Lower

Secondary
Science
Stages 7 and 8
Learners Book:
Physics
Compiled by Ms Kruis
Contents
Physics.........................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 1:....................................................................................................................................................3
Changes in Energy and Reflection........................................................................................................3
Energy Dissipation and Refraction.......................................................................................................3
Chapter 2:....................................................................................................................................................5
Sound Waves and Vacuum..................................................................................................................5
Chapter 3:....................................................................................................................................................5
White Light and Dispersion..................................................................................................................5
Chapter 4.....................................................................................................................................................6
Echoes and Colours of Light.................................................................................................................6
Chapter 5:....................................................................................................................................................7
Forces and Energy...............................................................................................................................7
Chapter 6:....................................................................................................................................................8
Earth and the Solar System..................................................................................................................8
Chapter 7...................................................................................................................................................10
Magnetism.........................................................................................................................................10
Chapter 9...................................................................................................................................................11
Electricity...........................................................................................................................................11
Chapter 1:
Changes in Energy and Reflection

Changes in Energy:
Definition of energy and its importance: Energy is the ability to do work or cause a
change. It exists in various forms, such as kinetic energy, potential energy, thermal
energy, and electromagnetic energy. Understanding how energy changes during events
or processes helps us analyze and explain phenomena occurring in the physical world.

Reflection at a Plane Surface:

Introduction to reflection: Reflection occurs when light or sound waves bounce off a
surface. It plays a crucial role in our ability to see objects and hear sounds.
Law of reflection and its application to plane surfaces: The law of reflection states that
the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. This law governs the behavior
of reflected waves and allows us to predict the direction and characteristics of reflected
light or sound.
Examples and real-life applications of reflection: Reflection is responsible for mirror
images, echoes, and the visibility of objects. It has applications in fields such as optics,
architecture, and communication technology.
Energy Dissipation and Refraction

Energy Dissipation:
Understanding the concept of energy dissipation: Energy tends to spread out and
disperse, becoming less concentrated and less available for useful work. This process,
known as energy dissipation, is a fundamental aspect of the second law of
thermodynamics.
Explanation of why dissipated energy becomes less useful: Energy dissipates due to
various factors, including friction, heat transfer, and inefficiencies in energy conversion.
As energy spreads out and becomes less concentrated, its ability to perform useful work
diminishes.
Examples of energy dissipation in various systems: Energy dissipation can be observed
in mechanical systems, electrical circuits, thermal processes, and natural phenomena
like ocean waves and seismic waves.
Refraction of Light:
Introduction to refraction: Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one
medium to another. It occurs due to a change in the speed of light when it enters a
different medium.
Explanation of the boundary between air and glass or air and water: When light travels
from air into glass or water, it changes speed, causing the light rays to bend. This
change in direction is governed by Snell's law, which relates the angles of incidence and
refraction.
Relationship between the change of speed and refraction: The change in speed of light
when it passes through different materials determines the degree of refraction. The
refractive index of a material quantifies how much it slows down light compared to a
vacuum.
Applications of refraction in everyday life: Refraction is responsible for phenomena like
the bending of light in lenses, the appearance of objects in water, and the creation of
rainbows. It finds applications in optics, lens design, and the study of atmospheric
phenomena.
Chapter 2:
Sound Waves and Vacuum
Vibration of Particles in a Sound Wave:
Description of sound waves and their properties: Sound waves are longitudinal waves
that propagate through a medium, such as air, water, or solids. They consist of
compressions and rarefactions, causing particles in the medium to vibrate back and
forth.
Explanation of particle vibration in a sound wave: In a sound wave, particles in the
medium oscillate around their equilibrium positions, transferring energy from one
particle to another. This vibration creates the perception of sound.
Understanding the medium required for sound propagation: Sound requires a medium
to propagate because it relies on the transfer of mechanical energy through particle
interactions. In a vacuum, where there are no particles, sound waves cannot travel.
Sound Waves in a Vacuum:
Explanation of why sound does not travel in a vacuum: Sound waves rely on the
compression and rarefaction of particles in a medium to transmit energy. In a vacuum,
where there are no particles, there is no medium to support these interactions and
propagate sound waves.
Comparison of sound propagation in different mediums: Different mediums affect the
speed and characteristics of sound waves. For example, sound travels faster in solids
compared to liquids or gases due to the closer proximity of particles in solids.
Real-life examples illustrating the absence of sound in a vacuum: The lack of sound in
space is a prominent example of sound waves not being transmitted in a vacuum.
Additionally, experiments conducted in vacuum chambers demonstrate the absence of
sound propagation.
Reflection of Sound:
Reflection of sound is a fundamental phenomenon in acoustics, wherein sound waves
encounter an obstacle or boundary and bounce back towards the source or in another
direction. This reflection of sound waves is similar to how light waves bounce off mirrors
or other reflective surfaces. Sound reflection plays a significant role in determining the
way we perceive and experience sounds in our environment.

Key aspects of sound reflection:

 Reflection Surfaces: Sound waves can reflect off various surfaces, such as
walls, ceilings, floors, buildings, and other objects. The nature and texture of the
surface, as well as its shape, affect the way sound is reflected.
 Law of Reflection: The reflection of sound obeys the law of reflection, which
states that the angle of incidence (the angle at which the sound wave hits the
surface) is equal to the angle of reflection (the angle at which the sound wave
bounces off the surface). This law is similar to how light reflects off surfaces.
 Echoes: Echoes are a prominent example of sound reflection, occurring when a
sound wave is reflected back after a significant time delay, usually more than 50
milliseconds. Echoes are commonly heard in large open spaces like canyons,
mountainsides, or empty rooms with hard surfaces.
 Sound Absorption: Not all surfaces reflect sound equally. Some surfaces are
more reflective, while others are more absorptive. Materials like soft fabrics, foam
panels, or specialized acoustic treatments are used to reduce sound reflections
and control reverberation in spaces where excessive reflections are undesirable.
Chapter 3:
White Light and Dispersion
White Light and its Colours:
Introduction to white light and its composition: White light is a combination of all visible
colours. It can be produced by sources such as the Sun or light bulbs.
Description of the electromagnetic spectrum: The electromagnetic spectrum
encompasses a range of electromagnetic waves, including visible light. Different colours
correspond to different wavelengths within the spectrum.
Explanation of how white light contains many colours: When white light passes through
a prism, it separates into its constituent colours, forming a spectrum of colours from red
to violet. This phenomenon reveals the diverse range of colours present in white light.
Dispersion of White Light:
Definition of dispersion and its relation to white light: Dispersion refers to the separation
of light into its component colours. It occurs because different colours of light refract by
different amounts when passing through a medium like a prism.
Experiment with a prism to demonstrate dispersion: A prism can be used to
demonstrate the dispersion of white light. When white light enters a prism, it undergoes
refraction and separates into a spectrum of colours.
Applications of dispersion in fields like optics and photography: Dispersion is essential
in devices such as spectroscopes and cameras, allowing the analysis and capture of
specific colours or wavelengths. It also explains phenomena like the formation of
rainbows and the chromatic aberration in lenses.

Chapter 4:
Echoes and Colours of Light
Explanation of Echoes:
Description of echoes and their occurrence: An echo is a reflected sound wave that
reaches the listener after bouncing off a surface. It occurs when the time delay between
the original sound and its reflection is long enough to be perceptible.
How sound waves reflect to create an echo: Sound waves reflect off surfaces, such as
walls or cliffs, and travel back to the listener. The reflected sound wave combines with
the original sound, producing an audible echo.
Examples of echo phenomena in different environments: Echoes can be heard in
natural environments like canyons or mountains, as well as in man-made structures
such as concert halls and stairwells.
Manipulation of Light Colours:
Understanding how colours can be added, subtracted, absorbed, and reflected: Colours
can be manipulated by adding or subtracting different wavelengths of light. Objects
appear coloured based on the wavelengths of light they reflect or transmit, and those
they absorb or subtract.
Explanation of primary colours and colour mixing: Primary colours, such as red, green,
and blue, are fundamental colours that can be combined to create other colours. Mixing
primary colours of light produces secondary and tertiary colours.
Application of colour manipulation in various fields: Colour manipulation is used in
displays, printing, colour photography, and visual arts. Understanding how colours
interact allows for accurate colour reproduction and artistic expression.

Chapter 5:
Forces and Energy
Introduction to Forces and Energy:
Explanation of the concept of forces and their role in physics.
Introduction to different types of forces, such as gravitational, electromagnetic, and
frictional forces.
Understanding the relationship between forces and energy.

Calculation of Speed:
Definition of speed as the ratio of distance travelled to the time taken.
Explanation of the formula: speed = distance/time.
Examples and practice problems illustrating the calculation of speed in various
scenarios.

Interpretation and Drawing of Distance/Time Graphs:

Introduction to distance/time graphs and their significance.
Understanding the axes and units used in distance/time graphs.
Interpretation of different slopes and shapes of distance/time graphs.
Practice exercises on interpreting and drawing distance/time graphs.

Effects of Balanced and Unbalanced Forces on Motion:

Explanation of balanced and unbalanced forces.
Understanding Newton's first law of motion and its relationship to balanced and
unbalanced forces.
Effects of balanced forces on stationary objects and objects in motion.
Effects of unbalanced forces on the acceleration and direction of motion.
Real-life examples demonstrating the effects of balanced and unbalanced forces.

Identification and Calculation of Turning Forces:

Introduction to turning forces, also known as moments or torques.
Understanding the relationship between force, distance, and turning moments.

moment = force x distance

Identification of turning forces in different situations, such as levers and seesaws.
Calculation of turning forces using the moment formula.
Examples and practice problems involving turning forces and moments.
This chapter explores the concepts of forces and energy, providing a foundation for
understanding the principles governing motion and the interactions between objects. It
covers the calculation of speed, interpretation of distance/time graphs, the effects of
balanced and unbalanced forces, and the identification and calculation of turning forces.
By delving into these topics, readers can grasp the fundamental principles of forces and
energy and their applications in various contexts.
Chapter 6:
Earth and the Solar System
Introduction to Earth and the Solar System:
Overview of Earth's place in the Solar System and its characteristics.
Introduction to the Sun, planets, moons, asteroids, and other celestial bodies.

Gravity and its Relation to Mass:

Description of gravity as a force of attraction between any two objects.
Understanding the relationship between the size of the gravitational force and the
masses of the objects involved.
Examples and illustrations of how mass influences the strength of gravity.

Planetary Formation and Gravity:

Explanation of how planets form from dust and gas under the influence of gravity.
Understanding how gravity pulls together particles to form planets.
Exploration of the processes involved in planetary accretion.

Gravity and the Solar System:

Description of gravity as the force that holds components of the Solar System in orbit
around the Sun.
Understanding how the balance between gravity and the motion of celestial bodies
determines their orbital paths.
Examples and illustrations of gravitational interactions within the Solar System.

Solar and Lunar Eclipses:

Explanation of solar and lunar eclipses and their causes.
Understanding the alignment of the Earth, Moon, and Sun during eclipses.
Illustrations and descriptions of the different types of eclipses.
Chapter 7:
Magnetism
Introduction to Magnetism:
Overview of magnetism as a fundamental force of nature.
Understanding the properties of magnets and their behaviour.

Magnetic Fields:
Description of a magnetic field as an area of influence surrounding a magnet.
Understanding that magnetic fields exert forces on other magnetic fields.
Illustrations and examples of magnetic fields and their effects.

Earth's Magnetic Field:

Explanation of Earth's magnetic field and its origins.
Understanding that the Earth's core acts as a magnet, generating the magnetic field.
Real-life applications and the importance of Earth's magnetic field.
This chapter explores the topics of Earth and the Solar System, as well as Magnetism. It
covers the force of gravity, its relation to mass, and its role in planetary formation and
the Solar System. It also delves into solar and lunar eclipses, providing an
understanding of these astronomical phenomena. Additionally, the chapter covers
magnetism, including magnetic fields, their effects, and the Earth's magnetic field.
These topics offer insights into the workings of our planet, the Solar System, and the
fascinating forces of magnetism.
Chapter 9:
Electricity
Introduction to Electricity:
Overview of electricity as a form of energy and its importance in our daily lives.
Explanation of the basic principles and concepts of electricity.

The flow of Electrons in a Circuit:

Description of electricity as a flow of electrons around a circuit.
Introduction to the concept of an electric circuit and its components.
Understanding how electrons move from a power source through a complete circuit.

Electrical Conductors and Insulators:

Differentiation between electrical conductors and insulators.
Description of conductors as substances that allow the flow of electrons and insulators
as substances that inhibit electron flow.
Examples of common conductors and insulators.

Measurement of Current in Series Circuits:

Explanation of current as the flow of electric charge in a circuit.
Introduction to the concept of series circuits and their characteristics.
Understanding how to measure current using an ammeter in a series circuit.

Effects of Adding Components in Series Circuits:

Description of the impact of adding components, such as cells and lamps, in a series
circuit.
Understanding how the addition of components affects the current flow in a series
circuit.
 Circuit Diagrams and Conventional Symbols:
Use of diagrams and conventional symbols to represent circuits.
Understanding how to construct and compare circuits using cells, switches, lamps,
buzzers, and ammeters.
Practice exercises on circuit diagram representation and circuit construction.
This chapter explores the principles of electricity, covering the flow of electrons in a
circuit, electrical conductors and insulators, current measurement in series circuits, the
effects of adding components, and the use of circuit diagrams and conventional
symbols. By delving into these topics, readers will gain a solid foundation in
understanding and working with electric circuits. The practical applications of electricity
in various devices and systems will also be highlighted throughout the chapter.
References:
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