Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Chapter Outline
I. Overview of Anatomy and Physiology (2.1.1)
a. Anatomy is the study of the body’s structure.
i. Gross anatomy investigates large structures that are easily seen.
ii. Microscopic anatomy investigates structures that require a microscope to be
seen.
1. Examples include cytology (the study of cells) and histology (the study of
tissues).
b. Some anatomists investigate regional anatomy to discover relationships between
structures in the same region, like the abdomen. Additionally, other anatomists
may investigate systemic anatomy to understand how a group of structures
work together to perform a bodily function.
c. Physiology is the study of the body’s function.
i. Physiology investigates how a structure works.
ii. This may involve investigation of the chemistry and physics associated with
that structure.
iii. There are various categories of physiology.
1. These include neurophysiology that investigates how structures like the
brain and spinal cord work.
II. Themes of anatomy and physiology
a. Structure and function of the body’s components are related. (2.2.1–2.2.2)
i. The structure of a component will determine its function.
ii. This is illustrated by the restructured pelvis of humans compared to the
pelvis of primates.
1. The human pelvis is adapted to support walking on two feet compared to
the primate pelvis supporting walking on four feet.
iii. Organs with branching structure aid in processes like absorption of nutrients
and movement of gases.
b. Evolution is a change in genetic expression. (2.3.1–2.3.2)
i. Changes that offered an advantage in a specific environment became more
common over time. Evolution has also led to human variation over time.
Physiological variation is more commonly, but anatomical variation also
exists.
c. Flow is the movement of materials and requires a gradient. (2.4.1–2.4.2)
i. Examples of gradients include electrical, chemical, and pressure gradients.
ii. Flow is directly proportional to the size of the gradient causing it.
iii. Flow is inversely proportional to the resistance that is opposing flow.
d. Homeostasis allows the body to maintain a stable internal environment despite
constant changes. (2.5.1–2.5.5)
i. Several parameters within the human body must be maintained.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
Chapter Outline
I. Overview of Anatomy and Physiology (2.1.1)
a. Anatomy is the study of the body’s structure.
i. Gross anatomy investigates large structures that are easily seen.
ii. Microscopic anatomy investigates structures that require a microscope to be
seen.
1. Examples include cytology (the study of cells) and histology (the study of
tissues).
b. Some anatomists investigate regional anatomy to discover relationships between
structures in the same region, like the abdomen. Additionally, other anatomists
may investigate systemic anatomy to understand how a group of structures
work together to perform a bodily function.
c. Physiology is the study of the body’s function.
i. Physiology investigates how a structure works.
ii. This may involve investigation of the chemistry and physics associated with
that structure.
iii. There are various categories of physiology.
1. These include neurophysiology that investigates how structures like the
brain and spinal cord work.
II. Themes of anatomy and physiology
a. Structure and function of the body’s components are related. (2.2.1–2.2.2)
i. The structure of a component will determine its function.
ii. This is illustrated by the restructured pelvis of humans compared to the
pelvis of primates.
1. The human pelvis is adapted to support walking on two feet compared to
the primate pelvis supporting walking on four feet.
iii. Organs with branching structure aid in processes like absorption of nutrients
and movement of gases.
b. Evolution is a change in genetic expression. (2.3.1–2.3.2)
i. Changes that offered an advantage in a specific environment became more
common over time. Evolution has also led to human variation over time.
Physiological variation is more commonly, but anatomical variation also
exists.
c. Flow is the movement of materials and requires a gradient. (2.4.1–2.4.2)
i. Examples of gradients include electrical, chemical, and pressure gradients.
ii. Flow is directly proportional to the size of the gradient causing it.
iii. Flow is inversely proportional to the resistance that is opposing flow.
d. Homeostasis allows the body to maintain a stable internal environment despite
constant changes. (2.5.1–2.5.5)
i. Several parameters within the human body must be maintained.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
1. These include oxygen levels, pH, nutrient availability, electrolyte levels
and temperature.
ii. Homeostasis is maintained primarily by feedback loops.
1. In a negative feedback loop (the most common type), the body responds
to a stimulus by decreasing or opposing the original stimulus.
2. In a positive feedback loop, the body responds by increasing or
enhancing the original stimulus.
e. Structural Organization of the Human Body (2.6.1–2.6.2)
i. The human body is organized so that smaller components are assembled
into larger structures.
ii. The levels of organization of the human body from, the simplest to the most
complex, are:
1. The chemical level—consists of atoms and molecules that are used as
building blocks for larger structures.
2. The cellular level—where life begins. Cells are composed of organelles
that allow the cells to perform functions necessary for life.
3. The tissue level—consists of groups of cells (tissues) that work together
to perform a specific function.
4. The organ level—composed of two or more tissue types that perform a
specific function.
5. The organ system level—consists of a group of organs that work together
to perform a major function.
6. The organism level—a living being with organ systems that work to
maintain the life and health of the organism.
iii. There are 11 organ systems in the human body. (2.6.3)
1. The Integumentary system—consists of hair, skin, and nails. It creates a
protective barrier for the body and allows for sensory reception.
2. The skeletal system—consists of bones, cartilage, and joints. It supports
and protects the body.
3. The muscular system—composed of the skeletal muscles and tendons.
This system allows for the movement of the body and also aids in
temperature regulation.
4. The nervous system—consists of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral
nerves. The nervous system aids in maintaining homeostasis and
connects the brain to every part of the body.
5. The endocrine system—consists of pituitary gland, thyroid gland,
parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries, and other
endocrine tissues. It secretes hormones that regulate bodily activities.
6. The cardiovascular system—consists of the heart, blood, and blood
vessels. It is responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissues
and aiding in temperature regulation.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
7. The lymphatic system—returns fluid to the blood and defends the body
against infection. The components of the lymphatic system include the
thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphatic vessels.
8. The respiratory system—removes carbon dioxide from the body and
delivers oxygen to the tissues. The components of the respiratory
system include the lungs, trachea, and nose.
9. The digestive system—processes food for use by the body and removes
undigested waste. The components of the digestive system include the
stomach, liver, gallbladder, large intestine, and small intestine.
10. The urinary system—controls water balance in the body and removes
wastes from the body through urine formation. The components of the
urinary system include the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra.
11. The reproductive system—produces sex hormones and gametes.
Components of the reproductive system include the testes, ovaries,
uterus, and mammary glands.
III. Anatomical Terminology
a. Anatomical Position (2.7.1)
i. A body in anatomical position is standing upright with the feet shoulder
width apart and facing forward. The head is facing forward also. The arms
should be at the side with the palms facing forward as well.
b. Regional Terms (2.7.5)
i. Regional terms describe different areas of the body. Please review Figure
2.11 for these terms and the locations that they refer to.
c. Directional Terms are used to relate different areas of the body to one another.
(2.7.2)
i. Superior—a position higher than another point
ii. Inferior—a position lower than another point
iii. Anterior—the front (belly) surface of the body
iv. Posterior—the back of the body
v. Medial—a position or direction toward the middle of the body
vi. Lateral—a position or direction that is toward the side of the body
vii. Superficial—a position that is closer to the surface of the body
viii. Deep—a position that is further away from the surface of the body.
ix. Proximal—a position that is closer to the point of attachment of a limb
x. Distal—a position that is further away from the point of attachment of a limb
d. Sections and Planes (2.7.3)
i. A plane is an imaginary slice used to divide the body.
1. Sagittal planes divide the body into left and right sections.
2. Frontal planes divide the body into anterior and posterior sections.
3. Transverse planes divide the body into superior and inferior sections.
e. Organization and Compartmentalization (2.7.4–2.7.5)
i. Subdivisions of the Posterior and Anterior Cavities
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
1. The internal spaces of the body are called cavities.
2. There are 2 major body cavities.
a. Posterior body contains the cranial cavity and vertebral cavity.
i. The cranial cavity houses the brain and the vertebral cavity
houses the spinal cord.
b. The anterior body cavity can be divided into the thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities.
i. The thoracic cavity is subdivided into the mediastinum and
pleural cavities.
ii. The mediastinum contains the trachea and esophagus.
iii. The heart is within the pericardial cavity that is located
within the mediastinum.
iv. The pleural cavities are lateral to the mediastinum and
contain the lungs.
c. The abdominopelvic cavity can be subdivided into the abdominal
cavity and the pelvic cavity.
i. The abdominal cavity contains the liver, gallbladder,
spleen, stomach, and the majority of the small and large
intestine.
ii. The pelvic cavity contains the internal organs of
reproduction, such as the ovaries and testes, and the
urinary bladder.
ii. Anatomists divide the abdominal cavity into several abdominal regions or
quadrants for use clinically. (2.7.6)
1. Abdominal Regions
a. Right and left hypochondriac
b. Right and left lumbar
c. Right and left Iliac
d. Epigastric
e. Umbilical
f. Hypogastric
2. Abdominal Quadrants
a. Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)
b. Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)
c. Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
d. Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)
3. Please review Figure 2.15 for visual representation of the abdominal
regions, abdominal quadrants, and the organs located in them.
iii. Membranes of the Anterior Body Cavity (2.7.10)
1. Serous membranes cover many of the organs located within the anterior
body cavity.
2. Serous membranes reduce the friction that occurs as internal organs
move and helps prolong the longevity of the organs.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
a. Serous membranes are composed of two layers.
i. The parietal layer lines the wall of the cavity.
ii. The visceral layer sits directly on top of the organ.
iii. The space in between the two layers is called a cavity and
contains the serous fluid that reduces the rubbing.
3. Examples of serous membranes are the pleural membranes around the
lungs, the pericardium around the heart, and the peritoneum that
surrounds many organs of the abdominal cavity.
IV. Medical Imaging (Digging Deeper)
a. Medical imaging techniques are used clinically to give a view of internal anatomy to
aid in the diagnosis of diseases and disorders.
b. X-rays use high-energy radiation to penetrate solids and are best used to visualize
solids structures like bone and teeth.
c. Computed Tomography (CT) utilizes computers to analyze a series of X-rays taken
through a cross-section of the body. A CT gives greater detail compared to a
standalone X-ray. The use of radiation has to be considered when performing X-
rays or CT due to risk of cellular damage.
d. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) uses magnetic fields and radio waves to
provide very precise imaging of soft tissues. It is used in the discovery of tumors,
but is more expensive than X-rays or CT.
e. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) uses radioactive dyes to visualize metabolic
activity. PET can be helpful in investigating blood flow, heart disease, and the
spread of cancer.
f. Ultrasonography uses sound waves to visualize internal anatomy. Sound waves
pose less risk to the body. For this reason, ultrasonography is used in sensitive
situations such as pregnancy.
1. Different categories of Anatomy and Physiology (2.1.1) Duration: 5–10 minutes.
a. What are some organs of the human body? What category of anatomy or
physiology do you think that organ belongs to?
i. Answer: The students should state some of the common organs of
the human body in response to this question. Using the organs
nominated by the class, they should then try to answer with the
appropriate category of anatomy or physiology related to that organ.
For example, if the students state “heart” as an organ, then
cardiovascular anatomy or physiology would be an appropriate
response.
2. Homeostatic mechanisms of everyday life. (2.5.1) Duration: 5–10 minutes.
a. Students should understand the concepts relating to maintaining
homeostasis in the human body. Additionally, they should understand the
concepts relating to feedback loops such as setpoint, sensor, control center
and effector.
b. What are some homeostatic mechanisms that occur in your everyday life?
