Polymers

• Polymers are the giant molecules of chemistry.

• Chemists also call them macro-molecules.
• The small building-block molecules are called monomers.
• Synthetic polymers are a mainstay of modern life, but nature also makes polymers; they are
found in all living matter.

Natural Polymers
Three types of natural polymers are polysaccharides, proteins, and nuclei acids.

 Polysaccharides

 Proteins – made up of 2 or more amino acid.

-Peptide Bonds ( O double bond C single N)
20 AMINO ACIDS

Processes involve in Polymers

 Addition Polymers
 Condensation Polymers
 Cross-linking Polymers
 Elastomers
 Rubbers & Co-polymers
Addition Polymerization
• The key feature of addition polymerization is that monomers add to one another in such a way
that the polymeric product contains all the atoms of the starting monomers.
• The steps for addition polymerization include:
– Initiation - often through the use of free-radicals.
– Propagation - radicals join to form larger radicals.
– Termination - occurs when a molecule is formed that no longer has an unpaired electron.

Initiation

Propagation
Termination

Example:
Isoprene
Ethylene polymer derivatives

Condensation Polymerization
• In condensation polymerization, a small portion of the monomer molecule is not incorporated
in the final polymer.
• The monomers are held together by a certain kind of bond (such as an amide bond) and a
molecule is eliminated in the process (such as a water molecule).
• This is the type of process used to make nylons and silicones.
Example:
1. Polyester
2. Polyamide
3. Kevlar
4. Silk is a polymer of the amino acids glycine and alanine
•Wool is having disulphide (sulphur-sulphur) bonds to link the polymer chains together. The
sulphur is present due to the amino acid cysteine.
5. Polyurethanes -These polymers have a similar structure to the polyamides, which have

the urethane (carbamate) group as part of the polymer backbone .

6. Silicone Polymer

Crosslinking Polymer- Bakelite

Elastomers/Copolymer
• Elastomers are flexible, elastic materials.
• Natural rubber is soft and tacky when hot. It can be made harder in a reaction with sulfur,
called vulcanization.
• Several kinds of synthetic rubber were developed during and after World War II. Neoprene
(polychloroprene) is one example of this.
• Copolymerization is a process in which a mixture of two different monomers forma a product
in which the chain contains both monomers as building blocks.
Example: Rubber
Natural rubber was first introduced to Europe in the mid. 18th century - and is an example of an
elastomer - an elastic polymer. A problem was that matural rubber is a very weak, soft
thermoplastic when heated - but very brittle when cold. A process, vulcanisation, was invented
by Goodyear, where rubber heated with sulphur produces a harder, less tacky elastic material.

Extent of Cross-linking in Rubber Products

Copolymers
Some of the most commercially important addition polymers arethe copolymers. There are
polymers made by polymerizing a mixture of two or more monomers. An example is
styrenebutadiene rubber (SBR) - which is a copolymer of butadiene and styrene. Most is
vulcanized and used in tire production – though some is used for bubble-gum (unvulcanised
form).
Example:
1. ABS - Poly(Acrylonitrile, Butadiene, Styrene)
•ABS is a copolymer of Acrylonitrile, Butadiene, and Styrene.
•ABS plastics generally possess medium strength and performance and medium cost.
•ABS is often used as the cost and performance dividing line between standard plastics (PVC,
polyethylene, polystyrene, etc.) and engineering plastics (acrylic, nylon, acetal, etc.).
•ABS polymers can be given a range of properties, depending on the ratio of the monomeric
constituents and the molecular level connectivity. Typically, a styrene-acrylonitrile glassy phase
is toughened by an amorphous butadiene/butadieneacrylonitrile rubber phase.
2. Epoxy Resin
3. A Composite Material (Fiber Glass with Epoxy Resin)
Physical Properties of Polymers
• A thermoplastic polymer is one that can be softened by heating and then formed into
desired shapes by applying pressure.
• Thermosetting polymers become permanently hard at elevated temperatures and
pressures.
• High-density polyethylene (HDPE) consists primarily of linear molecules and has a
higher density, greater rigidity, greater strength, and a higher melting point.
• Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) has branched chains and is a waxy, semi-rigid,
translucent material with a low melting point.

Additives in Polymers- Plasticizer, Thermal stabilizer, Dye

PVC - one of the most used polymers, because it is easily processed and compounded, the raw
materials involved in its formulation have a relative low cost and because a wide range of
properties can be obtained.
PVC problems:
Its low thermal stability, leading to
• discoloration,
• hydrogen chloride loss
• serious corrosion phenomena
• changes in its mechanical properties with a decrease or an increase in molecular weight as a
result of chain-scission or cross-linking of the polymer molecules.

The defect sites in the polymer chains are proposed to be responsible for the instability. Possible
defect structures in PVC: branching, chloroallyl groups, end groups, oxygencontaining
groups and head-to-head structures

Plasticizers
•The most widely used primary plasticizers have a low molecular weight (known as monomeric
plasticizers)
•The most common monomeric plasticizers are esters derived from phthalic acid, although other
derived from different organic acids can be used, as phosphates, trimetillates, citrates, sebacates,
adipates, etc.
• Polymeric plasticizers are generally saturated polyesters. The permanence of a plasticizer in a
flexible PVC compound depends upon three major factors which include structure, molecular
weight/viscosity, and polarity.
• Branched plasticizers are more permanent than the equivalent but linear plasticizers, since
branching tends to hinder movement or entangle the plasticizer within the polymer matrix
making it more difficult to migrate or to be removed by volatilization or extraction.
• Plasticizers of linear structures provide less permanence, but they do yield better low
temperature properties.

Thermal stabilizers include basic compounds, metallic soaps, and organotin compounds, such
as barium–cadmium–zinc stearate complex (Ba–Cd–Zn stearate), dibasic lead carbonate (DBLC)
(Rolite lead), Di- (n-butyl) tin maleate, N-acryloyl-N’-p-substituted phenylthiourea derivatives.
Polymer Recycle
PROPERTIES OF WATER

The Water Molecule

The properties of water can best be understood by considering the structure and bonding of the
water molecule:

Water is a molecule made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. It has the formula
H2O. When oxygen and hydrogen combine (H-O-H) they form a v-shaped triangular molecule.
While water molecules are electrically neutral, the oxygen atom holds a small negative charge
and the two hydrogen atoms hold small positive charges. Water molecules are attracted to each
other, creating hydrogen bonds. These strong bonds determine almost every physical property of
water and many of its chemical properties too. Scientists believe this unusual electrical
balancing, called polarity, gives water some of its remarkable properties.

A large part of the mass of most organisms is simply water. In human tissues the percentage of
water ranges from 20% in bones to 85% in brain cells.
The water content is greater in embryonic and young cells
and decreases as aging occurs. About 70% of our total
body weight is water; as much as 95% of jellyfish or
certain plants is water. Water is not only the major
component of organisms but also one of the principal
environmental factors affecting them. Many organisms
live within the sea or in freshwater rivers, lakes, and
puddles. The physical and chemical properties of water
have permitted living things to appear, to survive, and to
evolve on this planet.
Water is the solvent, the medium and the participant in most of the chemical reactions occurring
in our environment.
* Water the Universal Solvent
Scientists often call water the “universal solvent” because water can dissolve more substances
than any other liquid. Some substances, like common table salt, NaCl, dissolve in water very
easily. When placed in water, sodium chloride molecules fall apart. The positively charged
sodium ion (Na+ ) binds to oxygen, while the negatively charged chloride ion (Cl- ) attaches to
hydrogen. This property of water allows for the transport of nutrients vital to life in animals and
plants. A drop of rainwater falling through the air dissolves atmospheric gases. When rain
reaches the earth, it affects the quality of the land, lakes and rivers.

• Water can dissolve many substances creates solutions.

– Hydrophilic means “water loving” these substances
dissolve in water.
– Hydrophobic means “water fearing” these substances
do NOT dissolve in water
Solution -a homogeneous mixture of a solvent and solute
• Parts of a solution
– Solute – the substance that is being dissolved.
– Solvent – the substance that does the dissolving.
* Surface Tension
Water molecules at the surface (next to air) hold closely together, forming an
invisible film. Water’s surface tension can hold weight that would normally
sink. You can carefully float a paper clip on top of the water. Some aquatic
insects such as the water strider or pond skater rely on surface tension to
walk on water. Surface tension is essential for the transfer of energy from
wind to water to create waves. Waves are necessary for rapid oxygen diffusion in lakes and seas.
WATER IS STICKY
* Cohesion — Water molecules stick to each other (Water attracted to more water). This is due
to the hydrogen bonds among the molecules. Water molecules at the surface have a much greater
attraction for each other than for molecules in the air. This cohesiveness creates a high surface
tension at the surface of the water. The water molecules at the surface crowd together, producing
a strong layer as they are pulled downward by the attraction of other water molecules beneath
them.
* Adhesion — Water molecules stick to other
substances (Attraction between unlike molecules).
You can see this property when water creeps up the
inside of a drinking glass. Think of a sponge or a
paper towel used to “soak up” spilled water. This is
how water makes things wet. Water also clings to
living things. Most plants have adapted to take
advantage of water’s adhesion that helps move water
from the roots to the leaves. This is called capillary
action (water rises in a narrow tube against the force
of gravity). This can also be seen as blood moves
through our capillaries, carrying nutrients to each cell
within our body. [One of the tallest plants is the redwood tree. Water moves from its roots to its
leaves, more than 90 m above the ground. As a plant loses water through pores in the leaves,
more water moves up from roots and stems to replace the lost water. The process of water loss
by leaves is known as transpiration.]

Example of capillary action

* Viscosity -- is the property of fluid having high resistance to
flow. We normally think of liquids like honey or motor oil
being viscous, but when compared to other substances with like
structures, water is viscous. Liquids with stronger
intermolecular interactions are usually more viscous than
liquids with weak intermolecular interactions.
THERMAL PROPERTIES
Water absorbs or releases more heat than many substances for each degree of temperature
increase or decrease. Because of this, it is widely used for cooling and for transferring heat in
thermal and chemical processes. Differences in temperature between lakes and rivers and the
surrounding air may have a variety of effects. For example, local fog or mist is likely to occur if
a lake cools in the surrounding air enough to cause saturation—small water droplets are
suspended in the air. Large bodies of water, such as the oceans or the Great Lakes, have a
profound influence on climate. They are the world’s great heat reservoirs and heat exchangers
and the source of much of the moisture that falls as rain and snow over adjacent landmasses.
When water is colder than the air, precipitation is curbed, winds are reduced, and fog banks are
formed. These properties of water are crucial in stabilizing temperatures on earth.

* Specific Heat -- Water has a high specific heat. The amount of energy required
to raise the temperature of water by one degree Celsius is quite large. Because so
much heat loss or heat input is required to lower or raise the temperature of water, the oceans and
other large bodies of water have relatively constant temperatures. Thus, many organisms living
in the oceans are provided with a relatively constant environmental temperature. The high-water
content of plants and animals living on land helps them to maintain a relatively constant internal
temperature (Ours is about 36 ˚C). The specific heat of water is 5 times greater than of sand.
– The measure of the heat energy required to increase the temperature of a unit quantity of a
substance by a certain temperature interval.
– The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree
Celsius.
* Heat of Vaporization -- Water has a high heat of vaporization. Water absorbs heat as it
changes from a liquid to a gas; the human body can dissipate excess heat by the evaporation of
its sweat. A leaf can keep cool in the bright sunlight by evaporating water from its surface.
Water’s high heat conductivity makes possible the even distribution of heat throughout the body.
* Boiling and Freezing -- Pure water at sea level boils at 100 ˚C and freezes at 0 ˚C, but extra
energy is needed to push water molecules into the air. This is called latent heat—the heat
required to change water from one phase to another. At higher elevations (lower atmospheric
pressure) water’s boiling temperature decreases. This is why it takes longer to boil and egg at
higher altitudes. The temperature does not get high enough to cook the egg properly. If a
substance is dissolved in water, then the freezing point is lowered. Energy is lost when water
freezes.

* Water density -- Water is most dense at 4 ˚C and

then begins to expand again (becoming less dense)
as the temperature decreases further. This
expansion occurs because its hydrogen bonds
become more rigid and ordered. As a result,
frozen water (ice floats) upon the denser cold
water. The expansion of water takes place even
before it actually freezes. This explains why a
pond freezes from the surface down, rather than
from the bottom up. As water temperature drops,
the colder water (0-4 ˚C) where it is less dense—
rises to the pond surface. It freezes to form a lid of
ice. This ice insulates the water below from the wintry chill that it is less likely to freeze.
Organisms that inhabit the pond are able to survive the frigid winter below the icy surface

* Solid Expansion (expansion on freezing) -- For most

substances, solids are denser than liquids. But the special
properties of water make it less dense as a solid. Ice floats on
water! Strong hydrogen bonds formed at freezing 0 ˚C lock
water molecules away from each other. When ice melts, the
structure collapses and molecules move closer together. Liquid
water at 4 ˚C is about 9% denser than ice.
* pH -- Water molecules have a tendency to ionize. They
dissociate into ions (charged particles) hydrogen ions (H+ )
and hydroxide ions (OH- ). In pure water a very small number of water molecules form ions in
this way. The tendency of water to dissociate is balanced by the tendency of hydrogen ions and
hydroxide ions to reunite to form water. A neutral solution contains an equal number of
hydroxide ions and hydrogen ions. A solution with a greater concentration of hydrogen ions
(H+ ) is said to be acidic. A solution with a greater concentration of hydroxide (OH- ) ions is said
to be alkaline or basic.

Earth's Natural Water

Earth is known as the "Blue Planet" because 71 percent of the Earth's surface is covered with
water. The earth has an abundance of water, but unfortunately, only a small percentage (about
0.3 percent), is even usable by humans. The other 99.7 percent is in the oceans, soils, icecaps,
and floating in the atmosphere. Still, much of the 0.3 percent that is useable is unattainable. Most
of the water used by humans comes from rivers. The visible bodies of water are referred to as
surface water. The majority of fresh water is actually found underground as soil moisture and in
aquifers. Groundwater can feed the streams, which is why a river can keep flowing even when
there has been no precipitation. Humans can use both ground and surface water.
Water also exists below land surface and as water vapor in the air. Water is a finite source. The
bottled water that is consumed today might possibly be the same water that once trickled down
the back of a wooly mammoth. The Earth is a closed system, meaning that very little matter,
including water, ever leaves or enters the atmosphere; the water that was here billions of years
ago is still here now. But, the Earth cleans and replenishes the water supply through the
hydrologic cycle.

Distribution of the water on Earth

 Ocean water: 97.2 percent

 Glaciers and other ice: 2.15 percent
 Groundwater: 0.61 percent
 Fresh water lakes: 0.009 percent
 Inland seas: 0.008 percent
 Soil Moisture: 0.005 percent
 Atmosphere: 0.001 percent
 Rivers: 0.0001 percent.

Surface water is far easier to reach, so this becomes the most common source of potable water.
About 321 billion gallons per day of surface water is used by humans. About 77 billion gallons
of groundwater are used each day.

4 TYPES OF WATER
 Surface Water- is any body of water above ground, including oceans, rivers and streams,
lakes, and reservoirs.
 Ground Water- water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock.
It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks
called aquifers.
 Wastewater- water that has been affected in quality by human activities. include the
following domestic or household activities: Human excreta (feces and urine) often mixed
with used toilet paper or wipes; this is known as blackwater if it is collected with flush
toilets
 Stormwater- Rain and snow flow over streets, parking lots, and roofs collecting excess
nutrients and pollutants before entering into a storm drain or water body.

Surface waters

Surface waters can be simply described as the water that is on the surface of the Earth. They
constitute approximately 80 percent of the water used on a daily basis. Surface waters make up
the majority of the water used for public supply and irrigation. Oceans, which are the largest
source of surface water, comprise approximately 97 percent of the Earth's surface water.
However, since the oceans have high salinity, the water is not useful as drinking water. Efforts
have been made to remove the salt from the water (desalination), but this is a very costly
endeavor.
 Rivers and streams constitute the flowing surface waters. Rivers obtain their water from
two sources: groundwater, and runoff. Rivers can obtain their water from the ground if they cut
into the water table, the area in which the ground is saturated with water.

Groundwater

Groundwater is defined as water that is found beneath the surface of the Earth in conditions
of 100 percent saturation (if it is less than 100 percent saturation, then the water is considered
soil moisture). Groundwater, which makes up around 22% of the water we use, is the water
beneath the earth’s
surface filling cracks
and other openings in
beds of rock and sand. It
exists in soils and sands
that are able to retain
water. The water table is
the line between
unsaturated soil and
saturated soil. Below the
water table is where
rocks and soil are full of
water.

Ninety-eight
percent of Earth's
available fresh water is groundwater. It is about 60 times as plentiful as the fresh water found in
lakes and streams. Groundwater can be found in aquifers. An aquifer is a body of water-saturated
sediment or rock in which water can move readily. There are two main types of aquifers:
unconfined and confined. This is known as a flowing water well. The pressure of the water is
called the hydraulic head. Groundwater movement, or velocity, is measured in feet (or meters)
per second.

Wastewater
Wastewater is any water that has been affected in quality by human activities.
Wastewater can develop from agricultural activities, urban water use, and sewer inflow and
stormwater runoff just to name a few. Wastewater from a municipality is also called sewage.
Most of us don’t want to think about it, but at times the water that swirls in the bowl ends up
being treated and ends up in our taps. This is recycled water.

Stormwater
Stormwater is defined by U.S. EPA as the runoff generated when precipitation from rain
and snowmelt events flows over land or impervious surfaces without percolating into the
ground. This water runs over surfaces like asphalt containing pollutants like engine oil,
fertilizer, and radiator fluid. Stormwater not soaking into the ground ends up as surface runoff
draining into rivers, lakes, streams and oceans. In the future capturing more stormwater draining
to the ocean is critical to meeting water demands in the United States. This covers four basic
types of water that our critical to our survival.

3 States of form of Water

 Solid water—ice is frozen water. When water freezes, its molecules move farther apart,
making ice less dense than water. This means that ice will be lighter than the same
volume of water, and so ice will float in water. Water freezes at 0° Celsius, 32°
Fahrenheit.
 Liquid water is wet and fluid. This is the form of water with which we are most familiar.
We use liquid water in many ways, including washing and drinking.
 Water as a gas—vapor is always present in the air around us. You cannot see it. When
you boil water, the water changes from a liquid to a gas or water vapor. As some of the
water vapor cools, we see it as a small cloud called steam. This cloud of steam is a
 inversion of the clouds we see in the sky. At sea level, steam is formed at 100° Celsius,
212° Fahrenheit.

WATER CYCLE

One problem facing the cycle of water on Earth is water contamination. Chemicals that go
into the water often are very difficult, if not impossible, to remove. One potential source of
contamination of water is runoff, the overland flow of water. While precipitation causes the
runoff to occur, stripping vegetation from land can add to the runoff in a particular area.
The sediment and soil from these areas, not to mention any pesticides or fertilizers that are
present, are washed into the streams, oceans, and lakes. What happens to the rain after it
falls depends on many factors, such as the intensity and duration of rainfall, the topography
of the land, soil conditions, amount of urbanization, and density of vegetation. A common
misconception about rain that it is tear-shaped, when in actuality it is shaped more like a
hamburger bun. Rain drops also are different sizes, due to the initial difference in particle
size and the different rate of coalescence.

Human Activities and Water Quality

Water Quality- describes the condition of the water, including chemical, physical, and
biological characteristics, usually with respect to its suitability for a particular purpose such as
drinking or swimming
Chem
[Link]- nitrogen and phosphorus are the most important,ical indicators commonly used to
describe and assess water quality, including:
[Link] temperature - is one of the most important characteristics of an aquatic system
[Link] Oxygen - The amount of oxygen that dissolves in water can vary in daily and
seasonal patterns, and decreases with higher temperature, salinity, and elevation.
3. Conventional variables - (pH, dissolve solids, conductivity and suspended sediments) are
those indicators that are often measured to establish a general picture of the aquatic environment,
including the influences of the drainage basin and local environmental conditions, seasonal and
annual variability, and the ability to support aquatic life.
as they are most often in short supply relative to the needs of plants, algae, and microbes.
Human Activities Affecting Water Quality
Agriculture
A huge contributor to water pollution, from fertilizers used for row crops to the manure created
by large-scale animal agriculture. Nitrates, when found in high levels, can cause serious health
problems for both infants and adults with compromised immune systems. Elsewhere, industrial
production of crops like corn and soy, which rely heavily on fertilizers to increase yields, can
lead to dangerous algal blooms which, when toxic, can shut down drinking water for entire cities.
Fossil fuel production
Another human activity that places considerable strain on drinking water — and not just because
fracking and coal mining use a great deal of water, but because their waste products can pollute
groundwater, and therefore drinking water, as well.

Sewage
In some places, population growth has strained wastewater treatment plants to the point where
they cannot handle the amount of sewage that is produced by the city or town. In Gauteng, a
province in South Africa, for example, population growth has forced two sewage treatment
stations and a wastewater treatment plant to run at 200 percent capacity, which in turn causes
raw sewage to back up and spill into surrounding fields, contaminating ground and surface water
 Pharmaceuticals
Ninety percent of the pharmaceuticals in our drinking water end up there via excretion, while
some find their way into drinking water through improper disposal or manufacturing discharges.
Most wastewater treatment facilities aren’t equipped to remove traces of pharmaceuticals from
water, and the EPA has not set standards for safe levels of pharmaceuticals in drinking water.
Antibiotics are a particular concern, because they could lead to antibiotic resistance.
Development
Development and land-use changes — or the changing of land from rural to urban — is a big part
of what the PNAS study published Monday looked at when considering the degradation of
drinking water. In some places, like in Asia, population density in key watersheds has expanded
rapidly since the beginning of the 20th century. Globally, the population density around key
urban watershed sources has increased by a factor of 5.4 since 1900, with the most rapid
development happening in the last few decades. Development is a massive driver of that
pollution — when urbanization or agriculture comes into a watershed, land that was previously
covered with native vegetation is cleared.

What Is Water Pollution?

Water pollution occurs when harmful substances—often chemicals or microorganisms—
contaminate a stream, river, lake, ocean, aquifer, or other body of water, degrading water quality
and rendering it toxic to humans or the environment.
What are the effects of Water Pollution?
On human health
Water pollution kills. In fact, it caused 1.8 million deaths in 2015, according to a study
published in The Lancet. Contaminated water can also make you ill. Every year, unsafe water
sickens about 1 billion people. And low-income communities are disproportionately at risk
because their homes are often closest to the most polluting industries.
Death of aquatic (water) animals
The main problem caused by water pollution is that it kills organisms that depend on these water
bodies. Dead fish, crabs, birds and sea gulls, dolphins, and many other animals often wind up on
beaches, killed by pollutants in their habitat (living environment).
Disruption of food-chains
Pollution disrupts the natural food chain as well. Pollutants such as lead and cadmium are eaten
by tiny animals. Later, these animals are consumed by fish and shellfish, and the food chain
continues to be disrupted at all higher levels.
Diseases
Eventually, humans are affected by this process as well. People can get diseases such as hepatitis
by eating seafood that has been poisoned. In many poor nations, there is always outbreak of
cholera and diseases as a result of poor drinking water treatment from contaminated waters.
Destruction of ecosystems
Ecosystems (the interaction of living things in a place, depending on each other for life) can be
severely changed or destroyed by water pollution. Many areas are now being affected by careless
human pollution, and this pollution is coming back to hurt humans in many ways.
Types of Water Pollutants
Pathogens
Pathogens can be bacteria, protozoa or viruses. Bacteria, for example, are commonly found in
water; it is when they start to increase in numbers that are above safe levels that water
contamination occurs. Two of the most common pathogenic bacteria are coliform and E. coli
bacteria. Coliforms are normally present in the environment in safe levels and can actually be
used to detect other pathogens in water. However, if coliforms increase in number, they can be
dangerous for the health of the environment. The presence of E. coli bacteria usually indicates
that water has been contaminated with human or animal waste.
Inorganic Material
Inorganic materials — in particular heavy metals like arsenic, mercury, copper, chromium, zinc
and barium — though harmless in very small concentrations, act as pollutants when they end up
concentrated in water. This can be due to leaching from waste disposal, increased human activity
or industrial accidents. This kind of water pollution, especially in higher concentrations, can
cause severe health problems in humans and other organisms, up to and including death.
Organic Material
These materials contain molecules that have carbon in their makeup. One of the most frequently
detected volatile organic chemicals is methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE). MTBE was formerly used
as an air-cleaning gas additive. Although it is now a banned chemical, it will take years before
MBTE is thoroughly removed from contaminated water systems. Water contaminated with this
organic chemical can cause leukemia, lymphoma and tumors in the testicles, thyroid glands and
kidneys.
Macroscopic Pollutants
Macroscopic pollutants are large, visible items in waterways or bodies of water. The first
common pollutant is trash: especially plastic waste. Plastic waste is often thrown directly into
large bodies of water illegally, but can also end up collecting in oceans and lakes after being
deposited in streams and rivers by accident.

WATER PURIFICATION

History of water treatment

Significant historical events forming the basis for today's water treatment systems

In ancient Greek and Sanskrit (India) writings dating back to 2000 BC, water
treatment methods were recommended. People back than knew that heating water
might purify it, and they were also educated in sand and gravel filtration, boiling, and
straining. The major motive for water purification was better tasting drinking water,
because people could not yet distinguish between foul and clean water. Turbidity was
the main driving force between the earliest water treatments. Not much was known
about micro-organisms, or chemical contaminants.
After 1500 BC, the Egyptians first discovered the principle of coagulation. They
applied the chemical alum for suspended particle settlement. Pictures of this
purification technique were found on the wall of the tomb of Amenophis II and
Ramses II.
After 500 BC, Hippocrates discovered the healing powers of water. He invented the
practice of sieving water, and obtained the first bag filter, which was called the
‘Hippocratic sleeve’. The main purpose of the bag was to trap sediments that caused
bad tastes or odours.

What is water purification?

Water purification is the transition of dirty harmful (Contaminated) water into clean safe
water. Water purification generally means freeing water from any kind of impurity it contains,
such as contaminants and micro-organisms.

Why purifies water?

Water is of major importance to all living things. We purify water to get rid of
contaminants that can be detrimental to our health. Up to 60 percent of the human body is water.
Therefore, the quality of water we drink is very important. The drinking water should be totally
clean, pure and free of any disease-causing microbes, and that’s why it should be properly
treated and disinfected before using it for drinking purpose.

What is removed during the process?

> Dirt and other mixed contaminants.
> Parasites (Giardia, Cryptosporidium etc.)
> Bacteria, Algae, Viruses, Fungi
> Minerals including toxic metals lead, copper, iron, manganese etc.
> Man made chemical pollutants

Methods of purifying water

~ Purification on large scale.
~ Purification of medium scale.
~ Purification of small scale. (Domestic Methods)

Purification on Large scale

When sources of water are Rivers, Lakes, Streams etc.
Then water is purified by:

> Coagulation > Filtration > Storage

> Sedimentation > Disinfection

Purification on Medium scale

When sources of water are Well, Springs, Tanks etc.

Then water is purified by addition of Bleaching powder/ Chlorinated lime as it is.
> Cheap
> Easy to use
> Reliable and safe
Purification on Small scale
Boiling -For 5-10 minutes kills almost all organisms and remove temporary hardness.
Distillation -Distillation is the technique of heating a liquid to create vapor which is collected
when cooled separate from the original liquid. It's based on the different boiling point or
volatility values of the components. The technique may be used to separate components of a
mixture or to aid in purification.
Addition of chemicals:
> Iodine solution -.02 drops of 2% Soln./Litre.
> KMnO4 -An amount that gives just pink coloration of the water.
> Alum -Used for turbid water in a dose 0.1-0.4 grains/5 litres of water.

Water Treatment on Large scales

Where does the water came from?
> Surface waters (Rivers, Streams, Lakes and Reservoir)
> Ground water (wells)
Large scales methods
1. Storage
2. Filtration
 Slow Sand Filter
 Rapid Sand Filter
3. Disinfection
 Chlorination
 Ozonation
 Other agents
 Membrane process

STORAGE
 In natural or artificial reservoir
 Optimum period of storage is 2 weeks
 Effects of storage
-Physical (90% suspended impurities settle down in one day
-Chemical (oxidizing action)
-Biological (10% of bacteria remains after 1 week)
Filtration
Slow Sand Filter
First used in Scotland on 19th century
 Elements of slow sand filter

1. Filter box
a) Supernatant water
b) Sand Bed
c) Under drainage system

2. Filter control valves

-To regulate the flow of water in and out
Rapid Sand Filter
Firs in 1885 in USA
 Coagulation
- is a process used to neutralise charges and form a gelatinous mass to trap (or bridge)
particles thus forming a mass large enough to settle or be trapped in the filter.
 Rapid mixing
Violent mixing of alum(minutes)
 Flocculation
is gentle stirring or agitation to encourage the particles thus formed to agglomerate into
masses large enough to settle or be filtered from solution.
 Sedimentation
Clear water above goes for filtration. Sedimentation is a simple, physical pre-treatment of
water prior to application of other purification treatments such as filtration and disinfection.
 Filtration
- Graded gravel, 30-40 cm
- Rate of filtration 5-15 m3/m2/hr
- Remaining alum floc forms a slimy layer over sand bed, it holds back bacteria and oxidize
organic matter
-Back washing: by air bubbles or water when floc layer becomes very thick, takes about 15
min.
Disinfection
1. Chlorination - As an effective yet inexpensive disinfectant, chlorination is the most commonly
used disinfection method in drinking water treatment plants all over the world. Chlorine kills
pathogens and oxidises iron, manganese, and taste and odour compounds in water. It can be
added to water as a primary disinfection as pre-chlorination, between sedimentation and
filtration, or as a final treatment step before distribution. It can also be added as a secondary
disinfection to water leaving the plant or within distribution networks to prevent recontamination
and ensure drinking water safety.
2. Ozonation - Today it is applied for the disinfection of drinking water, for the removal of
effluents from wastewater treatment plants in a process called ozonation.
3. Other Disinfection Methods
a) Ozone
b) Chlomarine
c) UV rays
4. Membranes Process
 High pressure processes
a) Reverse Osmosis - is one of the processes that makes desalination (or removing salt from
seawater) possible. Beyond that, reverse osmosis is used for recycling, wastewater treatment, and
can even produce energy.
b) Nanofiltration - Effective for the removal of colour forming organic compounds.
 Low pressure processes
 a) Ultrafiltration - is a variety of membrane filtration in which forces like pressure or
concentration gradients lead to a separation through a semipermeable membrane.
b) Microfiltration - Used for water treatment in combination with coagulation

Types of Water Purifications

 Drinking Water
 Industrial Water / Waste water
 Ultra pure water / Nano water
 DEMI water
 Electro-deionization
 Desalination
Industrial Wastewater Management
Wastewater Treatment
1. Pretreatment
Equalization- most important pretreatment device
- it is important to equalize wastewater flows and concentration
Neutralization- wastewater must be neutralize prior to discharge
Grease and Oil Removal- through water phase by gravity and skimming this grease and oil will
be removed
Toxic Substances- industries is responsible for determining if any of its wastewater components
are toxic and to remove prior before discharging it
2. Primary Treatment
Screens- this is used to remove moderate size particles that are not easily compressed under
fluid flow
Grit Chambers- useful for rapid separation of these inert particles
Gravity Sedimentation- slowly settling particles are removed trough this device
- design for the basis retention time, surface overflow rate and minimum depth
Chemical Precipitation- used to agglomerate the tiny particles into large particles that settle
rapidly in normal sedimentation tanks
3. Secondary Treatment
Design of Biological Treatment Systems- use to separate and recycle microorganisms
Reactor Concepts- separate the microorganisms from the other
Activated Sludge- use to remove soluble organics, colloidal, particulates and inorganics
trough adsorption and entrapment in the biological floc

Chemistry of the Atmosphere

Origin, Evolution and History

 The atmosphere of the Earth (and also of Venus and Mars) is generally believed to have
its origin in relatively volatile compounds that were incorporated into the solids from which
these planets accreted. Such compounds could include nitrides , water, carbides, and hydrogen
compounds of nitrogen and carbon. Large amounts of CO2 , water vapor, N2, HCl, SO2 and
H2S are emitted from volcanoes. The more reactive of these gases would be selectively removed
from the atmosphere by reaction with surface rocks or dissolution in the ocean. The overall
oxidation state of the earth’s mantle is not consistent with what one would expect from
equilibration with highly reduced volatiles. There is no evidence to suggest that the composition
of the mantle has not remained the same. If this is correct, then the primitive atmosphere may
well have had about the same composition as the gases emitted by volcanoes at the present time.
These consist mainly of water and CO2, together with small amounts of N2, H2, H2S, SO2, CO,
CH4, NH3, HCl and HF. Any significant concentration of water vapor in the atmosphere would
have led to a runaway greenhouse effect, resulting in temperatures as high as 400°C.

3.5 billion years ago the atmosphere probably consisted of carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, water, nitrogen, and hydrogen. The hydrosphere was formed 4 billion years ago
from the condensation of water vapor, resulting in oceans of water in which sedimentation
occured. The amount of ozone required to shield Earth from biologically lethal UV radiation,
wavelengths from 200 to 300 nanometers (nm), is believed to have been in existence 600 million
years ago.

Composition of the Atmosphere

Atmosphere – The mixture of gases, water droplets, and solid particles above the earth’s
surface.

Thickness of the Atmosphere

How high is the atmosphere?

 No defined top
 99.99997% of atmosphere is below 100 km (60 mi)
 Weather occurs in lowest 11 km (7 mi)
 Atmospheric depth is very thin relative to earth’s horizontal distances

Permanent gases form a constant proportion of the atmosphere, and have long residence times
(thousands to millions of years)

Variable gases vary in atmospheric concentration in both time and space.

Atmospheric pressure can be imagined as the weight of the overlying column of air. Unlike
temperature, pressure decreases exponentially with altitude. Traces of the atmosphere can be
detected as far as 500 km above Earth's surface, but 80 percent of the atmosphere's mass is
contained within the 18 km closest to the surface. Atmospheric pressure is generally measured
in millibars (mb); this unit of measurement is equivalent to 1 gram per centimeter squared (1
g/cm2). Other units are occasionally used, such as bars, atmospheres, or millimeters of mercury.
Structure of the Atmosphere

There are different layers of the atmosphere. The atmosphere can be divided into layers based on
its temperature. These layers are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the
thermosphere and a further region, beginning about 500 km above the Earth's surface, is called
the exosphere.
The Troposphere
 This is the lowest part of the atmosphere, the part we live in. It contains most of our
weather - clouds, rain, snow.
 In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets colder as the distance above the earth
increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometre.
 The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and almost all of
the water vapour.
 The lowest part of the troposphere is called the boundary layer. And the top of the
troposphere is called the tropopause.

The Stratosphere
 This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km.
 It contains much of the ozone in the atmosphere.
 Temperatures in the stratosphere are highest over the summer pole, and lowest over the
winter pole.
 By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere protects us from skin
cancer and other health damage.

The Mesosphere
 The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere.
 Here the temperature again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at
the "mesopause".
 The mesosphere is the coldest atmospheric layer surrounding the earth. It becomes cold
enough to freeze water vapour in its atmosphere into ice clouds. These ice clouds are
blue-white and are called noctilucent clouds or polar mesospheric clouds.

The Thermosphere and Ionosphere

 Is the atmosphere's fourth layer, located above the mesosphere and below the exosphere.
The thermosphere begins at a distance of approximately 53-56 miles above the earth's
surface and extends to between 311 and 621 miles from the earth, where the exosphere
begins and extends into space.
 The transitional area between the thermosphere and mesosphere is referred to as the
mesopause.
  The transitional area between the thermosphere and the exosphere is referred to as the
thermopause.
 Although still considered part of the earth's atmosphere, the thermosphere has such low
air density that it is often considered to be part of space.
 The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the "ionosphere", since
the energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules and atoms, turning them into
"ions" with a positive charge.
 The main components of air in the thermosphere include helium, atomic nitrogen, and
atomic oxygen.
 The ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves, allowing us to receive shortwave radio
broadcasts in New Zealand from other parts of the world.

The Exosphere
 The region above about 500 km is called the exosphere. It contains mainly oxygen and
hydrogen atoms, but there are so few of them that they rarely collide - they follow
"ballistic" trajectories under the influence of gravity, and some of them escape right out
into space.
 The exosphere is the uppermost region of Earth's atmosphere as it gradually fades into
the vacuum of space. Air in the exosphere is extremely thin - in many ways it is almost
the same as the airless void of outer space.
 The air in the exosphere is very thin, and is made up mostly of helium, and hydrogen.
Traces of other gases such as atomic oxygen and carbon dioxide can also be found.
 The upper level of the exosphere is the farthest point from earth that is still affected by
earth's gravity.

Earth’s Atmosphere and the Ozone Layer

Earth’s atmosphere at sea level is an approximately 80:20 solution of nitrogen and oxygen gases.
The sun’s radiation is the major source of energy that initiates chemical reactions in the
atmosphere.
The sun emits many kinds of radiation
 visible light, which is radiation that the human eye can detect
 ultraviolet light, which is higher energy radiation that cannot be detected by the human
eye. (Ultraviolet light is used to sterilize items, and, as anyone who has ever suffered a
severe sunburn knows, it can produce extensive tissue damage.)

Direct interaction of UV rays to earth’s surface

Light in the higher energy ultraviolet range is almost totally absorbed by oxygen molecules in
the upper layers of the atmosphere, causing the O2 molecules to dissociate into two oxygen
atoms in a cleavage reaction:

Important Atmospheric Chemical Species:

 Inorganic oxides: CO, CO2, NO2, SO2
 Oxidants: O3, H2O2, HO• radical, ROO• radicals, NO3 radical
 Reductants: CO, SO2, H2S
  Hydrocarbons: Natural CH4, pollutant alkanes, alkenes, aromatics
 Oxidized Organic: Aldehydes, ketones, acids, organic nitrates
 Photochemically active species: NO2, formaldehyde
 Acids: H2SO4, H2SO3, HNO3
 Bases: NH3
 Salts: NH4HSO4
 Unstable reactive species: Electronically excited nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), HO•

Solid and Liquid particles in aerosols and clouds

 Sources and sinks for gas-phase species
 Sites for surface reactions on solids
 Aqueous phase reactions in water droplet

Loss of Excitation Energy from Electronically Excited Species:

Emission of a photon (light): NO2 NO2 + hv
Called Luminescence if instantaneous, Phosphorescence if slower and Chemiluminescence
when the excited species that emits a photon is formed as the result of a chemical reaction
O3 + NO O2 + NO2 (luminescent species)
Direct reaction of an excited species
O2 + O3 2O2 + O
Dissociation
NO2 NO + O (very important tropospheric reaction)
O2 O + O (important in stratosphere leading to O3)
Photoioniazation (formation of ions in the ionsphere)
N2 N2 + e-
Photochemical reaction, a chemical reaction initiated by the absorption of energy in the form
of light. The consequence of molecules' absorbing light is the creation of transient excited
states whose chemical and physical properties differ greatly from the original molecules.

Basic composition of SMOG

 Nitrogen oxides
 Ozone
 Aldehydes
 Unreacted carbon
 Particular matter
 Peroxyaceyl nitrate (PAN)
Photochemical smog generation
Generation Mechanism:
Three ingredients required:
 Ultraviolet light
 Hydrocarbons
 Nitrogen oxides
 O3
 HC 

PANs
Other oxidants
 NO (aldehyde,ketones
etc)
 UV Light

Basics of photochemical reaction

VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOC)
Carbon-based molecules such as Aldehydes, ketones and hydrocarbons
RCH3+2O2+2NO  RCHO+2NO2+H2O
Sources:
 Paint thinners, solvents, and petroleum constituents
 Trees: emits isoprene and terpenes
 Methane from termites, cows and cultivation

Other compound

Smog effect (Beijing, China)

Ozone is responsible for the pungent smell we associate with lightning discharges and electric
motors. It is also toxic and a significant air pollutant, particularly in cities.

 A gas composed of three atoms of oxygen

 Bluish gas that is harmful to breathe
  Nearly 90% of the earth’s ozone is in the stratosphere and is reffered to as the ozone
layer.
 Ozone absorbs a band of ultraviolet radiation called UVB(ultraviolet B-rays/type B
ultraviolet)

Ozone depleting substances

 CFCs,
 HCFCs,
 Halons,
 Methyl bromide
 Carbon tetrachloride
 Methyl chloroform

Oxides of sulfurCoal and petroleum often contains sulfur compounds, their combustion generates
sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms
H2SO4, and thus acid rain.
Acid rain
-precipitation that has a pH of less than that of natural rainwater (which is about 5.6 due to dissolved
carbon dioxide)
-formed when sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides, as gases or fine particles in the atmosphere,
combined with water vapor and precipitate as sulfuric acid or nitric acid in rain, snow or fog.
Causes of acid rain
Man-made or Anthropogenic
 Combustion of coal and oil
 Power plants and manufacturing industries
 Automobiles and other vehicles
Natural
 Volcanic eruptions
 Decaying vegetation, wildfires, and biological processes
 Lightning
Formation of acid rain
-when water vapor condenses, or as the rain falls, they dissolve in the water to form sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) and nitric acid(HNO3).
-while the air in cleaned of the pollutants in this way, it also causes precipitation to become
acidic, forming acid rain.

A biogeochemical cycle or an inorganic-organic cycle is a circulating or repeatable pathway by

which either a chemical element or a molecule moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic
(lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere) components of an ecosystem.
Carbon Cycle

Carbon is the backbone of life on Earth. We are made of carbon, we eat carbon, and our
civilizations—our economies, our homes, our means of transport—are built on carbon. We need
carbon, but that need is also entwined with one of the most serious problems facing us today:
global climate change.
Slow carbon cycle
Any change in the cycle that shifts carbon out of one reservoir puts more carbon in the other
reservoirs. Changes that put carbon gases into the atmosphere result in warmer temperatures on
[Link] a series of chemical reactions and tectonic activity, carbon takes between 100-200
million years to move between rocks, soil, ocean, and atmosphere in the slow carbon [Link]
slow cycle returns carbon to the atmosphere through [Link] time it takes carbon to move
through the fast carbon cycle is measured in a lifespan.
Fast carbon cycle
The fast carbon cycle is largely the movement of carbon through life forms on Earth, or the
biosphere. Between 1015 and 1017 grams (1,000 to 100,000 million metric tons) of carbon move
through the fast carbon cycle every [Link] time it takes carbon to move through the fast carbon
cycle is measured in a lifespan. The fast carbon cycle is largely the movement of carbon through
life forms on Earth, or the biosphere. Between 1015 and 1017 grams (1,000 to 100,000 million
metric tons) of carbon move through the fast carbon cycle every year.

Oxygen Cycle

Photosynthesis :

During the day, plants take energy from the sun, carbon di oxide from the air, and water from
the soil to make their food. Their food is simple – glucose. This process is called
photosynthesis. Oxygen is released into the air as a by-product of photosynthesis. During the
night, plants take in oxygen and release carbon di oxide, to maintain their metabolism. Which
is why it is not a good idea to sleep under trees at night.

Respiration :

The oxygen that is released by plants is used by humans, animals, and other organisms for
respiration, i.e. breathing. We use oxygen to break down simple sugars and generate energy to
sustain ourselves. During respiration, organisms take in oxygen and release carbon di oxide
into the air.

Repeat :
This carbon di oxide is again, taken up by plants, for photosynthesis. Thus, we see that our life
force is generated chiefly by plants. Which is why it is super important to preserve plant life on
earth.

Nitrogen Cycle

In general, the nitrogen cycle has five steps:

1. Nitrogen fixation (N2 to NH3/ NH4+ or NO3-)

2. Nitrification (NH3 to NO3-)
3. Assimilation (Incorporation of NH3 and NO3- into biological tissues)
4. Ammonification (organic nitrogen compounds to NH3)
5. Denitrification(NO3- to N2)

C. Human Activities and the Earth’s Atmosphere

1 Carbon Footprints
A carbon footprint is the amount of greenhouse gases—primarily carbon dioxide—released into
the atmosphere by a particular human activity. It is usually measured as tons of CO2 emitted per
year, a number that can be supplemented by tons of CO2-equivalent gases, including methane,
nitrous oxide, and other greenhouse gases.

A. Commercial and Residential Use

Greenhouse gas emissions from businesses and homes arise primarily from fossil fuels burned
for heat, and consumption or usage of certain products/services.
Examples: Food, Electricity, and Refrigirators
B. Combustion of Hydrocarbon Fuels
When hydrocarbon fuels are burned, they release carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases,
which in turn trap heat in our atmosphere, making them the primary contributors to global
warming and climate change.
Examples: Fossil fuels, Wood, Coal, Natural gas, Gasoline, and Oil
C. Transportation Industries
This industry is a major user of energy, and burns most of the world's petroleum which creates
air pollution, including nitrous oxides and particulates, and is a significant contributor to global
warming through emissions of carbon dioxide. Also, this causes automobile-oriented urban
sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands.
D. Manufacturing Industries
Greenhouse gas emissions from industry primarily come from burning fossil fuels for energy, as
well as greenhouse gas emissions from certain chemical reactions necessary to produce goods
from raw materials.

2 Land Cover and Use

A. Deforestation
The permanent removal of trees to make room for something besides forest. Fewer trees means
more carbon dioxide left in the atmosphere. The carbon cycle is also disrupted due to the
reduction of trees for carbon dioxide absorption
B. Kaingin System
The cutting down and burning of trees and plant growth in
an area for cultivation purposes. Kaingin is a Filipino word
that means clearing. Known as swidden farming in other
countries.
C. Urbanization
refers to general increase in population and the amount of
industrialization of a settlement. Urbanization happens because of the increase in the extent and
density of urban areas. Due to uncontrolled urbanization, environmental degradation has been
occurring very rapidly and causing many problems such as land insecurity, excessive air
pollution, and increased greenhouse gas emissions.
3 Creation of Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS)
These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by turbulent mixing after being emitted
from the surface, mixing much faster than the molecules can settle. Once in the stratosphere, they
release halogen atoms through photodissociation, which catalyze the breakdown of ozone (O3)
into oxygen (O2).
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
these are nontoxic, nonflammable chemicals containing atoms of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine.
They are used in the manufacture of aerosol sprays, blowing agents for foams and packing
materials, as solvents, and as refrigerants.
4 Overpopulation and Overconsumption
The level of human population on Earth is a multiplier of all other environmental problems.
Rapid human population growth is the primary driver behind many ecological and even societal
threats.
Overconsumption is a situation where resource use has outpaced the sustainable capacity of the
ecosystem. It can be measured by the ecological footprint, a resource accounting approach which
compares human demand on ecosystems with the amount of planet matter ecosystems can renew.
5. Greenhouse Effect
A. Natural Greenhouse Effect
A natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the
Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is
reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated
by greenhouse gases. The absorbed energy warms the
atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. This process maintains the Earth’s temperature at
around 33 degrees Celsius warmer than it would otherwise be, allowing life on Earth to exist.
B. Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
Refers to human activities that are adding to the warming of the atmosphere due to the
greenhouse effect—the presence of gases that increases the atmosphere's retention of the heat
energy of the sun.
6. Global Warming and Climate Change
Global warming
It is the long-term heating of Earth’s climate system observed since the pre-industrial period
(between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases
heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s atmosphere.
Climate change
It is a long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define Earth’s local,
regional and global climates.

There are the common Human activities contributes to triggered global warming and climate
change:
1. Burning fossil fuels
2. Deforestation/Cutting down tress that absorb carbon.
3. Sending heat-trapping gases into atmosphere.
• Carbon dioxide
• Methane
• Nitrous oxide
• Flourinated gases
4. Increasing livestock farming
5. Producing fertilizers containing nitrogen

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002 2003

Carbon
monoxide 197.3 184.0 177.8 169.6 143.6 120.0 102.4 96.4 93.7
(CO)

Nitrogen
oxides 26.9 26.4 27.1 25.8 25.1 24.7 22.3 20.8 20.5
(NO₂)

Particulate
matter
(PM)˄d
PM₁₀ 12.2 7.0 6.2 3.6 3.2 3.1 2.3 2.4 2.3
PM₂₅ NA NA NA NA 2.3 2.2 1.8 1.8 1.8
 Sulfur
dioxide 31.2 28.0 25.9 23.3 23.1 18.6 16.3 15.3 15.8
(SO₂)

Volatile
organic 33.7 30.2 30.1 26.9 23.1 21.6 16.9 15.8 15.4
compounds

Lead 0.221 0.16 0.074 0.022 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.003

Totals 301.5 275.8 267.2 249.2 218.1 188.0 160.2 150.2 147.7

These are some future effects of climate change in our world:

1. Temperatures will continue to rise
2. Frost-free season (and Growing Season) will lengthen
3. Changes in precipitation patterns
4. Hurricanes will become stronger and more intense
5. Sea level will rise 1-4 feet by 2100
6. Arctic likely to become ice-free

AIR-POLLUTION MANAGEMENT OF STATIONARY SOURCES

Notes:
In 1985 and 1996 EPA refined its methods for estimating emissions. Between 1970 and 1975,
EPA revised its methods for estimating particulate matter emissions.
The estimates for 2003 are preliminary.
NO2, estimates prior to 1990 include emissions from fires. Fires would represent a small
percentage of the NO2 emissions.
PM estimates do not include condensable PM, or the majority of PM25 that is formed in the
atmosphere from “precursor” gases such as SO2 and NO2.
EPA has not estimated PM23 emissions prior to 1990.
The 1999 estimate for lead is used to represent 2000 and 2003 because lead estimates do not
exist for these years.
PM25 emissions are not added when calculating the total because they are included in the PM10
estimate.
•Nitrogen gases. Nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, other nitrous oxides
•Halogens, halides. Hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen chloride, chlorine, fluorine, silicon tetrafluoride
•Photochemical products. Ozone , oxidants
•Cyanides. Hydrogen Cyanide
•Ammonium compounds. Ammonia
•Chlorofluorocarbons , 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane : trichlorofluoromethane,
dichlorofluoromethane, chloropentafluoroethane

ORGANIC POLLUTANTS CONSIST OF:

1. Hydrocarbons
a. Paraffins. Methane, ethane, octane
b. Acetylene
c. Olefins. Ethylene, butadiene
d. Aromatics. Benzene, toluene, benzpyrene, xylene, styrene
2. Aliphatic oxygenated compounds
a. Aldehydes. Formaldehyde
b. Ketones. Acetone, methylethyketone
c. Organic acids
d. Alcohols. Methanol, ethanol, isopropanol
e. Organic halides. Cyanogen chloride bromobenzyl cyanide
f. Organic sulfides. Dimethyl sulfide
g. Organic hydroperoxides. Peroxyacetyl nitrite or nitrate (PAN)

 PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS
- Particulates may be defined as solid or liquid matter whose effective diameter is
larger than molecule but smaller than approximately 100um. Particulates
dispersed in a gaseous medium are collectively termed an aerosol. The terms
smoke, fog, haze, and dust are commonly used to describe particular types of
aerosols, depending on the size, shape, and characteristic behavior of the
dispersed particles. Aerosols are rather difficult to classify on a scientific basis in
terms of their fundamental properties such as settling rate under the influence of
external forces, optical activity, ability to absorb an electrical charge, particle size
and structure, surface-to-volume ratio, reaction activity, physiological action, and
so on. In general, particle size and settling rate have been the most characteristic
properties for many purposes.

Typical Gaseous Pollutants and their Principal Sources and Significance

 Air pollutants From In typical Cause these
manufacturing industries damaging effects
sources such as these
Alcohols Used as solvent in Surface coatings, Sensory and
coating printing respiratory
irritation

An irritating odor,
Aldehydes Results from Food processing, suffocating,
thermal light process, wood pungent, choking;
decomposition of furniture, chip not immediately
fats, oil, or glycerol; board dangerous to life;
used in some glues can become
Aromatics and binders intolerable in a very
short time
Surface coating,
Used as a solvent in printing Irritation of mucous
Carbon dioxide coatings membranes,
narcotic effects;
 some are
Carbon monoxide Industrial boilers, carcinogens
Fuel combustion; cement and lime
calcining production Greenhouse gas

Chlorine Primary metals;

Fuming of metallic steel and Reduction in
oxides, gas-operated aluminum oxygen-carrying
fork trucks capacity of blood

Hydrochloric acid Manufactured by Textiles, chemicals Attacks entire

electrolysis, respiratory tract
bleaching cotton and and mucous
Lead flour; by-product of membrane of eye
organic chemicals Coal-fired boilers
incinerators
Combustion of coal Irritant to eyes and
or wastes containing respiratory system
chlorinated plastics Copper and lead
smelting, MSWs
Incineration, Neurological
smelting and impairments;
casting, kidney, liver, and
transportation heart damage

Fly ash, rock dusts and ordinary flour. Smoke implies a certain degree of optical density and is
typically derived from the burning of organic materials such as wood, coal, and tobacco. Smoke
particles are very fine, ranging in size less than 0.01 µm up to 1 µm. They are usually spherical
in shape if of liquid or tarry composition and irregular in shape if of solid composition. Owing to
their very fine particle size, smokes can remain in suspension for long periods of time and
exhibit lively Brownian motion.
Fumes are typically formed by processes such as sublimation, condensation, or
combustion, generally at relatively high temperatures. They range in particle size from less than
0.1 µm to 1 µm. Similar to smokes, they settle very slowly and exhibit strong Brownian motion.
Mists or fogs are typically formed either by the condensation of water or other vapors on
suitable nuclei, giving a suspension of small liquid droplets, or by the atomization of liquids.
Particle sizes of natural fogs and mists lie between 2 and 200 µm. Droplets larger than 200 µm
are more properly classified as drizzle or rain. Many of the important properties of aerosols that
depend on particle size.
When a liquid or solid substances is emitted to the air as particulate matter, its properties
and effects may be changed. As a substance is broken up into smaller and smaller particles, more
of its surface area is exposed to the air. Under these circumstances, the substance, whatever its
chemical composition, tends to combine physically or chemically with other particles or gases in
the atmosphere. The resulting combinations are frequently unpredictable. Very small aerosol
particles (from 0.001 to 0.1 µm) can act as condensation nuclei to facilitate the condensation of
water vapor, thus promoting the formation of fog and ground mist. Particles less than 2 or 3 µm
in size (about half by weight of the particles suspended in urban air) can penetrate the mucous
membrane and attract and convey harmful chemicals such as sulfur dioxide. In order to address
the special concerns related to the effects of very fine, inhalable particles, EPA now has ambient
standards in place for both PM₁₀ and PM₂₅.
By virtue of the increased surface area of the small aerosol particles and as a result of the
absorption of gas molecules or other such properties that are able to facilitate chemical reactions,
aerosols tend to exhibit greatly enhanced surface activity. Many substances that oxidize slowly in
their massive state will oxidize extremely fast or possibly even explode when dispersed as fine
particles in the air. Dust explosions, for example, are often caused by the unstable burning or
oxidation of combustible particles, brought about by their relatively large specific surfaces.
Adsorption and analytic phenomena can also be extremely important in analyzing and
understanding the problems of particulate pollution. The conversion of sulfur dioxide to
corrosive sulfuric acid assisted by the catalytic action of iron oxide particles, for example,
demonstrates the catalytic nature of certain types of particles in the atmosphere. Finally, aerosols
can absorb radiant energy and rapidly conduct heat to the surrounding gases of the atmosphere.
These are gases that ordinarily would be incapable of absorbing radiant energy by themselves.
As a result, the air in contact with the aerosols can become much warmer.
•ESTIMATING EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES
-Knowledge of the types and rates of emissions as fundamental to evaluation of any air
pollution problem. A comprehensive material balance on the process can often assist in this
assessment . Estimate of the rates at which pollutants are discharged from various processes can
also be obtained by utilizing published emission factors . With all succeeding supplements and
the EPA Technology Transfer Network’s CHIEF. The emission factor is a statistical average of
the rate at which pollutant S are emitted from the burning or processing of a given quantity of
material or on the basis of some other meaningful parameter. Emission factors are affected by the
techniques employed in the processing, handling, or burning operations, by the quality of the
material used, and by the quality material used, and by the efficiency of the air pollution control.
Since the combination of these factors tends to be unique to a source, emission factors
appropriate for one source may not be satisfactory for another source . Hence , care and good
judgement must be exercised in the identifying appropriate emission factor. If appropriate
emission factors cannot be found or if the air-pollution control equipment is to be designed,
specific source sampling should be conducted.
•EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Materials – The damage that air pollutants can do to some materials is well known : ozone
photochemical smog cracks rubber, weakens fabrics, and fades dyes: hydrogen sulfide tarnishes
silver : smoke dirties laundry : acid aerosols ruin nylon hose. Among the most important effects
are discoloration, corrosion, the soiling of goods, and impairment of visibility.
1. DISCOLORATION – Many air pollutants accumulate on and discolor buildings. Not only
does sooty material blacken buildings, but it can be accumulate and become encrusted. This
can hide lines and decorations and thereby disfigure structures and reduce their aesthetic
appeal. Another common effect is discoloration od paint by certain acid gases. A good
example is the blackening of white paint with a lead base by hydrogen sulfide.
2. CORROSION – A more serious effect and one of the great economic importance is to
corrosive action of acid gases on building materials. Cracking and apparent “drying “ occur
when these goods are exposed to ozone and other oxidants.
3. SOILING OF GOODS – Clothes , real estate , automobiles, and household goods can
easily be soiled by air contaminants, and the more frequent cleaning often leads to a shorter
life span for materials and to the need to purchase goods more often.
4. IMPAIRMENT OF VISIBILITY – The impairment of atmospheric visibility is caused by
the scattering of sunlight by particles suspended in the air. It is not a result of sunlight being
obscured by materials in the air . Since light scattering, and not obscured , is the main cause
of the reduction in visibility, reduced visibility due to the presence of air pollutants occurs
primarily on bright days. On cloudy days or at night there may be no noticeable effect,
although the same particulate concentration may exist at these times as on sunny days.
Reduction is visibility creates several problems. The most significant are the adverse effect
on aircraft, highway , and harbor operations. Reduced visibility can reduce quality of life
and also caused adverse aesthetic impressions that can seriously affect tourism and restrict
the growth and development of any area. Extreme conditions such as dust storms or
sandstorms can actually cause physical damage by themselves.

•VEGETATION
-Vegetation is more sensitive than animals to many air contaminants, and methods
have been developed that use plant response to measure and identify contaminants.
The effects of air pollution on vegetation can appear as death, stunted growth, reduced
crop yield, and degradation Of color. It is interesting to note that in some cases of
 color damage such as the silvering of leafy vegetables by oxidants, the plant may still
be used as food without any danger to the consumer : however ,the consumer usually
will not buy such vegetables on aesthetic grounds , so the grower still sustain a loss.
Among the pollutants that can harm plants are sulfur dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, and
ethylene. Plant damage caused by constituents of photochemical smog has been
studied extensively. Damage has been attributed to the ozone and peroxyacetyl
nitrites, higher aldehydes, and products of the reaction of ozone with olefins.
•ANIMALS
- Considerable work continues to be performed on the effects of pollutants on animals ,
including , for a few species, experiments involving mixed pollutants and mixed gas-
aerosol systems. In general, such work has shown that mixed pollutants may act in several
different ways. They may produce an effect that is additive, amounting to the sum of the
effects of each contaminant acting alone: they may produce an effect that is greater than
the simply additive or less than the simply additive : or they may produce an effect that
differs in some other way from the simply additive.
The mechanism by which an animal can become poisoned in many instances is
completely different from that by which humans are affected . As in humans, inhalation is
an important route of entry in acute air-pollution exposures such as the Meuse Valley and
Donora incidents. However , probably the most common exposures for herbivorous
animals grazing within a zone of pollution will be the ingestion of feed contaminated by
air pollutants. In this case, inhalation is of secondary importance.
Air pollutants that present a hazard to livestock, therefore, are those that are taken up by
vegetation or deposited on the plants. Only a few pollutants have been observed to cause
harm to animals. These include arsenic, fluorides, lead, mercury, and molybdenum.
•Humans
- These seems to be little question that , during many of the more serious episodes, air
pollution can have a significant effect on health, especially upon the young, elderly, or
people already in ill health. Hundreds of excess deaths have been attributed to incidents in
London in 1952,1956,1957, and 1962 : in Donora. Pennsylvania, in 1948 : in New York
City in 1953, 1963, and 1966 : and Bhopal, India in 1989. Many of the people affected
were in failing health, and they were generally suffering from lung conditions. In addition,
hundreds of thousands of persons have suffered from serious discomfort and
inconvenience, including eye irritation and chest pains, during these and other such
incidents. Such acute problems are actually the lesser of the health problems.

WASTE MANAGEMENT
FACTORS IN CONTROL-EQUIPMENT SELECTION
- In order to solve an air-pollution problem, the problem must be defined in detail. A
number of factors must be considered prior to selecting a particular piece of air-pollution-
control equipment. In general, these factors can be grouped into three categories :
environmental, engineering, and economic.
ENVIROMENTAL FACTORS
- These include equipment location, available space, ambient conditions, availability of
adequate utilities and ancillary-system facilities , maximum allowable emission, aesthetic
considerations, contributions of the air-pollution-control system to wastewater and land
pollution, and contribution of air-pollution-control system to plant noise levels.

ENGINEERING FACTORS
- These include:
 1. Contaminant characteristics (e.g., physical and chemical properties, concentration,
particulate shape and size distribution [in the case of particulates] , chemical
reactivity, corrosivity, abrasiveness and toxicity)
2. Gas-Stream characteristics (e.g., volume flow rate, temperature, pressure, humidity,
composition, viscosity, density, reactivity, combustibility, corrosivity, and toxicity)
3. Design and Performance characteristics of the particular control system (i.e., size and
weight, fractional efficiency curves , mass-transfer and/or contaminant-destruction
capability , pressure drop, reliability, turndown capability, power requirements, utility
requirements, temperature limitations, maintenance requirements, operating cycles
and flexibility toward complying with more stringent air pollution codes.
ECONOMIC FACTORS
- These include capital cost (equipment, installation, engineering, etc.) , operating cost
(utilities, maintenance, etc.), emissions fees, and life-cycle cost over the expected
equipment life time.
COMPARING CONTROL-EQUIPMENT ALTERNATIVES
- The final choice in equipment selection is usually dictated by the equipment capable of
achieving compliance with regulatory codes at the lowest uniform annual cost. To
compare specific control-equipment alternatives, knowledge of the particular application
and site is essential. A preliminary screening, however may be performed by reviewing
the advantages and disadvantages of each type of air-pollution-control equipment.