in a rock or
as a pattern of folds in a mountain range. One of the prin-
cipal characteristics of most metamorphic rocks is that
the arrangement of crystals is not isotropic, or random,

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 7 Metamorphic Rock 7

but that there is a strong preferred orientation related to

the direction of stress components of pressure. Such pre-
ferred orientation of crystals and mineral grains is perhaps
the most striking difference between metamorphic rocks
and other rock types.

Major Features
The most obvious features of metamorphic rocks are cer-
tain planar features that are often termed s-surfaces. The
simplest planar features may be primary bedding (akin to
the layering in sedimentary rocks). As the rock crystallizes
or recrystallizes under directed pressure, new crystals may
grow in some preferred direction, sometimes subparallel
to the primary bedding but often at new angles defining
new planar structures. At the same time, folding of layers
may occur, leading to folds with amplitudes on scales of
kilometres or millimetres. Fabric symmetry may be rep-
resented by the nature of deformed fossils, pebbles in a
conglomerate, or any objects with a known shape prior to
deformation.
A few terms that commonly are used to describe sev-
eral types of preferred orientation in metamorphic rocks
include foliation, a general term describing any type of
s-surface, bedding, or crystal orientation; slaty cleavage, a
planar structure leading to facile cleavage that is normally
caused by the preferred orientation of mica crystals;
schistosity, a term used to describe repetitive and pro-
nounced foliation of the type that is present in schists;
and lineation, which is any linear structure, such as the
axis of the fold, grooves on a fault plane, or the direction
of stretching of pebbles.
The various mineral phases of a metamorphic rock
have different physical properties and symmetries. When

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 7 Rocks 7

a rock is subjected to recrystallization in a stress field,

different substances will behave differently according to
such physical properties and symmetries. Some minerals
always tend to grow in better-formed crystals than others;
rates of nucleation may differ, and this can lead to differ-
ent patterns of growth of crystals—there may be a few
large crystals or a mass of small crystals. Minerals can be
arranged in order of their tendency to form crystals show-
ing planar surfaces—namely, magnetite, garnet, epidote,
mica, calcite, quartz, and feldspar. Minerals that have
a tendency to form large single crystals (e.g., garnet) are
termed porphyroblasts.
Porphyroblastic crystals may grow before, during,
or after an episode of deformation (pre-, syn-, and post-
kinematic growth, respectively); the relative timing of
mineral growth and deformation can often be deter-
mined by examining the sample under a microscope.
Prekinematic porphyroblasts may be fractured by subse-
quent deformation; the orientation of the fractures and
any offset of the grains along them provide information
on the directed stresses responsible for the deforma-
tion. Prekinematic grains may also be surrounded by
pressure shadows produced by minerals such as quartz
that dissolve in zones of maximum compressive stress
and reprecipitate in zones of lesser compressive stress
adjacent to the rigid porphyroblasts. The texture of the
shadows is different from that of the host rock. Samples
exhibiting asymmetric pressure shadows around porphy-
roblasts can yield information on the orientation of shear
stresses during deformation. A spectacular example of
synkinematic prophyroblast growth is provided by the
so-called snowball garnets, which have spiral trails of
inclusions that indicate rotation of either the garnet or
the matrix foliation during garnet growth. Postkinematic

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 7 Metamorphic Rock 7

porphyroblasts typically overgrow all previous fabrics

in the rock and may contain trails of mineral inclusions
that define microfolds or an earlier schistosity.
In some samples, it is possible to use the compositions
of the porphyroblasts to calculate the depth and tempera-
ture conditions at which they grew and thereby constrain
the conditions at which deformation occurred. Studies
of this sort add immeasurably to the understanding of
crustal rheologies and the response of rocks to large-scale
orogenic events. Because a particular metamorphic event
may be accompanied by either several isolated episodes of
deformation or a single continuum of deformation, there
may be many fabric generations recorded in one sample;
individual minerals may be postkinematic with respect
to the earliest deformation but prekinematic relative to
younger deformation in the same rock. Thus, the study of

Photomicrograph showing corroded garnet (darker gray) surrounded by

a corona of cordierite produced during uplift of the sample. Other minerals
present are biotite, plagioclase, sillimanite, alkali feldspar, and ilmenite. The
garnet is two millimetres across. Jane Selverstone

217
 7 Rocks 7

porphyroblast fabrics in metamorphic rocks can be com-

plex but has the potential to yield important information
on the structural history of metamorphic regions.
Because changes in pressure and temperature often
occur at faster rates than those of mineral reaction and
recrystallization, metamorphic rocks may display fabrics
that result from incomplete reactions. Such disequilibrium
features provide a wealth of information on the reaction
history of the sample and, by comparison with experi-
mental studies of mineral stabilities, can also constrain
the quantitative pressure-temperature history of the rock
during metamorphism.
An example of a reaction texture can be described.
For example, a corroded garnet is surrounded by a corona
(reaction rim) of the mineral cordierite; other minerals
present in the matrix include sillimanite, quartz, biotite,
and alkali feldspar. The sample does not contain garnet in
contact with sillimanite or quartz. These textural features
suggest the following reaction relationship between gar-
net, sillimanite, quartz, and cordierite:

This reaction has been shown experimentally to

occur at temperatures of approximately 725° ± 50 °C
(1,337° ± 122 °F) and to be very sensitive to pressure, with
cordierite occurring under low-pressure conditions. The
textural evidence that preexisting garnet was partially
replaced by cordierite thus implies that the rock under-
went decompression while still at high temperatures
and that the decompression occurred too rapidly for the
rock to recrystallize completely (i.e., for garnet to be
totally replaced by cordierite).

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Lamination

There is also a tendency for many types of metamorphic

rocks to become laminated, and the separate laminae
may have distinct chemical compositions. A macroscopi-
cally rather homogeneous sediment may prove to be
inhomogeneous on a minute scale. When graywackes
are metamorphosed within the greenschist facies, for
example, laminae rich in quartz and feldspar alternate
with others rich in epidote, chlorite, and muscovite. The
precise causes of this process are not well known, but it
may result from a combination of extensive deformation
accompanied by recrystallization. In a sense, it is a type of
flow unmixing. It is important to recognize that this type
of structure need have no relation to original bedding in
the unmetamorphosed sediments.

Structural Features
Metamorphic rocks are often intimately related to large-
scale (kilometres of tens of kilometres) structural features
of Earth. Such features include folds, nappes, and faults
with a wide variety of geometries. In many cases, the cor-
relation of metamorphic isograds and their position in
the structure implies a genetic relationship between the
two. For example, one of the major structural features in
the Himalayan mountain belt is the Main Central Thrust,
a thrust fault that runs for hundreds of kilometres from
east to west and was responsible for the transportation
of rocks belonging to the Eurasian Plate southward over
those of the Indian Plate. Along much of the length of this
fault, the metamorphic rocks in the hanging wall (located
above the fault) display a pattern of inverted isograds;
i.e., the rocks that reached the highest temperatures of

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metamorphism overlie rocks that record lower tempera-

tures, implying that metamorphic temperatures decreased
with depth to the fault. Several explanations have been
proposed to account for this anomalous distribution of
temperature with depth. One model suggests the fault
transported hot Asian rocks over cooler Indian rocks,
which caused cooling of the Asian rocks in the vicinity of
the fault. Another model proposes that fluids circulating
along the fault zone caused retrograde metamorphism and
thus reset the rocks located nearest to the fault to lower
temperatures. Although neither of these models provides
an adequate explanation for the entire length of the Main
Central Thrust, they both emphasize the significant con-
trol that structural features can exert on the development
of metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphism associated with nappes (large
recumbent folds) in the Alps and the Appalachians
provides strong evidence that the tectonic transport
of rocks typically occurs at rates faster than those of
thermal equilibration—in other words, that the nappes
can transport hot rocks for large distances without sig-
nificant cooling. Nappe formation is a major process of
crustal thickening during continent-continent collision;
emplacement of the nappes results in burial and heating
of the underlying rocks. Isograd distributions associated
with nappe structures can be either normal or inverted,
depending on the relative rates of nappe emplacement
and heat transfer.
Isograd maps can provide information on the rela-
tive timing of structural and metamorphic events in
much the same way that fabric studies constrain the rela-
tive timing of deformation episodes and prophyroblast
growth. For example, isograd patterns that are cut by
faults clearly indicate that metamorphism predated fault
displacement, whereas isograd sequences that overprint

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structural discontinuities imply the reverse. Isograds that

parallel major structures suggest some cause-and-effect
relationship between the structural and metamorphic
development of the region. Since the 1980s, metamorphic
petrologists and structural geologists have increasingly
worked together to correlate metamorphic and tectonic
events and thereby increase understanding of crustal
dynamics in tectonically active regions of Earth.

Metamorphic Facies
Metamorphic petrologists studying contact metamor-
phism early in the 20th century introduced the idea of
metamorphic facies to correlate metamorphic events.
The concept was first defined in 1914 by a Finnish petrol-
ogist, Pentti Eelis Eskola, as any rock of a metamorphic
formation that has attained chemical equilibrium through
metamorphism at constant temperature and pressure con-
ditions, with its mineral composition controlled only by
the chemical composition. In current usage, a metamor-
phic facies is a set of metamorphic mineral assemblages,
repeatedly associated in space and time, such that there
is a constant and therefore predictable relation between
mineral composition and chemical composition.
The facies concept is more or less observation-based.
In a single outcrop, for instance, layers of different chemi-
cal composition will display different mineral assemblages
despite having all experienced the same pressure and
temperature history. A pelitic layer might contain the
assemblage garnet + chlorite + biotite + muscovite + quartz,
whereas a basaltic horizon a few centimetres away would
contain the assemblage chlorite + actinolite + albite. Both
of these rocks belong to the same facies, meaning that, in
another region, a geologist who observed the assemblage
chlorite + actinolite + albite in a metabasalt could predict

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that associated pelitic rocks would contain the garnet +

chlorite + biotite + muscovite + quartz assemblage.
Experimental work on the relative stabilities of
metamorphic minerals and assemblages has permit-
ted correlation of the empirically derived facies with
quantitative pressure and temperature conditions. The
names of metamorphic facies in common usage are
derived from the behaviour of a rock of basaltic bulk
composition during metamorphism at various sets of
pressure-temperature conditions. For example, a basalt
metamorphosed during subduction to high pressures
at low temperatures recrystallizes into a rock contain-
ing glaucophane, lawsonite, and albite; glaucophane is
a sodic amphibole that is blue to black in hand sample
and lavender to blue under the microscope. Because
of their distinctive bluish coloration, such samples are
called blueschists. The same rock type metamorphosed
at more moderate pressures and temperatures in the
range of 400–500 °C (about 750–930 °F) would con-
tain abundant chlorite and actinolite, minerals that are
green both in hand sample and under the microscope,
and would be referred to as a greenschist. At some-
what higher temperatures, the rock would become an
amphibolite, reflecting a mineralogy composed pre-
dominantly of the amphibole hornblende along with
plagioclase and perhaps some garnet. At still higher
temperatures, a metabasalt recrystallizes into a rock
containing hypersthene, diopside, and plagioclase; in
general, these minerals form relatively equant crystals
and hence do not develop a preferred orientation. The
granular texture of these rocks has resulted in the name
granulite for a high-temperature metabasalt. A pelitic
or calcareous rock will develop very different mineral
assemblages from a metabasalt, yet the same facies

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names apply. Thus, one can refer to a greenschist facies

pelitic schist, an amphibolite facies calcsilicate rock, or
a granulite facies garnet gneiss.
The boundaries between the different facies are
regions of pressure and temperature in which chemical
reactions occur that would significantly alter the mineral-
ogy of a rock of basaltic bulk composition. For example,
the boundary between the greenschist and amphibolite
facies marks a transition from amphibole of actinolitic
composition to hornblende and of a sodic plagioclase into
a more calcic plagioclase. The reactions that bring about
these transformations depend on the specific composi-
tion of the rock.

Facies Series
Different types of tectonic processes produce differ-
ent associations of metamorphic facies in the field. For
example, regions associated with subduction of oceanic
material beneath either oceanic or continental crust are
characterized by blueschist, greenschist, and eclogite
facies rocks, whereas areas thought to reflect continent-
continent collision are more typically distinguished by
greenschist and amphibolite facies rocks. Still other
regions, usually containing an abundance of intrusive
igneous material, show associations of low-pressure green-
schist, amphibolite, and granulite facies rocks. These
observations led a Japanese petrologist, Akiho Miyashiro,
working in the 1960s and ’70s, to develop the concept
of baric types, or metamorphic facies series. Miyashiro
described the three facies associations given above as
high-pressure, medium-pressure, and low-pressure facies
series, respectively, and correlated the development of
these characteristic series with the shape of the geotherm

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in different tectonic settings. Subsequent thermal mod-

eling studies have shown that metamorphism generally
occurs in response to tectonically induced perturbation of
geotherms rather than along steady-state geotherms and,
hence, that the facies series do not record metamorphic
geotherms. Nonetheless, the concept of metamorphic
facies series is a useful one in that it emphasizes the strong
genetic relationship between metamorphic style and tec-
tonic setting.

Pressure-Temperature-Time Paths
Interaction between metamorphic petrologists and geo-
physicists in the 1980s led to the realization that each
metamorphic rock follows its own unique path through
pressure- (depth-) temperature space during metamor-
phism and that these paths bear little or no resemblance
to steady-state geotherms. The specific shape of a
pressure-temperature-time (P-T-t) path depends on the
tectonic setting in which the rock was metamorphosed,
which in turn controls the relative rates at which burial or
uplift and heating or cooling occur. For example, a rock
that is uplifted rapidly from depth, perhaps in response
to extensional faulting (that caused by the stretching of
Earth’s crust), may transport heat with it to near-surface
depths. Its P-T-t path would show a phase of nearly iso-
thermal decompression (uplift at approximately constant
temperature), reflecting the fact that uplift rates were
more rapid than those of heat transfer. In contrast, if the
same rock remained at depth for a long period of time and
then experienced very slow uplift, its P-T-t path would
show cooling during uplift or even a phase of isobaric
(constant-pressure) cooling. Rocks belonging to medium-
pressure facies series generally follow P-T-t paths that

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Examples of pressure-temperature-time paths that would be fol-

lowed by rocks metamorphosed in different environments. Copyright
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; rendering for this edition by Rosen
Educational Services

are clockwise loops on a pressure-temperature diagram,

reflecting rapid burial during a collisional event followed
by heating and relatively rapid uplift. In contrast, low-
pressure facies series rocks may follow counterclockwise
P-T-t paths in response to rapid heating of the crust due
to magma intrusion prior to uplift. P-T-t paths followed
by rocks of a high-pressure facies series are less predict-
able and depend strongly on the mechanism by which the
rocks are transferred from the subducting slab to the over-
lying continental crust. In general, the mineral assemblage
preserved in a metamorphic rock is frozen at the highest
temperature experienced during metamorphism, and thus
the facies and facies series to which the rock would be
assigned reflect only a single point on its P-T-t path.
One of the principal goals of much of the work that
is done on metamorphic rocks is the reconstruction of
the P-T-t paths followed by rocks presently exposed at
Earth’s surface. Because these paths are so strongly linked
to dynamic processes, their reconstruction provides a

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means by which tectonic processes operative in the geo-

logic past may be understood. Owing to the continuous
recrystallization of rocks that occurs during progressive
metamorphism, much of the early record of metamorphic
changes within a sample is eradicated by later events. It
is, therefore, not possible to determine the entire P-T-t
path followed by an individual sample, but often enough
disequilibrium features are preserved to permit recon-
struction of a few thousand bars and a couple of hundred
degrees of the path; such a portion may represent any-
where from a few million to a hundred million years of
Earth history, as revealed by geochronologic determina-
tions involving different minerals or fabric generations
in the sample. Techniques for determining the pressure-
temperature history of a metamorphic rock include using
compositions of coexisting minerals to calculate pres-
sures and temperatures of equilibration (geobarometry
and geothermometry, respectively), comparing the min-
eral assemblage to experimentally determined stability
fields for the phases, utilizing mineral inclusions enclosed
within porphyroblasts to constrain assemblages pres-
ent in the early history of the sample, and making use of
the densities of small inclusions of fluids trapped within
the minerals to determine possible pressures and tem-
peratures experienced at different stages in the burial and
uplift history.

Origin of Metamorphic Rocks:

Types of Metamorphism
It is convenient to distinguish several general types of
metamorphism in order to simplify the description of the
various metamorphic phenomena. Recognized here are
hydrothermal, dynamic, contact, and regional metamor-
phism, each of which will be described in turn.

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Metamorphism
Metamorphism is the process by which mineralogical and structural
adjustments occur in solid rocks in response to their current physi-
cal and chemical conditions, which differ from those under which
the rocks originally formed. Changes produced by surface conditions
such as compaction are usually excluded. The most important agents
of metamorphism include temperature, pressure, and fluids. Equally
as significant are changes in chemical environment that result in two
metamorphic processes: (1) mechanical dislocation where a rock is
deformed, especially as a consequence of differential stress; and (2)
chemical recrystallization where a mineral assemblage becomes out
of equilibrium due to temperature and pressure changes and a new
mineral assemblage forms.
Three types of metamorphism may occur depending on the
relative effect of mechanical and chemical changes. Dynamic meta-
morphism, or cataclasis, results mainly from mechanical deformation
with little long-term temperature change. Textures produced by such
adjustments range from breccias composed of angular, shattered
rock fragments to very fine-grained, granulated or powdered rocks
with obvious foliation and lineation. Large, pre-existing mineral
grains may be deformed as a result of stress. Contact metamorphism
occurs primarily as a consequence of increases in temperature when
differential stress is minor. A common phenomenon is the effect
produced adjacent to igneous intrusions where several metamor-
phic zones represented by changing mineral assemblages reflect
the temperature gradient from the high-temperature intrusion to
the low-temperature host rocks; these zones are concentric to the
intrusion. Because the volume affected is small, the pressure is near
constant. Resulting rocks have equidimensional grains because of a
lack of stress and are usually fine-grained due to the short duration
of metamorphism. Regional metamorphism results from the gen-
eral increase, usually correlated, of temperature and pressure over a
large area. Grades or intensities of metamorphism are represented
by different mineral assemblages that either give relative values of
temperature or absolute values when calibrated against laboratory
experiments. Regional metamorphism can be subdivided into differ-
ent pressure-temperature conditions based on observed sequences
of mineral assemblages. It may include an extreme condition, where
partial melting occurs, called anatexis.

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Other types of metamorphism can occur. They are retrograde

metamorphism, the response of mineral assemblages to decreasing
temperature and pressure; metasomatism, the metamorphism that
includes the addition or subtraction of components from the origi-
nal assemblage; poly-metamorphism, the effect of more than one
metamorphic event; and hydrothermal metamorphism, the changes
that occur in the presence of water at high temperature and pressure
which affect the resulting mineralogy and rate of reaction.

Hydrothermal Metamorphism
Changes that occur in rocks near the surface, where there
is intense activity of hot water, are categorized as hydro-
thermal metamorphism. Such areas include Yellowstone
National Park in the northwestern United States, the
Salton Sea in California, and Wairakei in New Zealand. It
is now generally recognized that the circulating ground-
waters that often become heated by their proximity to
igneous materials produce the metamorphism. Migration
of chemical elements, vein formation, and other kinds of
mineral concentration may be extreme on account of the
large volumes of water circulated.

Dynamic Metamorphism
When directed pressure or stress is the dominant agent
of metamorphism, it is termed dynamic; other terms are
dislocation, kinematic, and mechanical metamorphism.
Mineralogical changes occurring on a fault plane provide
an obvious example. In some such cases, the action may
simply be a grinding up of existing grains or realignment
of minerals that have non-equant crystals. If the action is
intense, friction may even lead to melting.

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 7 Metamorphic Rock 7

Contact Metamorphism

Whenever silicate melts (magmas, from which igneous

rocks crystallize within Earth) invade the crust at any
level, they perturb the normal thermal regime and cause
a heat increase in the vicinity. If a mass of basaltic liq-
uid ascending from the upper mantle is trapped in the
crust and crystallizes there, it will heat the surround-
ing area; the amount of heating and its duration will
be a direct function of the mass and shape of the igne-
ous material. Contact-metamorphic phenomena thus
occur in the vicinity of hot igneous materials and at any
depth. Under such circumstances, pressure and temper-
ature are not simply correlated. Thermal gradients are
often steep unless the igneous mass is extremely large.
Contact aureoles—the surrounding zones of rock that
become altered or metamorphosed—vary in thickness
from several centimetres (around tabular bodies such as
dikes and thin sills) to several kilometres (around large
granitic intrusions). The contact metamorphic rocks of
the aureole zone often lack any obvious schistosity or
foliation.
The facies associated with contact metamorphism
include the sanidinite, pyroxenite-hornfels, hornblende-
hornfels, and albite-epidote-hornfels facies.

Sanidinite Facies
Rocks of the sanidinite facies are represented by small
fragments of aureole materials that have often been
totally immersed in silicate liquids or by the aureole
rocks surrounding volcanic pipes. Very high tempera-
tures are attained, often at very low pressures. The
dominant feature of the mineralogy of this facies is an
almost complete lack of minerals containing water or

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carbon dioxide. Many of the minerals show similarity

to those of igneous rocks themselves. If the duration of
heating is short, adjustment to the imposed temperature
is often imperfect.
Pelitic rocks (high in aluminum oxide) contain miner-
als such as mullite, sillimanite, sanidine, cordierite, spinel,
hypersthene, anorthite, tridymite, and even glass. One of
the classic localities of such rocks is the island of Mull, off
the west coast of Scotland, but these rocks can be found in
most regions of volcanism.
Calcareous rocks (originally impure limestones or
dolomites) tend to lose nearly all their carbon dioxide,
but pure calcite may survive. Typical metamorphic miner-
als are quartz, wollastonite, anorthite, diopside, periclase,
and in some places (the classic is Scawt Hill in Northern
Ireland) an array of complex calcium silicates such as
spurrite, larnite, rankinite, melilite, merwinite, and
monticellite. These minerals result from the addition of
varying amounts of silica to impure mixtures of calcite and
dolomite. In a general way the minerals of this facies are
reminiscent of those of industrial slags.

Pyroxene-Hornfels Facies
Rocks of the pyroxene-hornfels facies are characteristi-
cally formed near larger granitic or gabbroic bodies at
depths of a few kilometres or at pressures of a few hundred
bars. The mineral assemblages are again largely anhydrous,
but, unlike the sanidinite facies, the minerals reflect dis-
tinctly lower temperatures. One of the classic descriptions
of such rocks is from the Oslo district of Norway.
In pelitic rocks, minerals such as quartz, ortho-
clase, andalusite, sillimanite, cordierite, orthopyroxene,
and plagioclase occur. Sometimes the hydrate biotite
is developed. In calcareous rocks the minerals found

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include plagioclase, diopside, grossularite, vesuvianite,

wollastonite, and sometimes the more complex calcium
silicates monticellite, melilite, spurrite, tilleyite, and
clinohumite.

Hornblende-Hornfels Facies
A generally deeper level of contact metamorphism at
pressures of a few kilobars is represented by the hornblende-
hornfels facies. Hydrated phases become stable, and the
transition to regional metamorphism becomes appar-
ent. Because of the generally greater depth, this type of
aureole is often superposed on a metamorphism at more
normal pressure-temperature conditions, and the rocks
may appear schistose and exhibit new thermally gener-
ated minerals on a preexisting assemblage. This type of
metamorphism develops the classic “spotted” texture in
which new porphyroblasts grow in slates and phyllites
of a previous episode of metamorphism. Typically, such
rocks are developed near most of the world’s large granite
batholiths.
Typical minerals of pelitic assemblages include
quartz, muscovite, biotite, andalusite, sillimanite, cordi-
erite, plagioclase, microcline, and staurolite. Calcareous
assemblages include calcite, quartz, diopside, grossular,
plagioclase, wollastonite, brucite, talc, forsterite, trem-
olite, and clinozoisite. Basaltic compositions include
plagioclase, hornblende, diopside, quartz, biotite, and
almandine garnet.
When rather pure limestone and dolomite come
into direct contact with granitic rocks, elements such
as silicon, iron, magnesium, and aluminum diffuse into
the limestone, forming spectacular rocks termed skarns.
These rocks often consist of large garnet crystals (grossu-
lar) with green diopside and vesuvianite or epidote.

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Skarn
A skarn is the metamorphic zone developed in the contact area
around igneous rock intrusions when carbonate sedimentary rocks
are invaded by large amounts of silicon, aluminum, iron, and magne-
sium. The minerals commonly present in a skarn include iron oxides,
calc-silicates (wollastonite, diopside, forsterite), andradite and gros-
sularite garnet, epidote, and calcite. Many skarns also include ore
minerals; several productive deposits of copper or other base metals
have been found in and adjacent to skarns. Granitic and dioritic mag-
mas are most commonly associated with skarns. Skarns can be zoned,
with the inner zones successively replacing the outer ones as the wave
of metamorphism moves through the surrounding rocks.

Albite-Epidote-Hornfels Facies
Rocks of the albite-epidote-hornfels facies are charac-
teristically found as the outer zones of contact aureoles
where the thermal episode fades out and the rocks pass
into their regional grade of metamorphism. The min-
eral assemblages are quite similar to those found in
regional greenschist-facies metamorphism, except for
the presence of low-pressure phases such as andalusite.
Characteristic minerals include quartz, muscovite, bio-
tite, chlorite, andalusite, actinolite, calcite, dolomite,
albite, and epidote.

Regional Metamorphism
Regional metamorphism is associated with the major
events of Earth dynamics, and the vast majority of met-
amorphic rocks are so produced. They are the rocks
involved in the cyclic processes of erosion, sedimenta-
tion, burial, metamorphism, and mountain building,
events that are all related to major convective processes
in Earth’s mantle.

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 7 Metamorphic Rock 7

Most regionally metamorphosed rocks develop pri-

marily in response to continent-continent collision and
to collision between oceanic and continental plates. As
a result, young metamorphic belts aligned roughly par-
allel to the present-day continental margins (e.g., the
Pacific margin) as well as older metamorphic belts are
used to infer the geometries of the continental margins
at earlier periods in Earth’s history. Most of the world’s
mountain belts are at least partially composed of region-
ally metamorphosed rocks, with spectacular examples
provided by the Alps, the Himalayas, the northern
Appalachians, and the Highlands of Scotland. Although
the processes that formed each of these mountain belts
are broadly similar, in almost all such crustal events at
different times and places, there is uniqueness as well
as conformity to a general pattern. Metamorphic events
in the Alps, the Urals, and the Himalayas all show spe-
cific differences: to unravel such differences and their
significance is one of the major tasks of metamorphic
petrology.
In areas of collision between oceanic and conti-
nental lithospheric plates such as the circum-Pacific
region, the denser oceanic plate is subducted (carried
into Earth’s mantle) beneath the more buoyant con-
tinental lithosphere. Rapid subduction of the cool
oceanic lithosphere perturbs the thermal regime in
such a way that high pressures can be obtained at rela-
tively low temperatures, thereby generating blueschists
and eclogites (high-pressure facies series) from ocean-
floor basalts transported down the subduction zone.
Continued subduction of these rocks to great depth
may eventually result in either (1) rising temperatures
and partial melting of subducted rocks or (2) the melting
of hydrated peridotite created by fluids released from

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metamorphic reactions in the subduction zone that

rise into the overlying mantle wedge. These melts con-
tribute to the formation of the volcanoes that overlie
subduction zones in areas such as the Andes of South
America, Japan, and the Aleutian Islands. Upward
migration of subduction-related magmas also contrib-
utes to the development of paired metamorphic belts,
in which high-pressure, low-temperature metamorphic
rocks are flanked on the continental side by a parallel
belt of low-pressure, high-temperature rocks. The latter
rocks are thought to reflect perturbation of the crustal
thermal regime by the passage of silicate melts gener-
ated above the subducting slab. Continued intrusion of
magma over a period of time would cause an increase
in crustal temperatures at relatively shallow depths and
produce the high-temperature rocks adjacent to the
high-pressure rocks generated in the subduction zone.
Well-developed paired metamorphic belts are exposed
in Japan, California, the Alps, and New Zealand.
Data obtained from deep earthquakes in subduc-
tion zones indicate that a descending slab of oceanic
lithosphere can remain intact to depths of several hun-
dred kilometres before undergoing complete melting or
fragmentation or both and being incorporated into the
surrounding mantle. Clearly, the blueschists and eclog-
ites exposed in orogenic belts around the world did
not undergo such a process and were instead returned
to Earth’s surface. Most of the high-pressure rocks
that have been studied from Japan, California, New
Caledonia, the Alps, and Scandinavia record maximum
pressures of 10–20 kilobars (1–2 gigapascal), correspond-
ing to subduction to depths of approximately 35–70 km
(about 22–44 miles). A few samples have been discov-
ered in Norway, the Alps, and China that contain the

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mineral coesite, a high-pressure polymorph of quartz.

Experimental studies on the stability of coesite imply
minimum pressures of 30 kilobars (3 gigapascal) for
these rocks, indicating burial or subduction to depths of
approximately 100 km (about 60 miles). This is termed
ultra-high pressure metamorphism (UHPM). These
pressures are particularly noteworthy in that they are
recorded in rocks derived from sedimentary rather
than basaltic protoliths. Because of the low density, and
hence greater buoyancy, of sediments relative to basalts,
many geologists have argued that sediment subduction
must be a rather limited process; the coesite-bearing
metapelites (metamorphosed pelites) provide important
evidence that sediment subduction can and does occur
under certain circumstances.
The processes by which rocks that have been partially
subducted are returned to the surface are not well under-
stood. Models have been proposed to account for uplift
and exposure of these high-pressure, high-density rocks;
they include scraping material from the subducting plate
against the overlying crustal lithosphere, upward flow of
material in response to forced convection above the sub-
ducted slab, and removal of overlying thickened crust
by low-angle extensional faulting. Testing these models
requires considerable petrologic and structural work in
areas where high-pressure rocks are exposed.
Most of the high-pressure rocks that are currently
displayed in metamorphic belts around the world were
metamorphosed in Mesozoic or Cenozoic time (e.g.,
the circum-Pacific belt, the Alps, the Greek Cyclades,
and the Cordillera Betica in Spain). Older high-pressure
rocks are known from only a few isolated occurrences
in, for example, Wales, Bavaria, the Île de Groix off the
coast of Brittany, and the Norwegian Caledonides (on

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the west coast of Norway). The general absence of high-

pressure samples in the early rock record raises a number
of interesting questions concerning Earth history. Some
geologists have argued that the lack of well-developed
Precambrian and Paleozoic high-pressure belts indicates
that plate tectonic processes have changed significantly
throughout geologic time. Specifically, they claim that
greater heat production in Archean time (about 4 bil-
lion to 2.5 billion years ago) would have produced hotter
crustal geotherms, resulting in thin, hot lithospheric
plates whose mechanical behaviour may have been quite
different from that of the present-day plates and hence
may not have permitted formation of subduction zones.
The increasing abundance of subduction-related meta-
morphic rocks with decreasing age in the rock record
would thus reflect the gradual onset of plate tectonics
as operative today. Others argue that the rock record is
biased owing to preferential erosion or thermal over-
printing (development of a new mineralogy that may
obliterate the original one) of old blueschists and eclog-
ites. Thermal modeling studies suggest that blueschists
will generally undergo heating and be converted to
greenschist assemblages if exposure at Earth’s surface
does not occur within 100 million to 200 million years
after high-pressure metamorphism. Early exposure
at the surface also increases the chances for removal
by erosion, however, resulting in a low probability for
preserving blueschists greater than 100 million to 200
million years old. Geologists favouring generation of
blueschists throughout Earth history but only selec-
tive preservation of these rocks also point to crustal
rocks more than 2.5 billion years old that record meta-
morphism at depths of 25–40 km (about 16–25 miles);
these medium-pressure facies series rocks imply that

236
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crustal thicknesses in the early Earth were similar to

those of the present day and thus that modern plate
tectonic processes may have operated from the early
Precambrian to the present. This debate, though unre-
solved, emphasizes the substantial knowledge of Earth’s
thermal structure and plate tectonic processes that can
be obtained from the study of metamorphic rocks.
Depending on the original geometry of Earth’s litho-
spheric plates, subduction of oceanic crust beneath
continental lithosphere may result in complete consump-
tion of an ocean basin and subsequent collision between
two continents. Collisions of this type have a long and
complex history that may include initial formation of a
paired metamorphic belt followed by extreme crustal
thickening in response to the actual collision of the conti-
nents. The overthickened crust produced by the collision
event will be gravitationally unstable and will undergo
subsequent rapid erosion and possibly extensional fault-
ing in order to return to a normal crustal thickness.
Rocks metamorphosed in the early stages of collision
may belong to a high-pressure facies series, reflecting the
final stages of subduction of oceanic lithosphere, whereas
the younger facies more typically belong to medium-
pressure facies series. Metamorphic rocks exposed in
former collision zones may thus have followed a variety
of pressure-temperature-time paths, but paths showing
rapid burial followed by heating and subsequent unroof-
ing at moderate to high temperatures have been reported
from many mountain belts around the world. Owing to
the strong directed forces operative during collision,
deformation typically accompanies metamorphism; rocks
metamorphosed in response to continent-continent
collision generally have fabrics showing a strong pre-
ferred orientation of mineral grains, folds on a variety of

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scales, and pre-, syn-, and postkinematic porphyroblasts.

Examples of metamorphic belts produced in response to
this type of collision include the Paleozoic Appalachian
and Caledonides belts and the Mesozoic-Cenozoic Alpine
and Himalayan belts.
Regionally metamorphosed rocks are also exposed
in areas where the crust has been thinned by extensional
faulting, such as the Basin and Range province of the
western United States. In this type of occurrence, areas
of medium- and low-pressure facies series rocks that mea-
sure a few tens of kilometres in diameter are juxtaposed
against unmetamorphosed sediments or very low-grade
metamorphic rocks along low-angle extensional faults.
(Metamorphic grades refer to the degree and intensity of
the metamorphism: they are determined by the pressure
and temperatures to which the rock has been subjected.)
Such areas are generally referred to as metamorphic core
complexes. Metamorphism in these complexes may or may
not be related to the extensional event. In some instances,
metamorphic rocks produced during much earlier events
are simply unroofed and exposed by the faulting but show
little or no recrystallization related to extension. In other
cases, prolonged extension has resulted in an increased
crustal geotherm, and relatively high-temperature meta-
morphism and magmatism is thus directly related to the
extensional event. Immediately adjacent to the faults, the
rocks may also be affected by dynamic metamorphism.
The facies associated with regional metamorphism
include, at low grade, the zeolite and prehnite-pumpellyite
facies. In areas belonging to high-pressure facies series,
the rocks are predominantly in the blueschist and eclogite
facies. Medium- and low-pressure facies series are typified
by rocks belonging to the greenschist, amphibolite, and
granulite facies.

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Zeolite Facies

In the zeolite facies, sediments and volcanic debris show

the first major response to burial. Reactions are often not
complete, and typical metamorphic fabrics may be poorly
developed or not developed at all. This is the facies of
burial metamorphism.
The zeolite facies was first described from southern
New Zealand, but similar rocks have now been described
from many of Earth’s younger mountain regions, partic-
ularly around the Pacific margin and the European Alps.
Typically, the rocks are best developed where reactive
volcanic materials (often partly glassy) are common and
the characteristic minerals include zeolites, which are
low-density, hydrated silicates, stable at temperatures
rarely exceeding 300 °C (570 °F). Typical mineral assem-
blages include heulandite, analcite, quartz with complex
clay minerals (montmorillonite), micaceous phases such
as chlorite and celadonite, and the potassium feldspar,
adularia. At higher grades of metamorphism, the zeolite
laumonite and the feldspar albite dominate the mineral
assemblage. In New Zealand these are developed in a
rock column that is about 15 km (about 9 miles) thick.
Calcareous rocks (impure limestones) show very little
response to this grade of metamorphism.

Prehnite-Pumpellyite Facies
Along with the zeolite facies, the prehnite-pumpellyite
facies received little attention until about 1950. The first
rocks of the facies were described in New Zealand and
Celebes. The facies is transitional, bridging the path to
the blueschist facies or the greenschist facies. It is par-
ticularly well developed in graywacke-type sediments.
The two minerals prehnite and pumpellyite replace

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the zeolite minerals of the zeolite facies and are them-

selves replaced by epidote minerals in the greenschist
facies and by lawsonite and pyroxenes in the blue-
schist facies. Typical minerals in this facies are quartz,
albite, prehnite, pumpellyite, chlorite, stilpnomelane,
muscovite, and actinolite. Almost all the minerals are
hydrated, and, except for chlorite, they bear little resem-
blance to the minerals of sediments. This facies has been
most described from younger mountain ranges of the
Pacific margin.

Blueschist Facies
Rocks of the blueschist facies represent deep metamor-
phism under conditions of a low thermal gradient. The
characteristic locale for this type of metamorphism
appears to be along a continental margin being under-
thrust by an oceanic plate. Regions in which blueschists
are found are also regions of great seismic and volcanic
activity, such as the Pacific margin. The best described
examples of this class of metamorphism come from
California, Japan, New Caledonia, Celebes, the Alps, and
the Mediterranean region. At present there are no con-
firmed examples of glaucophane schists predating the
Paleozoic Era. Because of the presence of the blue amphi-
bole glaucophane and minerals such as garnet and jadeite,
these schists are among the most attractive of metamor-
phic rocks.
Characteristic minerals of the facies include quartz,
glaucophane, lawsonite, jadeite, omphacite, garnet, albite,
chlorite, muscovite, paragonite, epidote, and kyanite. In
calcareous rocks, calcite may be replaced by the high-
pressure polymorph aragonite. In general, the facies is
characterized by many high-density minerals reflecting a
high pressure of formation.

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Eclogite Facies

The eclogite facies was initially recognized in rocks only

of basaltic composition, which are transformed at the
pressure-temperature conditions of the eclogite facies
into spectacular red and green rocks composed of the
anhydrous mineral assemblage garnet plus omphacite.
The garnet is rich in the high-pressure species pyrope,
and the omphacite is rich in the high-pressure pyrox-
ene jadeite. Small amounts of minerals such as kyanite,
zoisite, and hornblende may be present. The rocks are of
high density and frequently show little or no schistosity.
It is now known that protoliths other than basalt also
can be metamorphosed to pressures and temperatures
characteristic of the eclogite facies, and a wide variety of
mineral assemblages can be stable at these conditions,
including several hydrous mineral phases. Minerals that
have been observed in metapelites include magnesium-
rich chloritoid and staurolite, kyanite, garnet, phengite
(a muscovite mica with high magnesium and silicon and
low aluminum content), chlorite, and talc. Experimental
work shows that pelitic rocks composed primarily of
talc and kyanite, which are referred to as whiteschists,
can be stable from pressures of approximately 6 kilobars
(0.6 gigapascal) up to greater than 30 kilobars (3 gigapas-
cal). Minerals observed in eclogite-facies calcareous
rocks include magnesite, dolomite, zoisite or epidote,
and omphacite.
Because of the high density and composition, it was
proposed long ago that part of the upper mantle might
be made of eclogite. Such a view is supported by eclogitic
intrusions in volcanic rocks and by eclogitic inclusions in
diamond-bearing kimberlite, which must come from the
upper mantle. Some workers also think that eclogites

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found in metamorphic terrains in Norway, California, U.S.,

and the European Alps could also come from the mantle
by tectonic processes.
Early experimental work on eclogites of basaltic bulk
composition suggested that eclogites could generally
only be stable if water pressure was much lower than the
lithostatic pressure, and the facies was thus thought to
represent dry, high-pressure metamorphism of basaltic
protoliths. Subsequent work on the more diverse pro-
tolith compositions reveals, however, that a wide range
of water pressures are possible in the eclogite facies and
that fluid compositions in equilibrium with the eclogite
minerals also probably vary greatly. Indeed, fluid inclu-
sions (tiny bubbles of fluid trapped within mineral grains)
in eclogite samples provide evidence of fluids containing
nitrogen, salts, and carbon dioxide in addition to water.
Eclogite metamorphism is therefore not confined to dry
environments but results instead from metamorphism of
a variety of rock types at pressures above about 10 kilobars
(1 gigapascal), corresponding to burial to approximately 35
km (about 22 miles), and at temperatures ranging from
about 400 to 1,000 °C (about 750 to 1,830 °F). The tempera-
tures of the eclogite facies overlap those of the greenschist,
amphibolite, and granulite facies, but the higher pressures
result in distinctly different mineral assemblages charac-
terized by high-density mineral phases.

Greenschist Facies
The greenschist facies was once considered the first
major facies of metamorphism proper. The name comes
from the abundance of the green mineral chlorite in
such rocks. Because chlorite and muscovite are ubiqui-
tous and because both exhibit a platy crystal habit, these
rocks normally show a highly developed foliation and

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often exhibit strong metamorphic differentiation. They

have been described from practically every metamor-
phic terrain on Earth, from earliest Precambrian to the
young mountain regions. In fact, many of Earth’s oldest
rocks (about three billion years old) of the continental
shield areas are in this facies, classic examples of which
are in the Appalachians, the Highlands of Scotland, New
Zealand, the European Alps, Japan, and Norway.
The dominant minerals of greenschists formed from
silicate-rich sediments include quartz, albite, muscovite,
chlorite, epidote, calcite, actinolite, magnetite, biotite, and
paragonite. Minerals less common include the manganese-
rich garnet spessartine, stilpnomelane, kyanite, rutile,
sphene, pyrophyllite, and chloritoid. Calcareous rocks are
dominated by calcite, dolomite, and quartz; the major car-
bonate minerals are thermally stable. It is only when large
quantities of water flush away carbon dioxide or keep its
partial pressure low that carbonate-silicate reactions take
place and liberate carbon dioxide. The typical minerals of
this facies have low water contents as compared with the
zeolite facies minerals.

Amphibolite Facies
The amphibolite facies is the common high-grade facies
of regional metamorphism, and, like the greenschist
facies, such rocks are present in all ages from all over
the world. Their characteristic feature is the develop-
ment of the most common amphibole, hornblende, in the
presence of a plagioclase feldspar and garnet. The rocks
are normally highly foliated or schistose. Many zones or
isograds subdividing the facies have been recognized,
and classic studies have been made in the Highlands of
Scotland, New Hampshire and Vermont in the United
States, Switzerland, and the Himalayas.

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Characteristic minerals derived from pelitic rocks

are quartz, muscovite, biotite, garnet, plagioclase, kya-
nite, sillimanite, staurolite, and orthoclase. Minerals
derived from basaltic rocks include hornblende, plagio-
clase, garnet, epidote, and biotite. Those derived from
calcareous rocks are calcite, diopside, grossular (garnet),
zoisite, actinolite (hornblende), scapolite, and phlogo-
pite. Minerals from magnesium-rich ultramafic rocks
are chlorite, anthophyllite, and talc. In most common
types, water is present in minerals only of the mica and
amphibole families, and, with their water contents of
only about 1 to 3 percent, dehydration is nearing its met-
amorphic climax.

Granulite Facies
In rocks of basaltic composition, the granulite facies is
an anhydrous facies that results from progressive dehy-
dration of amphibolites at high temperature. Rocks of
other bulk compositions may retain some hydrous min-
erals, such as biotite and hornblende, but it is likely that
water pressure is lower than lithostatic pressure during
most granulite facies metamorphism. Evidence for rel-
atively low water pressures comes from fluid inclusion
data indicating carbon dioxide-rich fluid compositions
and from preservation of some bulk compositions that
should have undergone nearly total melting at granulite
temperatures if water pressure had been equal to litho-
static pressure.
Rocks of this facies frequently have a granular tex-
ture quite similar to plutonic igneous rocks. Schistosity
is only weakly developed. Typical minerals of the facies
are quartz, alkali feldspar, garnet, plagioclase, cordierite,
sillimanite, and orthopyroxene. In calcareous members,
dolomite, calcite, diopside, and forsterite occur; and it

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is in this facies that minerals of the scapolite family are

best developed. Small amounts of hornblende are often
present. A rare mineral occurring in this facies is sapphi-
rine. The rock type charnockite (from Tamil Nadu, India),
essentially an orthopyroxene granite, is normally included
in this facies.
It appears from experimental studies that during ultra-
metamorphism, when melting starts, the basic reactions
which take place are of the type
biotite + other minerals → melt + residue
hornblende + other minerals → melt + residue.
The first melts to form are partly wet granitic or
granodioritic melts, and phases such as biotite and horn-
blende break down by producing a partly wet melt from
the least refractory phases in the rocks. They would per-
sist to much higher temperatures in other systems of their
own composition. The residue in the above equations is
a granulite-facies metamorphic rock containing phases
such as pyroxene and sillimanite. Thus it is probable, but
certainly not universally accepted, that many granulites
are formed only in the presence of a silicate liquid. This
liquid may, of course, move to higher crustal levels.
Large areas of granulite facies rocks are confined
almost entirely to Precambrian areas of the continents
(those areas that were formed more than 542 million
years ago), with well-developed areas exposed in Canada,
India, Africa, Antarctica, Greenland, and the Adirondack
Mountains of New York in the northeastern United
States. Smaller areas of granulite facies rocks occur in
younger mountain belts, with Paleozoic examples in New
England (U.S.) and Brittany and Paleogene and Neogene
examples (those formed between about 65.5 million and
2.6 million years ago) in British Columbia (Can.) and
Timor. The apparent decrease in the volume of granulite

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facies rocks with decreasing age of metamorphism has led

some geologists to postulate, as mentioned above, that
plate-tectonic processes might have changed significantly
with time—specifically that steady-state continental
geotherms were hotter in the Precambrian than at the
present time. Some work on pressure-temperature-time
paths in granulites also suggests that Precambrian gran-
ulites were metamorphosed along distinctly different
paths than younger granulites, lending credence to mod-
els invoking changes in tectonic processes. An alternative
hypothesis is that large volumes of granulites have been
formed throughout Earth’s history but that they have not
yet been exposed by erosion. Pressures calculated from
fragments of granulite-facies metamorphic rocks carried
to the surface in young volcanic eruptions suggest that
the fragments were derived from the lower crust. It is
likely that the lower crust is currently composed largely
of granulite-facies rocks that may be exposed by future
episodes of mountain building, but it is also possible
that these granulites will prove to be different from their
Precambrian counterparts. In order to resolve some of
the controversies surrounding the origin and composi-
tion of granulites, it is necessary that considerable studies
of these rocks be conducted in the future.

Distribution of
Metamorphic Rocks
A high-grade metamorphic rock is one that formed at
a depth of tens of kilometres and later returned to the
surface. Hence, metamorphic regions are also regions of
former or recent intense orogeny. More stable regions
of Earth’s crust tend to be covered with sediments, and
only deep drilling will reveal the metamorphic rocks below.

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Earth’s crust is made up of two basic units, the conti-

nents and ocean basins. Exploration of ocean floors has
revealed that old, thick sedimentary piles are missing.
Doubtless this is related to the processes of continental
drift or seafloor spreading; sediments are continuously
swept up by continental motion and are added to the con-
tinents or returned to the upper mantle. Nearly all studies
of metamorphic rocks have concentrated on the conti-
nents for this reason.
There are few large areas of Earth’s crust that are
not affected by some type of igneous event from time to
time. Although the intensity of volcanism may be focused
in certain geographic regions (e.g., the Pacific margin),
volcanism appears to be a rather random phenomenon,
at times even occurring in the stable shield areas of the
continents. In this sense, contact-metamorphic events

Tectonic units of the continents: shields and the present-day configura-

tion of the continents and Earth’s major lithospheric plates. Copyright
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.; rendering for this edition by Rosen
Educational Services

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may be found almost everywhere at almost any time on

Earth. But these metamorphic events are of trivial vol-
umetric significance compared with those of regional
metamorphism.
During the past 500 million years or so of Earth’s his-
tory, major tectonic, seismic, igneous, and metamorphic
events have been concentrated on continental margins.
This has been a period of depression and uplift of Earth’s
crust associated with the formation of the present con-
tinental distribution. The processes are still going on at
dramatic rates in ocean trench environments. These mod-
ern regions of activity form immense linear belts. One
such belt runs around virtually the entire Pacific margin
and another through the Mediterranean and southern
Asia to fuse with the circum-Pacific belt. It is in these
belts that the spectacular development of zeolite facies,
prehnite-pumpellyite facies, blueschist facies, and, occa-
sionally, eclogite facies, as well as the more universal facies
of regional metamorphism, have occurred. The granulite
facies is almost missing.
The central and often dominant feature of most con-
tinents is their vast Precambrian shield area; examples
include the Canadian Shield, Brazilian Shield, African
Shield, and Australian Shield. In these rocks, dating reveals
ages of 1 billion to 3.5 billion years, and they have been little
affected by tectonic events postdating the Cambrian. But
these shield areas are themselves complex. They consist
of vast areas of granitic or granodioritic gneisses. Inside
them, between them, and overlapping onto them are belts
of sedimentary rocks quite like those in modern sedimen-
tary belts of the Pacific margin or European Alps. These
rocks are frequently metamorphosed in the greenschist,
amphibolite, and granulite facies. Low-temperature
facies and, in particular, low-temperature–high-pressure

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facies are missing—or have not yet been found. From

marginal areas of these stable shield areas, a complex
array of processes has been documented covering the
past few hundred million years. The Caledonian orogeny
(at the close of the Silurian Period) produced tectonic-
metamorphic events along the east coast of North
America, Greenland, the British Isles, Fennoscandia,
Central Asia, and Australia. The Hercynian, or Variscan,
orogeny followed about 300 million years ago, affecting
subparallel regions and the Urals and European Alps. In
fact, the shield margins appear to have been subjected to
a more or less constant battering by forces both destroy-
ing and rebuilding the margins of these protocontinents.
As geologists study Precambrian areas in greater detail,
the number of metamorphic and orogenic events recog-
nized on a global scale increases.
It is the great task and problem of those who study
metamorphic rocks to deduce the record of Earth dynam-
ics and thermal history from metamorphic rocks. Among
the questions to be answered are (1) whether the pattern
of facies development through time—e.g., the granu-
lite facies in the Archean to blueschist facies in the early
Cenozoic—is a reflection of a cooling Earth and the decline
of radioactivity in the crust, and (2) whether the increase
in size of global tectonic-metamorphic belts through time
reflects changes in convective patterns in the mantle.
As understanding of the pressure-temperature
regimes of metamorphism increases, and as knowledge of
rock mechanics and fluid motion during metamorphism
also increases through field and laboratory studies, it may
become possible to understand the details of the motion
of the chemical elements during such processes and hence
much of the subject of economic geology, or the search for
our essential raw materials.

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Classification of
Metamorphic Rocks
Because of the diverse chemistry, mineralogy, and primary
origin of metamorphic rocks and because of the diverse
fabrics or textures that may develop depending on the
stresses that may operate during their formation, there is
no simple, universally used classification of these rocks.
Any classification of metamorphic rocks tends to stress
either their fabric, mineralogy, or primary origin. Some
common metamorphic rock types are described here.

Schist
Rocks in which metamorphic minerals are easily seen
by eye or hand lens and in which the mineral grains have
a highly orientated fabric are called schists. Grains of
acicular (needlelike) or platy minerals (e.g., amphiboles
and micas) tend to lie with their long directions parallel
or their planar directions parallel. Often the rocks show
a pronounced mineralogical layering; quartz layers a few
millimetres or centimetres in thickness may lie between
mica layers, for example. Other words often qualify
schist: as described earlier, greenschist is a schist rich in
the green mineral chlorite; blueschist is rich in the blue
amphibole, glaucophane; mica-schist is rich in mica; and a
graphite-schist is rich in graphite. Schists that are rich in
the amphibole hornblende and are often derived by meta-
morphism of common igneous rocks of the basalt-gabbro
type are called amphibolites.

Slate
Slate is a fine-grained, clayey metamorphic rock that
cleaves, or splits, readily into thin slabs. Each slab

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has great tensile strength and durability. Some other

rocks that occur in thin beds are improperly called
slate because they can be used for roofing and similar
purposes. True slates do not, as a rule, split along the
bedding plane but along planes of cleavage, which may
intersect the bedding plane at high angles. Slate was
formed under low-grade metamorphic conditions—
i.e., under relatively low temperature and pressure. The
original material was a fine clay, sometimes with sand or
volcanic dust, usually in the form of a sedimentary rock
(e.g., a mudstone or shale). The parent rock may be only
partially altered so that some of the original mineralogy
and sedimentary bedding are preserved; the bedding of
the sediment as originally laid down may be indicated by
alternating bands, sometimes seen on the cleavage faces.
Cleavage is a super-induced structure, the result of pres-
sure acting on the rock at some time when it was deeply
buried beneath Earth’s surface. On this account, slates
occur chiefly among older rocks, although some occur in

Slate, a metamorphic rock, showing typical splintery fracture and thin layer-
ing (slightly larger than life size). John H. Gerard

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 7 Rocks 7

regions in which comparatively recent rocks have been

folded and compressed as a result of mountain-building
movements. The direction of cleavage depends upon the
direction of the stresses applied during metamorphism.
Slates may be black, blue, purple, red, green, or gray.
Dark slates usually owe their colour to carbonaceous mate-
rial or to finely divided iron sulfide. Reddish and purple
varieties owe their colour to the presence of hematite (iron
oxide), and green varieties owe theirs to the presence of
much chlorite, a green micaceous clay mineral. The prin-
cipal minerals in slate are mica (in small, irregular scales),
chlorite (in flakes), and quartz (in lens-shaped grains).
Slates are split from quarried blocks about 7.5 cm
(3 inches) thick. A chisel, placed in position against the
edge of the block, is lightly tapped with a mallet; a crack
appears in the direction of cleavage, and slight leverage
with the chisel serves to split the block into two pieces
with smooth and even surfaces. This is repeated until the
original block is converted into 16 or 18 pieces, which are
afterward trimmed to size either by hand or by means of
machine-driven rotating knives.
Slate is sometimes marketed as dimension slate and
crushed slate (granules and flour). Dimension slate is used
mainly for electrical panels, laboratory tabletops, roofing
and flooring, and blackboards. Crushed slate is used on
composition roofing, in aggregates, and as a filler. Principal
production in the United States is from Pennsylvania and
Vermont; northern Wales provides most of the slate used
in the British Isles.

Gneisses
Gneisses are metamorphic rocks that possess a distinct
banding, which is apparent in hand specimen or on a

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microscopic scale. Gneiss usually is distinguished from

schist by its foliation and schistosity; gneiss displays a
well-developed foliation and a poorly developed schistos-
ity and cleavage. For the casual student, it is convenient to
think of a gneiss as a rock with parallel, somewhat irregu-
lar banding which has little tendency to split along planes.
In contrast, schist typically is composed of platy minerals
with a parallel to subparallel geometric orientation that
gives the rock a tendency to split along planes; banding is
usually not present.
Gneiss is medium- to coarse-grained and may contain
abundant quartz and feldspar, which some petrographers
regard as essential components. The banding is usually due
to the presence of differing proportions of minerals in the
various bands; dark and light bands may alternate because
of the separation of mafic (dark) and felsic (light) minerals.
Banding can also be caused by differing grain sizes of the
same minerals. The mineralogy of a particular gneiss is a
result of the complex interaction of original rock compo-
sition, pressure and temperature of metamorphism, and
the addition or loss of components.
Gneiss is the principal rock over extensive meta-
morphic terrains. The banding may be oriented nearly
parallel to Earth’s surface (horizontal dip) or may have a
steep dip. Such orientations can be interpreted in terms
of the stresses that prevailed during the formation of
the rock.
Gneiss can be classified on the basis of minerals that
are present, presumed formational processes, chemical
composition, or probable parent material. Orthogneiss
is formed by the metamorphism of igneous rocks; para-
gneiss results from the metamorphism of sedimentary
rocks. Pencil gneiss contains rod-shaped individual
minerals or segregations of minerals, and augen gneiss

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contains stubby lenses of feldspar and quartz having

the appearance of eyes scattered through the rock. The
identification of gneiss as a product of metamorphism is
usually clear, but some primary gneiss can be formed by
the flow of a viscous, partially crystallized magma.

Hornfels
The hornfels are formed by contact metamorphism and
typically show little sign of the action of directed pres-
sure. They are fine-grained rocks in which crystals display
little orientation.

Marble
Rocks derived from the metamorphism of carbonate sedi-
ments containing calcite or dolomite are marbles. The
main result of metamorphism is an increase in grain size.
Because of the rather equidimensional habit of calcite and
dolomite crystals, they rarely appear schistose unless they
contain other minerals such as mica.

Mylonites and Cataclastites

These are rocks in which the texture is the result of duc-
tile shearing or mechanical shattering of grains. They
often show only slight, if any, development of new min-
erals. They form on fault planes or in zones of intense
shearing. If the crustal rocks have an appropriate compo-
sition, phyllonites may develop where new mica crystals
grow parallel to the shearing direction. If shearing is
extreme, melting may occur, locally producing a pseudo-
tachylite. Tachylite is a term applied to certain types of
glass formed by rapid cooling of molten rocks.

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Other Classes
Most of the terms used throughout this chapter indicate
structural or fabric classification of metamorphic rocks.
Sometimes terms are used to indicate chemical features.
Several types of schists, for example, include the fol-
lowing: pelitic schists contain much aluminum oxide
and often are derivatives of clay-rich sediments; quartz-
ofeldspathic schists are high in quartz and feldspars and
often are derivatives of sandstones or quartz-rich igne-
ous rocks; calcareous schists have a high content of lime
(CaO) and often are derivatives of impure limestones,
dolomites, or calcareous muds; and mafic schists contain
the elements of mafic igneous rocks—namely, calcium,
magnesium, and iron.

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Quartzite
Quartzite is a sandstone that has been converted into a solid quartz
rock. Unlike sandstones, quartzites are free from pores and have a
smooth fracture; when struck, they break through, not around, the
sand grains, producing a smooth surface instead of a rough and granu-
lar one. Conversion of sandstone to quartzite may be accomplished
by precipitation of silica from interstitial waters below Earth’s sur-
face; these rocks are called quartz arenites, whereas those produced
by recrystallization under high temperatures and pressures are
metaquartzites.
Quartzites are snowy white, less often pink or gray; they com-
monly have a fine angular jointing and break up into rubble under
frost action. They yield a thin and very barren soil and, because they
weather slowly, tend to project as hills or mountain masses. Many
prominent ridges in the Appalachian Mountains are composed of
highly resistant tilted beds of quartzite.
The term quartzite implies not only a high degree of hardening
(induration), or “welding,” but also a high content of quartz; similar
rocks that contain appreciable quantities of other minerals and rock
particles are impure quartzites, more appropriately called gray-
wacke, lithic arenite, sandstone, or the like. Most quartzites contain

256
 7 Metamorphic Rock 7

90 percent or more quartz, but some contain 99 percent and are

the largest and purest concentrations of silica in Earth’s crust. Pure
quartzites are a source of silica for metallurgical purposes and for
the manufacture of silica brick. Quartzite is also quarried for pav-
ing blocks, riprap, road metal (crushed stone), railroad ballast, and
roofing granules.
In microscopic section the clastic structure of some quartz-
ites is well preserved; the rounded sand grains are seen with quartz
overgrowths deposited in crystalline continuity, so that optical
properties of the grains are similar to those of the material sur-
rounding them. In some cases a line of iron oxides may indicate
the boundary of the original sand grain. Many quartzites, however,
have been crushed, and the quartz largely is a mosaic of small,
irregularly shaped crystalline fragments with interlocking margins;
if these sheared quartzites contain white mica in parallel crystalline
flakes, they become more fissile (easily broken apart) and pass into
quartz schists.

Conclusion
Rocks are the tangible foundation upon which Earth’s
ecosystems rest. They are storehouses for minerals and
nutrients for living things, and they also serve as sub-
strates from which plants grow and as abodes in which
many kinds of animals den. In the human realm, rocks
are used to construct roads, buildings, seawalls, and
other structures. Limestone, in particular, is useful in
the development of fertilizers, glass manufacturing, and
in the construction of building interiors and exteriors.
The first tools created by early human beings were prob-
ably made of rock.
Rocks are also quite useful in the field of paleontol-
ogy. Much of the knowledge related to extinct life began

257
 7 Rocks 7

with investigations of fossils encased in layers of sedi-

mentary rock. Using radioactive dating techniques, the
age of the rock layer and thus the age of the fossil organ-
ism contained within the rock layer could be calculated.
This process allows scientists to fix both the rock and
the fossil in geologic time, a process that assists in the
understanding of the evolution of life on Earth. Rocks
also provide the clues to Earth’s age and the origin and
development of its landmasses and its ocean basins.
Rocks therefore are the foundation upon and means by
which we can come to understand our world, our history,
and ourselves.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Source: International Commission on

Stratigraphy (ICS)

258
Appendix
Geologic Time Scale
Glossary

alluvial Relating to or composed of alluvium, which is

clay, silt, sand, gravel, or similar loose material depos-
ited by running water.
anhedral Also known as allotriomorphic, mineral
grains of igneous rocks whose mutual growths
have prevented the assumption of outward
crystal form.
antiferromagnetism Magnetic behaviour charac-
teristic of certain feebly magnetic substances (as
manganese monoxide and chromium sesquioxide)
thought to have two oppositely directed electron
spins not quite neutralizing each other with the
result that the magnetic susceptibility at first
increases and then decreases as the substance
is heated.
batholith A great mass of intruded igneous rock that
for the most part stopped in its rise a considerable
distance below the surface and that extends down-
ward to unknown depth.
biogenic Produced by the action of living organisms.
calcareous Like calcite or calcium carbonate especially
in hardness.
crystallographer A specialist in crystallography, the
science of crystallization dealing with the system
of forms among crystals, their structure, and their
forms of aggregation.
cuneiform Composed of strokes having the form of a
wedge or arrowhead.

260
 7 Glossary 7

curie temperature Also known as curie point, the tem-

perature at which there is a transition in a substance
from one phase to another of markedly different
magnetic properties.
devitrification The conversion of glassy matter into
crystalline (as by slow cooling or by pressure, action
of water, or chemical changes).
devolatilize To remove volatile (unstable) material from
(as coal).
diagenesis The recombination or rearrangement of
constituents (as of a chemical or mineral) resulting
in a new product.
dielectric constant A measure of the ability of a die-
lectric material (a nonconductor of direct electric
current) to store electrical potential energy under
the influence of an electric field, measured by the
ratio of the capacitance of a condenser with the
material as dielectric to its capacitance with vacuum
as dielectric.
distal Remote from the point of attachment or origin.
ductile Capable of being permanently drawn out with-
out breaking; malleable.
eolian Borne, deposited, produced, or eroded by the wind.
equant Of, being, or relating to a crystal having equal or
nearly equal diameters in all directions.
escarpment A long cliff or steep slope separating two
comparatively level or more gently sloping surfaces
and resulting from erosion or faulting.
euhedral Minerals the growth of whose crystals in a
rock has not been interfered with.
exsolve To separate or precipitate from a solid crystal-
line phase; unmix.
flocculate To cause to aggregate into a flocculent
(loosely aggregated) mass.

261
 7 Rocks 7

fluvial Produced by river action.

Fourier analysis Named for nineteenth-century French
geometrician and physicist Joseph Fourier, the proc-
ess of using the terms of a Fourier series to find a
function that approximates periodic data.
hydrostatic Of or relating to liquids at rest or to the
pressures they exert or transmit.
hypabyssal Of or relating to a fine-grained igneous rock
intermediate in texture between the plutonites and
extrusive rocks and usually formed at a moderate dis-
tance below Earth’s surface.
in situ In the natural or original position.
lacustrine Of, relating to, or formed in lakes.
lathlike Consisting of thin, narrow, flat strips, much like
thin strips of wood known as lath.
lithify To change to stone.
maria Plural form of mare, meaning one of several dark
areas of considerable extent on the surface of either
the moon or Mars.
mole In chemistry, a standard scientific unit for meas-
uring large quantities of very small entities such as
atoms, molecules, or other specified particles.
monolith A mountain or large hill apparently com-
posed of one kind of rock, usually a coarse-grained
igneous rock.
Néel temperature The antiferromagnetic Curie point
is called the Néel temperature in honour of the
French physicist Louis Néel, who in 1936 successfully
explained antiferromagnetism.
ovoid Egg-shaped.
petrologist A geologist who specializes in petrol-
ogy, the science that deals with the origin, history,
occurrence, structure, chemical composition, and
classification of rocks.

262
 7 Glossary 7

planar Having a flat two-dimensional quality.

platy Consisting of plates or flaky layers. Used chiefly to
describe soil or mineral formations.
plumose Having feathers or plumes.
Poisson’s ratio Named for nineteenth century French
mathematician Siméon-Denis Poisson, the ratio of
transverse to longitudinal strain in a material under
tension.
potash Potassium carbonate especially from wood ashes.
premonitory Giving previous warning or notice.
pyrometamorphism Change produced in rocks by the
action of heat but without the action of pressure or
mineralizers.
subduction The action or process of the edge of one
crustal plate descending below the edge of another.
subhedral Incompletely bounded by crystal planes,
partly faced.
substrate The base on which an organism lives. The soil
is the substrate of most seed plants while rocks, soil,
water, tissues, or other media are substrates for vari-
ous other organisms.
Udden-Wentworth scale The scale devised (1898) by
the American sedimentary petrologist J.A. Udden was
adapted (1922) by C.K. Wentworth, who expanded
the definitions of the various grades to conform with
actual usage by researchers; most sedimentologists
have adopted the Udden scale with the Wentworth
modifications.

263
Bibliography

Rocks
Standard mineralogical reference works include
Frederick H. Pough, Field Guide to Rocks and Minerals, 5th
ed. (1998); Dexter Perkins, Mineralogy, 2nd ed. (2001);
James R. Craig, David J. Vaughan, and Brian J. Skinner,
Earth Resources and the Environment, 4th ed. (2010); Chris
Pellant, Smithsonian Handbooks: Rocks & Minerals (2002);
and W.A. Deer, R.A. Howie, and J. Zussman, Rock-forming
Minerals, 2nd ed. (1997). Useful texts and monographs
include Harvey Blatt, Sedimentary Petrology (1992);
Anthony Hall, Igneous Petrology, 2nd ed. (1996); Cornelis
Klein, Minerals and Rocks: Exercises in Crystallography,
Mineralogy, and Hand Specimen Petrology (1989); Manual
of Mineralogy (after James D. Dana), 23rd ed. by Cornelis
Klein and Barbara Dutrow (2007); and Harvey Blatt
and Robert J. Tracy, Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary and
Metamorphic, 2nd ed. (1996).
Cornelis Klein, Minerals and Rocks: Exercises in
Crystal and Mineral Chemistry, Crystallography, X-ray
Powder Diffraction, Mineral and Rock Identification, and
Ore Mineralogy, 3rd ed. (2007); Robert S. Carmichael
(ed.), Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks, 3 vol.
(1982–84), also available in a 1-vol. abridged ed.,
Practical Handbook of Physical Properties of Rocks and
Minerals (1989); Edgar W. Spencer, Introduction to the
Structure of the Earth, 3rd ed. (1988); and D.R. Bowes
(ed.), The Encyclopedia of Igneous and Metamorphic
Petrology (1989), may also be consulted.

264
 7 Bibliography 7

Igneous rocks
Treatments of igneous rocks are included in Robin
Gill, Igneous Rocks and Processes (2010); B.M. Wilson,
Igneous Petrogenesis: A Global Tectonic Approach (2010);
Alexander R. McBirney, Igneous Petrology, 3rd ed. (2006);
Paul C. Hess, Origins of Igneous Rocks (1989); Anthony R.
Philpotts, Principles of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology
(1990); Marjorie Wilson, Igneous Petrogenesis (1989);
Robert Decker and Barbara Decker, Volcanoes, 3rd ed.
(1998); Alexander R. McBirney, Igneous Petrology, 2nd
ed. (1993); Jacques-Marie Bardintzeff and Alexander R.
McBirney, Volcanology, 2nd ed. (2000).

Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are described in Donald R.
Prothero and Fred Schwab, Sedimentary Geology (2003);
Sam Boggs, Jr., Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks, 2nd
ed. (2009); Sam Boggs, Jr., Principles of Sedimentology
and Stratigraphy, 4th ed. (2005); C.J.R. Braithwaite,
Carbonate Sediments and Rocks: A Manual for Geologists
and Engineers (2005); Maurice E. Tucker and V. Paul
Wright, Carbonate Sedimentology (1991); Andrew D. Miall,
Principles of Sedimentary Basin Analysis, 2nd ed. (1990);
Donald R. Prothero, Interpreting the Stratigraphic Record
(1989); Maurice E. Tucker and V.P. Wright, Carbonate
Sedimentology (1990); and Maurice E. Tucker, Sedimentary
Petrology: An Introduction to the Origin of Sedimentary Rocks,
3rd ed. (2001).

Metamorphic rocks
Standard references and basic textbooks include
Anthony Philpotts and Jay Ague, Principles of Igneous

265
 7 Rocks 7

and Metamorphic Petrology, 2nd ed. (2009); John D.

Winter, Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology
(2001); Ron H. Vernon and Geoffrey Clarke, Principles
of Metamorphic Petrology (2008); Jacques Kornprobst,
Metamorphic Rocks and Their Geodynamic Significance: A
Petrological Handbook (2002); Roger Mason, Petrology of
the Metamorphic Rocks, 2nd ed. (1990); Bruce W.D. Yardley,
An Introduction to Metamorphic Petrology (1989); K. Bucher
and M. Frey, Petrogenesis of Metamorphic Rocks, 6th ed.
(1994); Martin Frey and Doug Robinson (eds.), Low-grade
Metamorphism: An Overview (1999); and Frank S. Spear,
Metamorphic Phase Equilibria and Pressure-Temperature-Time
Paths (1995). Metamorphic fabric development is discussed
in Ralph Kretz, Metamorphic Crystallization (1994); and
C.W. Passchier and R.A.J. Truow, Micro-tectonics (1996).
Major techniques for studying metamorphic rocks and the
metamorphic histories of many of the world’s mountain
belts are reviewed in J.S. Daly, R.A. Cliff, and Bruce W.D.
Yardley (eds.), Evolution of Metamorphic Belts (1988); and
Peter J. Treloar and Patrick J. O’Brien (eds.), What Drives
Metamorphism and Metamorphic Reactions (1998).

266
Index

A atmosphere, 53, 111, 115, 183, 189

augite, 80, 81
abundances, 32, 33, 34 authigenic minerals, 127–128
aggregates, 1, 11, 62, 66, 71, 162 Ayers Rock, 145–146
albite-anorthite system, 87–88,
90–91
B
albite-epidote-hornfels facies, 232
alkaline rocks, 79, 80–81 banded iron formation (BIF),
allochemical rocks, 112, 170 114, 122, 137, 182–183
allochems, 112, 143, 167–169, 176 banding, 4, 252–253
alluvial fans, 112, 115, 135, 138, basalt, 16, 31, 51, 80, 82–84, 92,
147, 154 102, 105, 107–108, 109–110,
alumina, 31, 54, 81 210, 222, 241
aluminum, 55, 107, 200, 231, 232 basaltic magma, 82–84, 88, 93, 102
amphiboles, 57, 58, 78, 90, 92, batholiths, 52, 76, 101, 106, 107, 231
222, 243, 250 bedding, 129, 130, 131–133, 141,
amphibolite facies, 243–244 147–149, 156, 215
andesitic magma, 83–84 bioclasts, 168
angularity, 120, 125, 126, 150 biogenic ooze, 171–172
anhydrite, 114, 174, 177, 178, 180 biotite, 55, 77–78, 80, 90, 92, 202,
anisotropic stresses, 198, 214 209, 211, 231, 244, 245
antiferromagnetism, 41, 43 bitumens, 185, 188
apatite, 58, 77, 177 blocks, 7, 64, 120, 142, 187, 189, 252
aphanitic rocks, 7, 52, 60, 61, 73 blueschist facies, 240
aragonite, 118, 121, 167, 168–169, blueschists, 222, 223, 233, 236,
170, 173 240, 250
arenites, 151–154, 155–156 bombs, 7, 64
arkosic sandstone, 154–155 boulders, 112, 120, 142
arrangement, 6, 43, 64, 66, 72, Bowen’s reaction series, 91–93
122, 131, 214–215 breccias, 99, 118, 120, 137–140, 227
ash, 64, 65, 143 brines, 174, 177, 178, 180, 182
assimilation, 93–94 bulk modulus, 18
asthenosphere, 50, 82 bulk rock, 8, 9

267
 7 Rocks 7

burial, 25, 187, 188, 197, 206–207, cleavage, 215, 251, 252
212, 225, 232, 239 coal, 116, 119, 122, 137, 184, 185–187
cobbles, 112, 120, 133, 142
collision, 36, 154, 194, 209, 220,
C
233, 237
calcareous rocks, 200, 222–223, colour, 57, 97, 144, 145, 153, 156,
230–231, 240, 243, 244–245 174–175, 252
calcite, 59, 67, 118, 121, 128, 144, colour index, 56, 57, 74
149, 160, 163, 167, 169, 171, compaction, 5, 16
172, 173, 200–202, 230, 231, conductivity, 36, 37, 38
232, 243, 244, 254 conglomerates, 112, 120, 127,
calcium, 77, 107, 155, 171, 174, 137–142
200, 255 contact metamorphism, 191, 205,
calcium carbonate, 112, 167, 171, 173 221, 227, 229–232, 254
calcium oxide, 54, 200 continental collision, 36, 83, 154,
carbonaceous deposits, 119, 122, 194, 233, 237
184–189, 252 continental drift, 32, 35–36, 41,
carbonates, 118–119, 121, 123, 129, 163, 247
163, 165, 167–169, 177, 190, 232 convergent plate boundaries,
carbon dioxide, 59, 85, 100, 198, 106–107
200, 212, 213, 230, 243, 244 cooling, 7, 50, 52, 60, 70–71,
cataclastites, 254 77, 84, 91, 94, 97, 213–214,
cement, 8, 127, 137, 140, 143, 144, 224, 254
160, 167, 168 corundum, 57, 107
cementation, 5, 8, 16, 149 creep, 23, 25
chemical rocks, 111, 112–114, 118, cristobalite, 57, 88–90, 160
119, 121–122 cross-bedding, 130, 148, 184
cherts, 112, 114, 119, 122, 144, 155, crust, 3, 20, 41, 50–52, 82, 114,
174–177 195, 212, 247
chlorite, 58, 59, 96, 129, 157, 161, crystalline rock, 7, 20, 25, 29, 31,
209, 232, 240, 242, 244, 252 50, 59–60, 67, 87, 123, 177,
clastic rocks, 112, 118, 119–121, 123 182, 183
clastic structures, 70, 257 crystallinity, 59–60
clasts, 112, 118, 120, 128, 137, crystallization, 5, 44, 58, 61, 67,
139–140, 142–143, 157, 168 69, 81, 87–96, 207, 215
clast-supported conglomerates, crystallographers, 10
139–141 crystals, 6–7, 61, 62, 66, 69, 86,
clay, 7, 58, 59, 96, 112, 121, 98, 123, 167, 206, 207, 210,
128–129, 133, 144, 147, 149, 214–216, 254
150, 160, 161 Curie temperature, 43, 45

268
 7 Index 7

currents dolomites, 118, 121, 163–168,

electrical, 37 173–174, 230–231, 243, 254
water, 127, 131, 133, 134, 139, 141, dolomitization, 129, 173–174
147, 148, 150, 156–157 ductility, 24, 25
dynamic metamorphism, 228
D
E
dating, 10, 41, 115–116, 248, 258
decay Earth
of organic matter, 184, 185, 186 crust, 3, 20, 41, 50–52, 82, 114,
of radioactive elements, 32–33, 195, 212, 247
83, 195 mantle, 3, 4, 82, 83, 84, 192, 241
decomposition, 111, 128, 154, 187 surface, 3, 4, 103, 111
deep-basin environment, earthquakes, 10, 20, 32, 234
180–182 eclogite facies, 241–242
deformation, 17, 18–19, 21, 23–25, eclogites, 223, 233, 234, 236, 238,
45, 133–134, 198, 214, 216–217 241–242
deformation structures, 133–134 elastic constants, 17–18, 22, 27
dehydration, 207–208, 209, 244 electrical currents, 37, 39
density, 11–16 electrical properties, 36–39
denudation, 52 electrical resistivity, 11, 37
depressions, 99, 134, 179 energy, 32, 44, 87, 160, 185, 188
detrital rocks, 111, 118, 127–128 environmental conditions, 25–27
devitrification, 59, 67, 96 epidote, 59, 67, 96, 216, 219, 229,
devolatilization, 210, 213 232, 240, 243, 244
Devonian Period, 185, 187 equant crystals, 62, 222
diagenesis, 5, 121, 127, 129, 167, 195 erosion, 5, 52, 99–100, 111, 145,
diamagnetism, 41–42 155, 184, 196, 232, 236
diamictites, 141–142 escarpments, 169
diamonds, 100, 109, 241 evaporation, 177, 178, 179, 180
dielectric constant, 36, 37–38, 39 evaporites, 122, 137, 177–182, 190
diffusion, 205, 211–212 exchange reactions, 210, 211–212
dikes, 77, 98, 100, 103, 188 extraterrestrial rocks, 109–110
dimension, 17, 31 extrusive igneous rocks, 3, 7, 29,
diorites, 72, 76–77, 92, 103, 107 52, 53, 97–98
disintegration (weathering), 111,
138, 143
F
distribution, 102–110
divergent plate boundaries, fabric, 61–63, 126–127
102–105 faulting, 140, 154, 193, 224, 235, 238

269
 7 Rocks 7

faults, 20, 25, 102–103, 116, 138, glass, 52, 56, 58–59, 63, 64, 66, 67,
140, 219–220, 238 68, 87, 97–98, 254
feldspars, 31, 57, 78, 81, 90, 160 glassy rocks, 7, 29, 50, 56, 60, 63,
felsic rocks, 56–57, 200, 253 67, 68
ferrimagnetism, 41, 43 gneisses, 198, 214, 252–254
ferromagnetism, 41, 42–43 grading, 9
flood basalts, 107–108 grains, 6–7, 8–10, 59–60, 61–66,
flow structures, 70 123–125
fluids, 4, 10, 11, 13–14, 16, 19, 25, granite, 16, 31, 76, 77–78, 106,
29, 39, 81, 86, 96, 126, 174, 107, 205
197, 198, 207, 214, 227, 242 granitic magma, 83, 84, 232
flux, 28 granodiorite, 76, 81, 107, 198
folding, 116, 140, 143–144, 154, granularity, 61–66
193, 197, 215, 220, 252 granules, 120, 133, 142, 252
folds, 116, 214, 215, 219, 220 granulite facies, 244–246
foliation, 215, 216, 229, 242, 253 gravel, 112, 137, 162
form, 125, 126 gravity, 13, 93, 111, 127, 142, 158
forsterite-cristobalite system, 87, greenschist facies, 242–243
88–90 greenschists, 198, 222, 223, 236,
fossil fuels, 185–189 240, 242–243, 250
fossils, 35, 116, 118, 129, 136, 149, groundmass, 62, 63
157, 168, 172, 176, 258 groundwater, 10, 58, 111, 116, 179,
Fourier analysis, 126 182, 228
fractures, 24, 25, 26, 68, 70–71 gypsum, 114, 122, 128, 174, 177, 180

G H
gabbro, 31, 56, 76, 103, 110, 250 halite, 114, 128, 177, 180
garnet, 58, 82, 209, 210, 211, 213, Harker, Alfred, 81
216, 218, 231, 240, 241, 244 heat flow, 28, 31, 107, 195, 206
gases, 16, 53, 66, 68, 69, 86, 97, heat production, 32–35, 84, 94,
100, 185, 188–189, 212 185, 195, 206–207, 225,
geologists, 10, 73, 104, 118, 131, 229–230, 236
136, 214, 221, 236 hematite, 43, 47, 97, 114, 183, 252
geology, 10, 40–41, 116, 249 histogram plots, 14, 124
geotherms, 192–193, 195–196, homogeneity, 6
223–224 hornblende, 77, 80, 107, 223, 231,
geysers, 176–177 243, 244, 245, 250
glaciers, 36, 111, 142, 161 hornblende-hornfels facies, 231

270
 7 Index 7

hornfels, 230–232, 254 induration, 256

hot spots, 104, 105, 107 intrusions, 29, 76, 101, 104, 108,
hot springs, 176–177 109, 227, 232
humus, 184, 186 intrusive igneous rocks, 3, 7, 16,
hydration, 68 29, 52, 77–78, 99–101
hydrocarbons, 188–189 iron, 31, 43, 47, 79, 114, 137,
hydrosphere, 111, 115, 189 182–184, 190, 200
hydrostatic pressure, 18, 19, 20, iron oxides, 40, 47, 54, 96, 97,
25, 45, 214 114, 144, 183, 252
hydrothermal metamorphism, 228 iron-rich rocks, 182–184
hypabyssal rocks, 52, 72, 79–81 ironstone, 119, 137, 182, 183, 184
hysteresis, 45–47 isograds, 209–210
isotopes, 32, 33
isotropy, 6
I
ice, 111, 142, 143
J
igneous rocks
classification, 72–81 Jurassic Period, 36, 108, 183
composition, 53–59
crystalline, 7, 20, 25, 29, 31, 50,
K
59, 67, 123
distribution, 102–110 kaolinite, 129, 161, 206–207, 208
economic importance of, 109 kaolinite-quartz system, 206–208
extrusive, 3, 7, 29, 52, 53, 97–98 kimberlites, 100, 109, 241
felsic, 56–57, 200 komatiites, 105
formation, 1, 2–3, 50, 52 kurtosis, 125
forms of occurrence, 97–110
glassy, 7, 29, 50, 56, 60, 63, 67, 68
L
intrusive, 3, 7, 16, 29, 52, 77–78,
99–101 lakes, 3, 108, 131, 161, 179
mafic, 49, 53, 54–55, 56–57, 58, lamination, 65, 131, 142, 147–148,
103, 104, 200, 255 156, 219
origin, 81–84 lava, 4, 29, 53, 66–67, 86
plutonic, 29, 52, 69, 70, 72, 73–78 layering, 4, 69, 70, 141, 250
structure, 66–72 limestone, 7, 112, 114, 118, 121,
texture, 59–66 134, 137, 143, 163–171, 173,
volcanic, 52, 56, 58, 60, 62–63, 205, 231, 257
67–68, 72, 79–80, 97–98, 155 lithic arenites, 155–156
inclusions, 71, 226, 242 lithification, 3, 5, 111, 129, 169

271
 7 Rocks 7

lithophysae, 67–68 facies, 221–226

lithostatic pressure, 196, 197, 198, felsic, 200, 253
242, 244 formation, 2, 4, 191–194
lopoliths, 100–101 mafic, 200, 210, 253
lunar rocks, 109–110 origin, 226–246
pelitic, 200, 202, 204, 210, 221,
222, 230, 244
M
pressure and, 196–198, 202
mafic rocks, 49, 53, 54–55, 56–57, reactions in, 206–214
58, 103, 104, 200, 210, 253 structure, 219–221
magma, 1, 2, 4, 29, 50, 52, 53, 55, temperature and, 195–196, 202
81–96, 191 texture, 214–219
magnesium, 31, 53, 54, 55, 57, 105, thermodynamics, 204–205
106, 155, 174, 200, 211, 232, uplift and, 196, 197, 212,
244, 255 224–225, 235
magnesium oxide, 54, 55, 157, metamorphism, 4, 191–192, 193,
200, 204 194, 196, 197–198, 200, 205,
magnetic properties, 39–49 206, 212–214, 220, 221,
magnetic surveys, 41 227–229, 231, 232–238, 242
magnetite, 43, 47, 49, 58, 183, metasomatism, 205, 228
216, 243 miarolitic rocks, 68–69
magnetization, 39, 40–45, 49 mid-ocean-ridge basalt (MORB),
mantle, 3, 4, 82, 83, 84, 192, 241 102–104
marble, 198, 254 mineralogy, 11, 56, 57–59, 72, 79,
marine environments, 135, 180–182 126, 144, 151, 160, 167, 177,
materials science, 10, 40 183, 223, 236, 250, 253
matrix-supported conglomer- minerals, 1, 2, 47–49, 57–59,
ates, 141–143 127–129, 153, 160, 161, 167,
mechanical properties, 17–27 177, 183, 191, 193, 200–203,
Mesozoic Period, 146, 165, 169, 206–209, 210–212, 216, 227
171, 194, 235 mode, 14, 73–76, 125
metamorphic rocks moles, 55, 89
burial and, 197, 206–207, 212, monoliths, 145
225, 232, 239 MORB (mid-ocean-ridge basalt),
calcareous, 200, 222–223, 102–104
230–231, 240, 243, 244–245 mountains, 36, 52, 76, 104, 115,
classification, 198–203, 140, 154, 197, 232, 233, 245, 256
250–257 mudrock, 112, 118, 119, 120–121,
composition, 198–205 127, 129, 137, 142, 159–163,
distribution, 246–249 178, 182, 184, 187, 188

272
 7 Index 7

muscovite, 57, 78, 92, 209, 219, P

221–222, 231, 232, 240,
242–243 packing, 8, 16, 122, 127
mylonites, 254 paleogeography, 115, 165, 178
Paleozoic Period, 153, 165, 169,
183, 187, 194, 236, 240, 245
N
paramagnetism, 41, 42
nappes, 219, 220 pattern, 61–63
natural gas, 40, 116, 122, 185, pebbles, 112, 120, 133, 140, 141, 142
188–189 pegmatitic crystals, 7
natural resources, 10, 116, 144, pelitic rocks, 200, 202, 204, 210,
162–163, 178, 183, 185–186, 221, 222, 230, 244
188, 257 peridotite, 56, 82–83, 84, 100, 233
Neel temperature, 43 permeability, 39, 126, 141, 206
net-transfer reactions, 210–211 petroleum, 119, 162–163, 184,
noncarbonate chemical rocks, 185–186, 188–189, 189
118, 119, 121–122 petrologists, 73, 74, 79, 81, 119,
nonmarine environments, 135, 179 183, 221, 224
nucleation, 210, 211 phaneritic rocks, 7, 60, 69, 72
Phanerozoic Period, 158, 178, 183,
185, 190
O
phenocrysts, 62, 63, 80, 98
obsidian, 97–98 phosphate, 116, 119, 177
ocean basins, 35, 53, 114, 115, phosphorites, 119, 122, 137, 177
153–154, 158–159, 170, 237, pillow structures, 71
247, 258 Pirsson, Louis V., 73, 118
oil, 10, 40, 116, 122, 165, 185–186, plagioclase, 57, 58, 64, 74, 77–78,
188–189 80–81, 87, 90, 91, 110, 202,
oil shale, 119, 184, 185, 187–188 222, 223, 231, 244
olivine, 55, 57, 58, 80, 82, 88, 91, plate boundaries, 83, 84, 102–107
92, 102 plate tectonics, 32, 35, 41, 82, 102,
oöids, 112, 143, 167–168, 176 191, 236
oozes, 171–172 plutonic rocks, 29, 52, 69, 70, 72,
opal, 67, 171, 174 73–78
organic-rich deposits, 184–189 Poisson’s ratio, 18
orientation, 11, 64, 122, 126–127, pore space, 8, 13, 25, 29, 144, 152,
148, 214, 215, 253 189, 197–198
orthochemical rocks, 112–114 porosity, 8–10, 13, 16, 39, 126,
overburden, 16, 197, 206 141, 206
oxygen, 68, 85, 87, 183, 190 porphyroblasts, 216–217, 226, 231

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potash, 54, 79, 92, 102, 157, 204 radioactive heat generation,
potassium, 32, 55, 83, 104, 106, 32–35, 206
154, 200 reactions, 206–214
Precambrian Period, 108, 158, reaction texture, 64, 218
165, 169, 178, 182, 183, 190, recrystallization, 4, 5, 24, 25, 163,
236, 245, 246, 249 197, 201, 204, 218, 226, 227, 256
precipitation, 44, 111, 112, 114, regional metamorphism, 191, 227,
123, 129, 136, 169, 173, 178, 232–246
179, 180, 256 remanent magnetization,
prehnite-pumpellyite facies, 44–45, 46
239–240 resistivity, 11, 36, 37, 38
pressure, 4, 5, 16, 18, 19, 20, 25, 45, retrograde metamorphism,
196–198, 202, 214, 224–226 212–214
prospecting, 40 rheidity, 24
protoliths, 78, 191, 193, 194, rheology, 24
200, 202 rhyolite, 56, 80, 92, 97, 106
P-T-t path, 224–226 rhyolitic magma, 83, 84, 86, 97–98
pumice, 64, 67 rifts, 79, 102, 107, 108
pyroclastic rocks, 7, 29, 53, 64, ripple marks, 129, 130, 133, 148,
70, 138 153, 184
pyrometamorphism, 4 rock cycle, 5
pyroxene, 55, 57, 58, 64, 77, 78, 80, rock mechanics, 18–21
81, 87, 91, 92, 93, 94 roundness, 125, 126, 149, 151
pyroxene-hornfels facies,
230–231
S
salinity, 134, 162, 174, 178, 179
Q
salt, 116, 122, 133, 134, 178
quartz, 16, 31, 32, 55, 57, 67, 76, sand, 112, 120, 126, 133, 143,
77–78, 80, 94, 140, 144, 151, 146–151, 167, 257
153–154, 161, 206–207, 230, Sander, Bruno, 214
244, 256–257 sandstone, 9, 16, 119, 120, 127,
quartz arenites, 153–154 134, 137, 143–159, 182, 256
quartzite, 256–257 sanidinite facies, 229–230
saturation, 29, 39, 56, 57, 58, 73
schistosity, 215, 217, 229, 244, 253
R
schists, 215, 223, 240, 250, 253, 255
radiation, 32 seafloor spreading, 32, 41, 247
radioactive dating, 10, 41, 248, 258 seawater, 16, 37, 171, 172, 174,
radioactive decay, 32–33, 83, 195 178, 190

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sediment, 5, 7, 8, 111–112, 114–115 skarn, 231, 232

sedimentary rocks skeletal fragments, 167, 168, 171,
chemical rocks, 111, 112–114 172, 176
classification, 116–122, 151–159 skewness, 125, 150, 151
composition, 127–129 slate, 155, 198, 250–252
crystalline, 7, 177, 182, 183 slumping, 111, 142, 162
dating by, 115–116 soda, 54, 79, 157
density, 16 soil, 111, 184, 256
economic importance of, 116, sole markings, 134, 157
141, 144, 162–163, 178, 188 solidification, 1, 29, 50, 52, 81, 98
environments, 134–137 sorting, 8, 125, 149, 150
facies, 135–137 sparite, 168, 170
formation, 2, 3–4, 7, 111–116, spherulites, 67, 70, 98
146–147 stocks, 101
iron-rich, 182–184 strain, 17, 18, 21–25
origin, 169–171, 175–176, 184 stratification, 4, 130, 131–133, 141
structure, 129–134 stress, 17, 18, 19–20, 21–25, 198
terrigenous clastic rocks, 112, stress-strain relationships, 21–25
118, 119–121 subalkaline rocks, 79, 80
texture, 122–127, 149–151 subduction, 32, 106, 193, 196, 197,
types, 137–189 211, 223, 233–235, 237
segregations, 71 sulfides, 40, 47, 163, 183
serpentine, 58, 205 superparamagnetism, 41, 43–44
shales, 7, 160–163, 200 surface texture, 125–126
shallow marine environment, 180 susceptibility, 42, 43, 45–49
shards, 64 symmetry, 125, 150, 215
shear modulus, 17, 18
shield areas, 243, 247, 248
T
silica, 31, 53–55, 56–57, 79–80, 89,
97, 118, 154, 171–172, 176, 205, talc, 58, 96, 205, 231, 241
229, 256–257 tectonic plates, 32, 35, 41, 82, 102,
siliceous rocks, 119, 122, 137, 191, 236
174–177 terrigenous clastic rocks, 112, 118,
siliciclastic rocks, 118, 124–125, 119–121, 123, 136
143, 150, 167 thermal conductivity, 28, 29–31
silicon, 53, 55, 85, 200, 232 thermal energy, 44, 87
sillimanite, 202, 208, 209, 228, thermal expansion, 31–32
230, 244 thermodynamics, 204–205
silt, 7, 112, 120, 121, 133, 160, 161, tholeiites, 102, 105, 108
167, 168 thorium, 32, 83, 106

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titanium, 81, 200 water

trenches, 106, 107, 115, 158–159, 248 currents, 127, 131, 133, 134, 139,
Triassic Period, 36, 178 141, 147, 148, 150, 156–157
tridymite, 57, 67, 68, 230 electrical conduction and, 39
tuffs, 64, 65, 80, 143 formation of, 53, 210
groundwater, 10, 58, 111, 116,
179, 182, 228
U
magnetization and, 44
Udden-Wentworth scale, 7, 124 measurements and, 124
ultramafic rocks, 54, 56–57, 58, pressure of, 242, 244
74, 104, 110, 200, 244 rock formation and, 3, 4, 5, 59,
Uluru, 145–146 68, 71, 81, 85, 94–95, 97–98,
unroofing, 197, 237 100, 111, 131, 136, 139, 161,
uplift, 155, 184, 196, 197, 212, 170, 180, 200, 206
224–225, 235 running, 3, 112, 131
uranium, 32, 83, 163 seawater, 16, 37, 171, 172, 174,
178, 190
temperature and, 13, 31, 84, 88,
V
94–95, 213
viscosity, 23, 85, 95, 98 weathering, 5, 52, 111, 112
void space, 8, 9–10, 19 Wegener, Alfred, 36
volatile constituents, 87, 94–96 wind, 3, 65, 111, 112, 131, 148, 150,
volcanic rocks, 52, 56, 58, 60, 151, 161
62–63, 67–68, 71, 72, 79–81,
97–98, 155
Y
volcanoes, 7, 50, 53, 64–65, 86,
97, 99–100, 103, 104, 105, Young’s modulus, 17, 18
106, 107
volume, 8–10, 12
Z
zeolite, 59, 67, 96, 160, 238, 239, 248
W
zeolite facies, 239
wackes, 156–159 zircon, 58, 153, 161
Walther, Johannes, 136–137 zonal structures, 72

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