Learning objectives

After studying this section you should be able to:

• describe the structure and functions of these tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
• explain the capacity of different types of tissue to regenerate
• outline the structure and functions of membranes
• compare and contrast the structure and functions of exocrine and endocrine glands.

TISSUES

Tissues are a group or collection of specialized cells that performs a very specific function. These tissues
vary in size, shape, function and arrangement.

Anatomically, the human body have 4 (four) main types of tissue.

They include:

 Epithelium or the epithelial tissue

 Connective tissue
 Muscular tissue
 Nervous tissue

THE EPITHELIUM OR THE EPITHELIAL TISSUE:

Epithelial tissues can be described as the cover of the exposed surface of the body that forms the surface
of the skin and lines(covers) the digestive, respiratory, reproductive and the urinary system and all the
passage ways that communicates with the outside of the body. Delicate epithelial (epithelial tissues that
lines vital organs) covers the internal cavities such as the chest cavity, abdominal cavities, and the pelvic
cavities and blood vessels of the heart.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PITHELIAL TISSUES

 Epithelial tissues are avascular ( they do not have blood vessels) but obtains nutrient by means of
diffusion and absorption of nutrient through the exposed surface of the attaching epithelial tissue
 Their cells are tightly bounded together by an interconnecting cell called ‘’Cell Junction’’
 Epithelial tissues has an exposed surface consisting of interior, exterior and the base where it is
attached to an adjacent tissues
 The base rests on a surface called the basement membrane ( a complex structure produced by
the basal surface of the epithelium and underlying connective tissues.
 Damaged epithelial cells such as the skin and cells of the digestive system (intestine and stomach)
are continuously replaced through the stem cell division where the rate of cell division is higher
than any other tissue.

FUNCTIONS OF THE EPITHELIAL TISSUES:

 protection of underlying structures from, for
 example, dehydration, chemical and mechanical damage
 secretion of important lubricating fluids
  absorption of nutrients by means of diffusion

Epithelial tissue may be:

 simple: a single layer of cells
 stratified: several layers of cells.

1. Simple epithelium: Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of identical cells that are attached to a
basement membrane.

DIVISIONS OF THE SIMPLE EPITHELIAL TISSUES

They are divided into four types and named according to the shape of the cells, which differs according to
their functions. The more active the tissue, the taller are the cells.
i. simple squamous or pavement epithelial tissue
ii. simple cuboidal epithelial tissue
iii. simple columnar epithelial
iv. pseudo (false) stratified epithelial tissue

I. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS OR PAVEMENT EPITHELIAL TISSUE

This is composed of a single layer of flattened cells which has a scale-like layers that allow an easy
passage of substances.

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

Shape: The shape of the cells in the single cell layer of simple epithelium reflects the functioning of those
cells.
Characteristics: The cells in simple squamous epithelium have the appearance of thin scales.
Squamous cell nuclei tend to be flat, horizontal, and elliptical, mirroring the form of the cell. The
endothelium is the epithelial tissue that lines vessels of the lymphatic and cardiovascular system, and it is
made up of a single layer of squamous cells.
Region of coverage/ Location: because of the thinness of the cell, is present where rapid passage of
chemical compounds is observed. E.g the heart, lungs, blood vessel and the lymphatic vessels.
Function: they are involved in absorption of oxygen (O2) into the blood. Especially in the alveoli of
lungs where gases diffuse, segments of kidney tubules, and the lining of capillaries and are called
endothelium.
 The mesothelium is a simple squamous epithelium that forms the surface layer of the serous membrane
that lines body cavities and internal organs. Its primary function is to provide a smooth and protective
surface.
Mesothelial cells are squamous epithelial cells that secrete a fluid that lubricates the mesothelium.

II. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Shape: simple cuboidal epithelium, consists of cube-shaped cells fitting closely together lying on a
basement membrane. the nucleus of the box-like cells appears round and is generally located near the
center of the cell.

Region of coverage/ Location: Simple cuboidal epithelia are observed in the lining of the kidney tubules
and in the ducts of glands.

Function: These epithelia cells are actively involved in secretion, absorption and Excretion of molecules.

III. SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

Shape: simple columnar epithelium, is formed by a single layer of cells that are rectangular in Shape resting on
a basement membrane.

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE COLUMNER (NON-CILIATED) EPITHELIAL TISSUE

The nucleus of the tall column-like cells tends to be elongated and located in the basal end of the cells
Region of coverage/ Location: Simple columnar epithelium forms the lining of some sections of the
digestive system and parts of the female reproductive tract. They are found where wear and tear is a little
greater e.g linings of the stomach, small and large intestines

Function: Like the cuboidal epithelia, this epithelium is actively involved in absorption and secretion of
molecules.
They are divided into ciliated and non-ciliated columnar epithelial cells.

Ciliated columnar epithelium is composed of simple columnar epithelial cells with cilia (A hair-like
projections) on their apical surfaces.

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE CILIATED COLUMNER EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Region of coverage/ Location: These epithelial cells are found in the lining of the fallopian tubes and
parts of the respiratory system.
FUNCTION: the beating of the cilia helps remove particulates of matter in places where they are located.

PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

Shape: Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a type of epithelium that appears to be stratified but
instead consists of a single layer of irregularly shaped and differently sized columnar cells.
In pseudostratified epithelium, nuclei of neighboring cells appear at different levels rather than clustered
in the basal end.
 DIAGRAM SHOWING PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM

The arrangement gives the appearance of stratification; but in fact all the cells are in contact with the
basal lamina, although some do not reach the apical surface.
Region of coverage/ Location: Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is found in the respiratory tract e.g
the trachea, where they propel mucus towards the throat. Some of these cells have cilia called goblet cell

FUNCTION: they are involved is a mucous-secretion.

2. STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM (LAYERED EPITHELIUM)

A stratified epithelium tissue consists of several stacked or packed layers of cells. This epithelium
protects against physical and chemical wear and tear. The stratified epithelium is named by the shape of
the most apical layer of cells, closest to the free space.
They include:
I. Stratified squamous epithelium
II. Stratified cuboidal epithelium
III. stratified columnar epithelium

I. Stratified squamous epithelium is the most common type of stratified epithelium in the human body.

Shape: The apical cells are squamous, whereas the basal layer contains either columnar or cuboidal cells.
The top layer may be covered with dead cells filled with square-shaped keratin known as Stratified
Squamous keratinized epithelium.
Region of coverage/ Location: Mammalian skin is an example of this dry, keratinized, stratified
squamous epithelium. The lining of the mouth cavity is an example of an unkeratinized epithelium due to
absence of keratin hence are called; stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium.
 Function:
 Keratinized squamous epithelium (a rough protective covering) prevents water and other
substances from escaping from the underlying tissues and prevents various chemicals and
microorganism from entering.
 Non-keratinized squamous epithelium have wet surfaces which prevents drying-out of the
underlying tissues.

DIAGRAM SHOWING STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

II. STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM:

Shape: These epithelial tissue consists of more cuboidal cells.
Region of coverage/ Location: They line the duct of the mammary glands, sweat glands , salivary
glands and the pancreas.
Function: The layer provides more protection than the single layer.

DIAGRAM SHOWING STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM

III. STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM: they consist of several layers of cells; (basal and
superficial cells). The basal cell layer consist of cube-shaped cells. The superficial cell layer are
contain elongated cells.
Region of coverage/ Location: they line the male urethra and vas deferens and part of the epiglottis.
Function: they provide protection and secretion.

DIAGRAM SHOWING STRATIFIED COLUMNER EPITHELIUM

IV. TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM: they consist of several layers of cuboidal cells without constant
shape. The cells have the ability to change their shapes (transition) when stretched. They are found in
urethra, uterus and urinary bladder. They provide an expandable linings and form a barrier that helps to
prevent the contents of the urinary tract from diffusing into internal environment. The cells of the tissue
becomes thin and flat as the bladder is filled thereby increasing the tension and thickens when the bladder
is emptied.
SUMMARY OF THE EPITHELIAL CELLS, LOCATION AND FUNCTION
 GLAND EPITHELIAL TISSUE
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
A gland is a structure made up of one or more cells modified to synthesize and secrete chemical
substances. Most glands consist of groups of epithelial cells. A gland can be classified as an endocrine
gland, a ductless gland that releases secretions directly into surrounding tissues and fluids (endo- =
“inside”), or an exocrine gland whose secretions leave through a duct that opens directly, or indirectly, to
the external environment -(exo- = “outside”).

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
The secretions of endocrine glands are called hormones. Hormones are released into the interstitial fluid,
diffused into the bloodstream, and delivered to targets, in other words, cells that have receptors to bind
the hormones. The endocrine system is part of a major regulatory system coordinating the regulation and
integration of body responses. A few examples of endocrine glands include the anterior pituitary, thymus,
adrenal cortex, and gonads.

EXOCRINE GLANDS
Exocrine glands release their contents through a duct that leads to the epithelial surface. Mucous, sweat,
saliva, and breast milk are all examples of secretions from exocrine glands. They are all discharged
through tubular ducts. Secretions into the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract, technically outside of the
body, are of the exocrine category.

GLANDULAR STRUCTURE
Exocrine glands are classified as either unicellular or multicellular. The unicellular glands are scattered
single cells, such as goblet cells, found in the mucous membranes of the small and large intestine.
The multicellular exocrine glands known as serous glands develop from simple epithelium to form a
secretory surface that secretes directly into an inner cavity. These glands line the internal cavities of the
abdomen and chest and release their secretions directly into the cavities.

Other multicellular exocrine glands release their contents through a tubular duct. The duct is single in a
simple gland but in compound glands is divided into one or more branches In tubular glands, the ducts
can be straight or coiled, whereas tubes that form pockets are alveolar (acinar), such as the exocrine
portion of the pancreas. Combinations of tubes and pockets are known as tubuloalveolar (tubuloacinar)
compound glands. In a branched gland, a duct is connected to more than one secretory group of cells.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Connective tissue is a diverse primary group of tissue that makes up the various parts of every organ in
the body. Tissues of this epithelium supports and binds all other tissues together and connects with other
various parts of the body. They form bones and binds the bones, muscles and skin together. Connective
tissue originates from a primitive cell called mesenchyme cells (a branch of embryonic mesoderm from
which adult connective tissue develops). They possess matrix and other ground substances.
The matrix is fluid-filled in which other cells are embedded while ground substances serve as glues that
allows other connective tissue to be attached to them.

FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. Protection. Cells of the immune system and blood protect against toxins and tissue injury, as
well as against microorganisms. Bones protect underlying structures from injury.
2. Transportation. Blood transports the gases, nutrients, enzymes, hormones, and cells of the
immune system throughout the body.
 3. Cushioning and insulating effect. Adipose tissue cushions and protects the tissue it surrounds
and provides an insulating layer beneath the skin that helps conserve heat.
4. They Connect tissues to one another. Strong cables, or bands, of connective tissue called
tendons attach muscles to bone, whereas connective tissue bands called ligaments hold bones
together.
5. They encloses and separates other tissues. Sheets of connective tissue form capsules around
organs, such as the liver and kidneys. For example, connective tissues separate muscles, arteries,
veins, and nerves from one another.
6. They Support and move parts of the body. Bones of the skeletal system provide rigid support
for the body, and the semi-rigid cartilage supports structures such as the nose, ears, and joint
surfaces. Joints between bones allow one part of the body to move relative to other parts.

7. They store compounds. Adipose tissue (fat) stores high-energy molecules, and bones store
minerals, such as calcium and phosphate.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUES

Connective tissues are broadly classified into three according to the characteristics of their ground
substance and the types of fibers found within the matrix.
1. Fluid connective tissue: these include lymph and blood. These contain various substances such
as salts, nutrients, and dissolved proteins that circulate in a watery fluid.
2. Supportive connective tissue: These include bone and cartilage—provide structure and
strength to the body and protect soft tissues. A few distinct cell types and densely packed fibers in
a matrix characterize these tissues. In bone, the matrix is rigid and described as calcified because
of the deposited calcium salts.
3. Connective tissue proper: These include loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue.
 Loose Connective Tissue is found between many organs where it acts both to absorb shock and bind
tissues together. It allows water, salts, and various nutrients to diffuse through to adjacent or imbedded
cells and tissues. They include; areolar tissue, adipose tissue and reticular tissue

CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER SUPPORTIVE CONNECTIVE TISSUE FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Loose connective tissue Cartilage
Areolar Hyaline
Adipose Fibrocartilage Blood
Reticular Elastic
Dense connective tissue Bones
Regular elastic Compact bone Lymph
Irregular elastic Cancellous bone

TABLE SHOWING EXAMPLES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE AND THEIR CONTENTS

Areolar tissue: contain some fat cells, mast cells and macrophages widely separated by elastic and
collagen fibers. It is found in almost every part of the body providing elasticity and tensile strength. It
connects and supports other tissues, For example:
 under the skin
 between muscles
 supporting blood vessels and nerves
 in the alimentary canal
 in glands supporting secretory cell
 Adipose tissue consists mostly of fat storage cells, with little extracellular matrix.

They are of two types: white and Brown adipose tissue. White adipose tissue or White fat are most
abundant and makes up 20 to 25% of body weight in well-nourished adults and s erve as insulation from cold
temperatures and mechanical injuries. Brown adipose tissue or brown fat can be found protecting the
kidneys and cushioning the back of the eye and more abundant in children. Hence are called baby fat.
They have less amount of energy and produces more heat.


Areolar tissue shows little specialization. It contains all the cell types and fibers previously described and
is distributed in a random, web-like fashion. It fills the spaces between muscle fibers, surrounds blood and
lymph vessels, and supports organs in the abdominal cavity. Areolar tissue underlies most epithelia and
represents the connective tissue component of epithelial membranes, which are described further in a later
section.
Reticular tissue is a mesh-like, supportive framework for soft organs such as lymphatic tissue, the
spleen, and the liver.
Reticular cells produce the reticular fibers that form the network onto which other cells attach. It derives
its name from the Latin reticulus, which means “little net.”

CELLS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. Fibroblast
2. Macrophages
3. Leukocytes
4. Mast cells
5. Fat cells
6. Lymphocytes.

1. Fibroblast: these are cells that form fibrous connective tissue and Contains fibrocytes,
Chondroblasts and chondrocytes.
Function: they are heavily involved in wound healing process where skin cuts to bind them together.
TYPES OF CELLS IN FIBROBLAST.
There are three main types of fibers secreted by fibroblasts:
They include:
1. Collagen fibers,
2. Elastic fibers, and
3. Reticular fibers.
 The collagen fibre holds structures together e.g. ligament which connects bone to bone and
tendons which connects muscles to bones.

 Elastic fibres are composed of protein called Elastin. They are easily stretched and can assume
their original lengths and shapes and are common in body parts that are easily stretched
Elastic tissues are found in skin and the elastic ligaments of the vertebral column

 RETICULAR FIBER is also formed from the same protein subunits as collagen fibers;
however, these fibers remain narrow and are arranged in a branching network. They are found
throughout the body, but are most abundant in the reticular tissue of soft organs, such as liver and
spleen, where they anchor and provide structural support to the parenchyma (the functional cells
blood vessels, and nerves of the organ).

2. MACROPHAGES:
These are large irregularly shaped phagocytic cells found in some connective tissue. They are
derived from monocytes, a type of white blood cell. They are phagocytic in nature by engulfing,
digesting cell debris, bacteria and other foreign bodies.

3. LYMPHOCYTES:
These are cells found in tissues such as lymphoid tissues which are found in lymph nodes, spleen,
palatine and pharyngeal tonsils, vermiform appendix, and nodes of the small intestine.
Lymphocytes synthesize and secrets specific antibodies into the blood in the presence of foreign
materials and microbes.

FAT CELLS: These are also known as adipocytes and are abundant in adipose tissue
Types of adipose tissue; adipose tissues are of two types White and Brown adipose tissue.
 White Adipose tissue supports the kidney, eyes and acts as thermal insulator (prevents loss
of heat)
 Brown adipose tissue produces more energy and more heat and are present in the new born
than adult.

4. LEUKOCYTES: these are group of small amount of cells found in healthy connective tissue but
migrate significantly during infection. They play a role in tissue defense.

5. MAST CELLS: These are group of cells found in some connective tissue and also in blood
vessels and spleen. They produce granules which contain Heparin, Histamine and other
substances which are released when cells are injured or damaged.

Histamine stimulates the secretion of gastric juice and is associated with the development of
allergies and hypersensitivity states and also involve in inflammatory reactions.
Heparin prevents blood coagulation.

FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 (BLOOD AND LYMPH TISSUES)
These are connective tissues provided by the blood as a means of communication between cells of
different parts of the body and the external environment. They carry oxygen from the lungs to tissues and
Co2 from the tissues to the lungs for excretion etc.

LYMPH is formed from the interstitial fluid as it enters lymphoid vessels, lymphatic vessels return
lymph to large veins near the heart, through the interstitial fluid to the lymphatic vessels is a continuous
process essential to homeostasis.

CARTILAGES AND BONES

They are called supporting connective tissues that provides strong frame work of the body.
Cartilage (chondrocytes) forms most of the temporal skeleton in an embryo. They lack direct blood
supply. They get nutrients from perichondrium which is a covering of the connective tissue.
Chondrocytes produce anti-angiogenesis (a chemical that discourages the growth of blood vessels into the
cartilage.)

TYPES OF CARTILAGE:
1. Hyaline cartilage: they are found on the surface of the bones that form joints e.g. it forms the
coastal cartilage which attaches the ribs to the sternum, parts of larynx, trachea, and bronchi.
Hyaline cartilage is important in the growth of most bones.

2. Fibro Cartilage: they contain more collagen fibres than hyaline. It is found between bones that
form slightly movable joints e.g. intervertebral discs. And articulating surfaces of bones. They
resist compression and prevent damaging bone to bone while in contact.

3. Elastic Cartilage: this contains numerous elastic fibres embedded in the matrix. They can be
found in the auricle of the ear, epiglottis and parts of the nasal septum.

BONE TISSUES
Bone is the hardest connective tissue which provides protection to internal organs and supports the body.
Bones consists of 20% water, 30-40%o inorganic material and 40-50% of (carbonate and phosphate).

FUNCTIONS OF BONE
1. Provides a frame work for the body
2. Supports the surrounding tissues (muscle and tendon)
3. Assist in movements through muscle contractions and joints
4. Protects vital organs such as heart and lungs
5. Manufactures blood cells in red bone marrow
6. Provides storage for mineral salts(calcium and phosphorus)
7. Forms the boundaries of the cranial, thoracic and pelvic cavities

CELLS FOR BONE FORMATION

1. OSTEOCYTES: are mature bone cells. Nourishes and maintains bone
2. OSTEOBLAST: these are bone forming cells. The formation of new bone by osteoblasts is called
ossification
3. OSTEOCLAST: they break down and reabsorb bones, maintains shape of the bone.

DEVELOPMENT OF BONE
Bone tissue development begins in-utero (before birth) and remain uncompleted until 35 years of life. The
long, short, irregular bones found in the column and middle ear develops from cartilage while flat bones
develops from tendons e.g. (patella)

BONE DEVELOMENT CONSISTS OF TWO PRESSURES

1. Calcium salt deposition (calcification) in the bone tissue for its proper formation.
2. Secretion of osteoid. Bone substance by osteoblasts, this is done by matrix as it gradually replaces
the original cartilage or membrane or tendon.

FACTORS AFFECTING BONE GROWTH AND METABOLISM.

1. Phosphorus and calcium: calcium and phosphorus concentration maintains an increased
relationship. E.g. when calcium level rises, phosphorus levels decreases. When serum level of the
substances are altered, several hormones work to maintain equilibrium. If blood calcium level is
decreased; the bone which stores calcium releases calcium into the vascular system in response of
parathyroid hormone stimulation. Bone accounts for 99%of the calcium in the body and 90% of
phosphorus.
2. Vitamin D: its metabolites are produced in the body and transported in the blood to promote the
absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the small intestines.
NB: a decreased vitamin D level in the body can result in Osteomalacia.
3. CALCITONIN: produced by the thyroid gland decreases the serum calcium level if increased
above its normal level. Calcitonin inhibits bone reabsorption and increases renal excretion of
calcium and phosphorus when the need arises.
4. PARATHYROID HORMONE: PTH increases and stimulates bone to promote osteoclastic
activity and donate calcium to the blood when serum calcium is lowered. The hormone also
reduces renal excretion of calcium and facilitates its absorption from the intestine. Conversely,
when serum levels increases, PTH secretion diminishes to preserve the bone calcium level.
5. GROWTH BALANCE: it is secreted anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. It is involved in
increasing bone length and determination of amount of matrix formed before maturity. An
increased/decreased secretion results to gigantism or dwarfism during childhood respectively.
An increased secretion in adult results to acromegaly (bone and soft tissue deformity)
6. GLUCOCORTICOIDS: adrenal glucocorticoids regulates protein metabolisms when need
arises. The hormone increses or decreases catabolism to reduce or intensify the organic matrix of
bone. They also help in the regulation of intestinal calcium and phosphorus absorption .
7. SEX HORMONE: estrogen stimulates osteoblastic activity and tend to inhibit the role of PTh
anabolism and increase bone mass.
8. EXERCISE AND REST: affects bone growth and development. Exercise causes red blood s=cell
supply to the muscle and the underlying bones. During rest, bone recover their full length.
Especially at nights.

TYPES OF BONE TISSUES

1. COMPACT BONE: this is the outer layer of bone. The tissue appears solid to bare eye but
when viewed under microscope has haversian canal system (structural units of compact bone)
and contains blood, and lymph vessels. There are surrounded by lamella. The lamellae are
spaces called lacunae and this space contain Lymph and osteocytes. The lacunae is linked
 wsith lymph vessels in the haversian canal by canaliculi. The osteocytes in the lacunae
obtains nourishment from the lymph. The arrangement of lamellae in a tabular form gives the
bone a greater strength. The haversian canal is being surrounded by lamellae which is in the
concentric plates of bones.
2. SPONGY CANCELLOUS BONE: This bone tissue contains large spaces or trabeculae
filled with red and yellow marrows. The marrow is the site for hematopoiesis (production of
blood cells) which are dislodged into the blood stream .

MUSCLE TISSUES

CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSCLE
1. Muscle tissue are characterized by properties that allow movement.
2. Muscle cells are excitable; they respond to a stimulus.
3. They are contractile, meaning they can shorten and generate a pulling force. When attached
between two movable objects, in other words, contractions of the muscles cause the bones to
move.
4. Some muscle movement is voluntary, which means it is under conscious control. For example, a
person decides to open a book and read a chapter on anatomy.
5. Other movements are involuntary, meaning they are not under conscious control, such as the
contraction of your pupil in bright light.

FUNCTIONS OF MUSCLE TISSUES

I. Skeletal muscle tissues move the body by pulling the bones of the skeleton thereby making it
possible to dance, walk and do other functions.
II. Cardiac tissue pushes blood through the circulating system
III. Smooth muscle pushes fluid and solids along the digestive tract and regulates the diameter of
small arteries.

TYPES OF MUSCLES
There are three types of muscle tissue, which consists of
specialised contractile cells:
 skeletal muscle
 smooth muscle
 Cardiac muscle.

SKELETAL MUSCLE: they are called skeletal muscles or voluntary muscles because most of them
attach to at least one end of the skeleton. They are said to be voluntary because we have control over most
of them e.g. We can flex (bend) our elbows at will. Many actions of the skeletal muscles are automatic
especially those that occurs during stretch reflexes.
Each skeletal muscle is an organ that consists of various integrated tissues. These tissues include
the skeletal muscle fibers, blood vessels, nerve fibers, and connective tissue. Each skeletal
muscle has three layers of connective tissue (called “mysia”) that enclose it and provide structure
to the muscle as a whole, and also compartmentalize the muscle fibers within the muscle.
Muscle connective tissue includes:

I. Epimysium: this is a dense layer of tissue collagen fiber which surrounds the entire
muscle. It separates the muscle from surrounding organ or tissue.
II. Perimysium: this is a tissue fiber around skeletal muscle that divides the muscle into a
series of compartment. Each contain a bundle of muscle fibre called Fascicle.
Perimysium also contains blood vessels and nerves that maintain blood flow and supply
the fibre and the bundles.
III. Endomysium: this is a delicate connective tissue that surrounds the individual skeletal
muscle cells and interconnect the adjacent muscle fiber cell loosely. Endomysium
contains capillary network that supply blood to muscle cells. It also contain the
Myosatellite cells.
Myosatellite cells are embryonic stem cells that help in the repair of daqmaged musles tissues
and that control the muscle nerve fibre. At the end of each muscle fiber, a collagwen fibre of
the epimysium, perimysium and endomysium come together to form a bundle known as a
muscle fiber bundle (Fascicle) which attaches skeletal muscle to the brain.

FEATURES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE

I. Size: the size of skeletal muscle fiber is enormous e.g. thigh muscle has a diameter of
100N and a length up to 30cm or 12 inches
 II. Nucleus: they are multi-nucleated i.e each contains hundreds of nucleus. The genes in the
each nuclei controls the production of the enzyme and structural proteins i.e equipped for
normal muscle contraction.

III. Myofibrils: skeletal muscle tissues contain an organized myofibrils and, sarcomere.
Sarcomere are the smallest functional unit of a striated muscle cell. The myofibrils and
sarcomere are arranged into a repeated group that gives the cell a striated or banded
appearance which can be seen under a microscope. The interaction between the repeated
groups of filament; thick and thin filaments of the sarcomere are responsible for muscle
contraction. The skeletal muscle cell contain skeletal cells where filaments are located.

Some other terminology associated with muscle fibers is rooted in the Greek sarco, which means
“flesh.” The plasma membrane of muscle fibers is called the Sarcolemma, the cytoplasm is
referred to as sarcoplasm, and the specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum, which stores,
releases, and retrieves calcium ions (Ca++) is called the Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) while the
functional unit of a skeletal muscle fiber is the Sarcomere and a highly organized arrangement
of the contractile myofilaments actin (thin filament) and myosin (thick filament), along with
other support proteins.
FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
1. Movement: when skeletal muscle contracts, they pull on tendons and move the bones of
the skeleton which may lead to several effects ranging from simple motion e.g. extending
the arm or breathing to highly coordinated movements such as swimming and typing.
 2. Maintenance of posture /position: we could neither sit nor stand up without muscular
activity or maintain tension (the act of stretching or the state of being stretched) to enable
body posture e.g. holding the head still while walking.
3. Storage of nutrients: the protein called contractile protein in skeletal muscles are broken
down and the amino acids released into the circulation when the diet contains adequate
proteins or calorie
4. Support: the abdominal wall and the floor of the pelvic cavity consists of layers of
skeletal muscles. These muscles support the weight of visceral organ and ensure that
internal tissues are shielded.
5. Maintenance of body temperature: skeletal muscle maintains body temperature for
muscle contraction to occur. They require energy. Whenever this energy is used in the
body, some of it is converted to heat. The heat released by contracting muscles keep the
body temperature in the range for normal functioning.

SMOOTH MUSCLE: this forms sheet or bundle around other tissues in almost every organ.
Smooth muscle tissue contraction is responsible for involuntary movements in the internal

organs.

CHARACTERISTIC OF SMOOTH MUSCLES:

 Smooth muscle fiber tissues have single shape
 The length is 30-200mm
 The diameter is 5-10mm
 They are densely bounded together to enable contraction
 They can spread from cell to cell
 MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF SMOOTH MUSCLE

 Size: they are relatively long and slender (5-10mm) in diameter, 30-200mm
 Nucleus: the cell is spindle shaped and has single centrally located nucleus.
 Adjacent: smooth muscle cells are bound together at dense bodies thereby transmitting
the contractile forces from cell to cell throughout the tissue.
 Cells: cells of smooth muscle can divide so that they can regenerate.
 Collagen fibers: smooth muscle cell are nit united to form tendons or aponeurosis as do
in skeletal muscle.
 Smooth muscles lack myofibrils and sarcomere; hence no striation and are called non-
striated muscle. The contraction of smooth muscle is nit under voluntary control by the
nervous system and that is why is not possible for the voluntary contraction of 8cm
length of digestive tract, hence it is non-striated involuntary muscle.

It forms the contractile component of the integumentary system, cardiovascular, digestive,

urinary, and reproductive systems as well as the airways and arteries. Each cell is spindle shaped
with a single nucleus and no visible striations

 Smooth muscles in Integumentary system: smooth muscles around the blood vessels
regulate the flow of blood to the superficial dermis of the skin such as the smooth muscle
of the erector pilli which elevates the hairs.
  Smooth muscles in cardiovascular system: smooth muscle encircling the blood vessels
control the distribution of blood through vital organs and help to regulate blood pressure.

 Smooth muscles in urinary system: the smooth muscles in the walls of small blood
vessels alter the rate of filtration. In the kidney layer of smooth muscle, the walls of the
ureter transports urine to the urinary bladder while the smooth muscles in the walls of the
urinary bladder forces urine out of the body.

 Smooth muscles in reproductive system: layers of smooth muscle help move sperm
along the reproductive tract in n males and cause sperm the ejection of glandular
secretions from the accessory glands into the reproductive tract. In females, the layer of
smooth muscles help move oocytes and perhaps sperm along the reproductive tract and
contraction of the smooth muscle in the walls of the uterus expels the fetus at delivery
during labor.

 Smooth muscles in Respiratory System: smooth muscle contraction or relaxation alter

the diameters of the respiratory passage ways and changes the resistance to air flow.
 Smooth muscles in Digestive System: layers of smooth muscles in the walls of digestive
tract plays an essential role in moving materials along the tract through rings of smooth
muscle called sphincter. Smooth muscle in the walls of gallbladder contracts to eject bile
into the digestive tract.
COMPARISON BETWEEN SKELETAL MUSCLE AND SMOOTH MUSCLE.

SKELETAL MUSCLE SMOOTH MUSCLE

1. Their collagen rises to tendons and They do not have collagen that give rise
ligaments. to tendons and ligaments.
2. They are striated and are voluntary They are non-striated and involuntary
muscles. muscles.
3. They have myofibrils and Thy do not have myofibrils and
sarcomere. sarcomere.

CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE

Cardiac muscle forms the contractile walls of the heart. The cells of cardiac muscle, known as
cardiomyocytes, also appear striated under the microscope.
Unlike skeletal muscle fibers, cardiomyocytes are single cells typically with a single centrally
located nucleus.
A principal characteristic of cardiomyocytes is that they contract on their own intrinsic
rhythms without any external stimulation. Cardiomyocyte attach to one another with
specialized cell junctions called intercalated discs. Intercalated discs have both anchoring
junctions and gap junctions. Attached cells form long, branching cardiac muscle fibers that are,
essentially, a mechanical and electrochemical syncytium allowing the cells to synchronize their
actions. The cardiac muscle pumps blood through the body and is under involuntary control.
 MICROSCOPIC FEATURES OF A CARDIAC MUSCLES

Size: cardiac muscle cells are small of about 10-20mm in diameter and 50-100mm in length
Nucleus: they have centrally placed nucleus. Cardiac muscles are dependent on aerobic
metabolism to obtain the energy they need to continue contracting. Each muscle cell contracts
at a specialized site called intercalated disc. It is a site where action potential travel across from
one cardiac muscle cell to another.

NERVOUS TISSUE
Nervous tissue is characterized as being excitable and capable of sending and receiving
electrochemical signals that provide the body with information. Two main classes of cells make
up nervous tissue: the neuron and neuroglia.

Neurons are defined as the functional unit of the nervous system which propagate information
via electrochemical impulses, called action potentials, which are biochemically linked to the
release of chemical signals.
Neuroglia play an essential role in supporting neurons and modulating their information
propagation. Nervous tissues with its supporting blood vessels and connective tissue forms the
organs of the nervous system. The brain and spinal cord, the receptors in complex sense organs
e.g. the ear and eye and nerves that link the nervous system with other system.
Nervous tissues are about 2% of tissue composition of the human body. Neurons have a unique
anatomical design. They can initiate and transmit actions. They are excitable; one part of the cell
generates out-going signals while the other receives in-coming signals
Neurons communicate with each other with muscles and glands. The cell body of a neuron, also
called the soma, contains the nucleus and mitochondria.
 ANATOMY OF NEURONES

CELL BOBY OR SOMA.

Neuron contains large round nucleus with nucleolus, perikaryon and cytoplasm surrounding the
nucleus. The cytoskeleton (cell skeleton) of the perikaryon contains neurofilaments and
neurotubules which are similar to filaments and microtubules of the other types of cells.
 The dendrites are sensitive processes/projections that extends out from the body which
transfers the nerve impulse to the soma. They have branches which bears processes called
dendritic spines. It is about 0.5-1micro meter. Dendritic spines represent 80-90% of the
neurons total surface area.
 Cell Body: it is the main nutritional and metabolic regions of the neuron that is centrally
located. Like dendrites, it receives signals from other cells and send it to the axon.
Both dendrites and cell body sum up of integrating the incoming signals. Together the
dendrites and cell body constitutes both receptive and integrating region of the neuron.
The axon generates an action potential (out-going signal which is called nerve impulse)
 and conducts it to the next cell. The axon is the transmitting or the conducting region of
the neuron. Neuron receives and integrates signals at one location and transmits an out-
going signal or action potential at another location. The axon branch repeatedly to
communicate with many large cells. It is the axon that propagates the impulse which is
communicated to one or more cells. The dendrites receive information from other
neurons at a specialized areas of contact called synapse. The dendrites are usually highly
branched process providing locations for other neurons to communicate with the cell
body. Information flows through neuron from the dendrites across the cell body and
down the axon. Flow of information is directional in neuron. The incoming signals are
integrated (composed and coordinated and if the summed signal is large enough, an ou-
going signal or actin potential is generated. The action potential is conducted along axon
towards the target cells which may be neuron. The dendrites and cell body provides a
large surface area for communication with other neuron.

 Axons: axon is a part of neuron that carries the action potential away to another excitable
cell. Axon vary in length. It can be short just 1/2in length, communicating only wuth cells
in their immediate vicinity. Axons can also be very longer more than a meter.
Communicating over a long distance e.g. the axons of spinal cord neuron can reach all the
way to the muscles of the toe. In such neuron, the axon make up most of thr volime of the
cell. In general, the longest axon are associated with the largest bodies.
Each neuron has a single axon which arises from a region called axon hillock. Axon can
branch at the terminal profusely forming thousands of axon terminals.
Out-going signal or action potential is generated at the axon hillock and conducted along
the axon to the axon terminal. Some axons are myelinated ( an insulating material called
myelin ) which is produced by the supporting cells of the nervous system.

 Schwann cell: the Schwann cell wraps around the axon in the process of producing
myelin. i.e. myelination. Its cytoplasm is required to be squeezed out so that the tightly
wounded cell membrane becomes the actual insulation. Some Schwann cells are short
and insulate a single axon. Neighboring Schwann cells do not touch each other so there
are gaps in the myelin sheath. The gaps called Node of Ranvier are essential for the
conduction of action potential.

SYNAPSE:
Synapse is a special site where two neurons communicate with another neuron. It is a
junction between neurons where signals from other neuron are received. Synaptic knob is also
found in the synaptic terminal. Synaptic knob contains mitochondria and numerous vesicles
filled with molecule of neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters enzymes and lysozymes travel
alongneurotubule through the length of axon. They are pulled by substances called kinesin and
dynein which are on ATP which are molecular motors. Movement of materilas between the cell
body and synaptic knob is axosplasmic.

TYPES OF SYNAPSE
Synapse are of two types
1. Electrical synapse
2. Chemical synapse.
Electrical synapse occur between cells connected by gap junctions. The gap junctions allow a
local current to flow directly from one cell to a neighboring cell

Chemical Synapses
A chemical synapse occurs where a chemical messenger, called a neurotransmitter, is used to
communicate a message to an effector. The essential components of a chemical synapse are the
presynaptic terminal, the synaptic cleft, and the postsynaptic membrane (figure 11.18). The
presynaptic terminal consists of the end of an axon of the presynaptic cell. The space
separating the axon ending and the cell with which it synapses is the synaptic cleft. The
membrane of the postsynaptic cell associated with the presynaptic terminal is the postsynaptic
membrane. Postsynaptic cells are typically other neurons, muscle cells, or gland cells.