14

Expressive Arts in Schools

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Visual and Performing Arts and Sandtray

Interventions to Promote Self-Discovery
Suzanne Degges-White

T he expressive arts represent multiple modes and channels of communi-

cation that provide individuals the opportunity to share and connect with
others in ways that verbal communication may not. Visual art, music, dance
and movement, drama, expressive writing, and sandtray are the primary
expressive arts modalities used by professional helpers. The clinical applica-
tion of the creative arts creates an environment in which multilayered
self-discovery experiences can take place. Cobbett (2016) noted that the use
of nonverbal expressive therapies may be especially effective in the neuro­
logical integration that facilitates healing from trauma and emotionally
distressing events. Knill, Barba, and Fuchs (2004) developed an expansive
theory of creative arts in therapy that addressed the value of intermodal
expressive therapy. This theory supports the integration of multiple forms of
the expressive arts into clinical practice to allow each clinician to find the
best fitting selection of interventions and modalities for their unique client
populations. This is considered the heart of intermodal expressive therapy—
using the mediums that personally resonate for practitioners and clients.

KEY CREATIVE ARTS MODALITIES

A brief overview of each of the most frequently used modalities of creative

arts expression is presented next. However, please note that expressive writing
and music therapy are covered in separate chapters (see Chapters 16 and 15,

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0000157-015
Promoting Mind–Body Health in Schools: Interventions for Mental Health Professionals,
C. Maykel and M. A. Bray (Editors)
Copyright © 2020 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.
Promoting Mind–body Health in Schools: Interventions for Mental Health 217
Professionals, edited by C. Maykel and M. A. Bray
Copyright © 2020 American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.
 218 Suzanne Degges-White

this volume) and are described here only briefly. Although each modality may
seem quite distinct from the others, the universal overarching goal of each is
to foster a healing and therapeutic experience. To learn more about each of
the modalities, a useful place to begin is to explore the websites of related
professional organizations as noted in the sections that follow.

Visual Arts
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The field of visual arts includes multiple forms of art-making. These include
activities such as painting, drawing, sculpting, collage making, and photog-
raphy. Art therapy may also incorporate the use of existing art pieces to
stimulate self-exploration by clients. This form of therapy allows clients to
create tangible symbols or expressions of their experiences, emotions, and
thoughts and is often the modality that is most commonly associated with
expressive arts therapy.
As an early pioneer in the use of art in therapy, Margaret Naumburg
brought art to the therapeutic milieu in the 1940s (Naumburg, 1950). The
effectiveness of her therapeutic work was well received by the medical and
psychology professions. Thus, art therapy became a customary component of
mental health care in treatment centers. The earliest art therapy practitioners
were psychiatrists or art teachers who happened to enter the mental health
field. Today, specialized training programs exist to prepare therapists for certifi-
cation as art therapists. Other helping professionals may also infuse arts-based
experiences into their practices. The professional association for art therapy
is the American Art Therapy Association (http://www.arttherapy.org).
Research regarding the healing effects of engagement with the visual arts,
as well as assessment through the visual arts, is encouraging. Interventions
involving the visual arts, including fiber arts (e.g., crochet) and drawing, have
been shown to decrease depression and anxiety levels, improve well-being,
and enhance medical outcomes, including hemodialysis parameters (Stuckey
& Nobel, 2010). The effectiveness of visual art therapy (creating sock puppets)
related to anxiety and stress in youth also has been evidenced by the positive
changes in salivary cortisol levels pre– and post–art therapy intervention
(Siegel, Iida, Rachlin, & Yount, 2016). The creation of mandala drawings has
been shown to lower the pain level experienced by children during invasive
procedures such as needle sticks (Stinley, Norris, & Hinds, 2015). According
to the American Art Therapy Association (2019), art therapy is effective in
enhancing several areas of psychological, emotional, and physical functioning.
These include cognitive and sensorimotor development, self-awareness, con-
flict resolution, and social skills, among others.
Engagement in creating art positively influences client well-being on
multiple levels. Encouraging children to use drawing, painting, sculpting, or
other visual art forms in the schools provides an outlet for them to express
feelings they may not easily verbalize. A directed activity that could be intro-
duced in the classroom or school counselor’s office is the creation of bridge
 Expressive Arts in Schools 219

pictures (Councill, 2012) for children struggling with socioemotional issues

or physical challenges. In this activity, the clinician invites a child to draw
a bridge on a piece of paper and to draw an image of the current challeng-
ing situation on one side and a place where the issues have been resolved
on the opposite side. The children are then asked to draw themselves on
the bridge where they think they are in resolving the issue. The intro­
duction of metaphor helps children to externalize their challenges, which
allows them an easier path to coping with psychological, emotional, or social
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difficulties.

Music Therapy

Music therapy became an accepted part of psychotherapeutic care during

the first half of the 20th century (Wigram, Pedersen, & Bonde, 2002). It
began in veterans hospitals where military personnel who had been injured
in combat were entertained by volunteer musicians. The medical staff noted
the power of music to provide curative effects and symptom relief. This
awareness led to musicians being hired to provide therapy in the hospitals.
Today, specialized training programs exist to prepare therapists for certifica-
tion as music therapists. However, other helping professionals are encouraged
to incorporate aspects of music therapy into their clinical work. The profes-
sional association for music therapy is the American Music Therapy Association
(http://www.musictherapy.org).

Dance and Movement Therapy

Although dance and movement are often perceived as innate behaviors, the
acknowledgment of dance and movement interventions as markers of a unique
mode of therapy occurred only in the early 1940s (Malchiodi, 2005). As
the modern dance movement grew, a new more spontaneous, expressive form
of movement also spread, and this was hailed as a freeing, health-promoting
experience by dancers. Marian Chace, a choreographer of modern dance, was
invited to introduce psychiatric patients to this form of self-expression and
did so with positive results, thus energizing this new form of expressive arts
therapy. The professional association for dance and movement therapy is the
American Dance Therapy Association (http://www.adta.org).
Dance and movement therapists attribute the beneficial effects of therapy
to the integration of mind and body that occurs in the movement of dance
(Palo-Bengtsson, Winblad, & Ekman, 1998). Self-expression via dance and
movement is believed to facilitate communication and processing of experi-
ences and emotions that are too deep or complex for words (Kourkouta,
Rarra, Mavroeidi, & Prodromidis, 2014). In addition to the emotional benefits,
dance therapy has been found to be effective in reducing patients’ subjective
levels of pain and improving well-being for youth who were recuperating from
orthopedic or cardiac surgery as well as post–brain injury (Dowler, 2016).
 220 Suzanne Degges-White

Drama Therapy

Although drama and enactment have been in existence in virtually every

culture for millennia, it was in the early 1900s that Jacob Moreno led the
movement to use the healing properties of this form of self-expression in
therapeutic settings in the form of group therapy. Drama therapy is a power-
ful and highly experiential therapeutic device. Clinicians direct the action
between clients and provide a safe space in which the exploration of feelings,
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behaviors, and thoughts may actively take place.

Dramatic interventions can encompass a variety of activities that are selected
based on the individual clients with whom the practitioner is working. Spe-
cific interventions may include storytelling, dramatic improvisation, puppetry,
enactment, and role-play of significant events (Desmond, Kindsvatter, Stahl,
& Smith, 2015). Drama therapy is well suited for the school environment; most
primary classrooms are stocked with puppets and/or costume and dress-up
boxes. Drama therapy can be incorporated into large or small group settings
or one-on-one sessions with clients. Clients may be asked to play out the
parts of themselves that they typically inhibit or censor or take on the per-
spective and character of a significant other in their lives. Inviting a client to
use a puppet to act out a particular role, such as confronting a bully or being
more assertive in class, provides clients the opportunity to safely try out and
rehearse new behaviors. Larger groups can be orchestrated to facilitate inter-
action between students who typically do not interact together. There are
multiple ways in which emotional expression and new behaviors can be safely
facilitated through this medium. The professional association for drama ther-
apy is the National Association for Drama Therapy (http://www.nadt.org).

Expressive Writing and Poetry Therapy

Although writing skills vary greatly among school children, expressive writing
can be used across age groups and abilities when the counselor or other group
member is willing to scribe for clients who are unable to write. Expressive
writing typically involves the use of clinician-provided prompts. The purpose
of expressive writing is to assist clients in healing and coping with psycho­
logical and physiological pain. By creating a poem or story about a painful
event, clients can develop a new perspective which can facilitate the creation
of a positive outcome for their story. By using writing versus oral communi-
cation, clients may find it easier to be more open and expressive about their
experiences than if they were asked to share them aloud. The professional
association for poetry therapy is the National Association for Poetry Therapy
(http://www.poetrytherapy.org).

Sandtray

An additional mode of creative arts therapy is sandtray, which is akin to a

combination of visual art therapy, narrative expression, and drama therapy.
 Expressive Arts in Schools 221

The word sandtray may conjure up images of desktop Japanese Zen sand
gardens, but the form of sandtray to be discussed involves the placement of
small figures into a sand-filled container by the client. Desktop Japanese Zen
gardens typically include a shallow layer of sand and a small rake-shaped
tool with which individuals can trace patterns into the sand just as people
do with larger sand gardens commonly found in Japanese monasteries and
gardens (Berthier, 2000; Enns & Kasai, 2018). The creation and viewing of
these patterns in the sand, which often resemble ripples of water, can be a
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form of meditation. Although desktop Zen gardens provide a form of medita-

tive practice, and meditation is indeed health promoting for youth in itself
(McClafferty, 2018), sandtray involves a different form of client engagement
with the sand.
Using a wide collection of miniature figures and objects, sand work is
a therapeutic intervention that allows individuals to articulate their current
concerns in a symbolic or representative nonverbal manner by using figures
to create a scene in a tray of sand. Sandplay is the term used for the Jungian
theory-based sand work intervention, whereas sandtray describes a similar
intervention used by clinicians from a wide variety of theoretical orientations.
The sandtray can be a permanent fixture that is designed specifically for thera-
peutic settings or a large, but low-sided, plastic storage container if cost and
space are concerns. Figures can be housed on a low bookshelf in a school-based
clinician’s office or stored and transported in plastic bins or fishing tackle
boxes if the therapist moves from school to school or room to room.
Figures should encompass as many ethnicities, races, gender, and religious
belief systems as possible for clients to successfully choose the most relevant
figures to express their thoughts and feelings. Clinicians must be thoughtful
in acquiring figures that reflect their specific client populations. Depending on
the setting, collections can include objects representative of that particular
milieu (i.e., adhesive strips and syringes if you work at a hospital or medical
setting; miniature desks and blackboards in a school setting). Objects and
figurines in a therapist’s sandtray collection should include the following
categories: animals (e.g., wild, forest, domesticated, prehistoric, fantasy, farm);
birds; insects; sea creatures; half-human–half-animal figures (e.g., mermaids,
centaurs); reptiles and amphibians; monsters; eggs and food; fantasy figures
(e.g., witches, wizards, kings, queens); plants; rocks, shells, and fossils;
mountains, caves, and volcanoes; buildings; barriers; vehicles; people; fight-
ing figures; spiritual figures; and any additional figures an individual clinician
would like to add (Amatruda & Simpson, 1997). These categories are selected
intentionally because of the symbolic meanings and functions that the figures
traditionally hold. Animals represent the environment; monsters are capable
of scaring and protecting; plants, rocks, and caves offer places of protection
or transformation; food-related items nourish; vehicles provide means of
transportation and movement; fences and barriers can protect or isolate;
people can represent the ego or other specific individuals in the client’s life;
and spiritual figures provide entry into the transpersonal (Amatruda &
Simpson, 1997).
 222 Suzanne Degges-White

H. G. Wells’s Floor Games (1911/1976) explored the activities he and his

children involved themselves in while playing together on the floor with
small toys. This was the inspiration for the earliest sandplay practitioners.
Early professionals who used such a method include Dora Kalff, Margaret
Lowenfield, Charlotte Buhler, and Erik Erikson (Mitchell & Friedman, 1994).
Through a friendship with C. G. Jung’s daughter, Kalff began work with Jung,
and this influential collaboration defined Kalff as the first Jungian sandplay
therapist (Mitchell & Friedman, 1994). Kalff believed that through sandplay
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the unconscious could be made conscious.

Jungian sandplay therapists view the therapeutic process of sandplay work
as an enactment of the “hero’s journey” in which an individual must go down
into the deepest level of the unconscious, create a “constellation of self” tray,
and then travel back up to the everyday world of reality and life. Kalff (2003)
described this process as a three-part journey in which clients would create
trays that followed a specific pattern: (a) animal–vegetative, in which the
figures chosen reflected a primal world; (b) conflict or battle, in which a
confrontation occurs between the figures; and (c) conflict resolution, the final
stage in which the client creates a constellation of the self and experiences a
“birth” of his or her ego, similar to individuation, before returning to the “real
world” or the “collective.” The constellation of self tray is typically marked by
the presence of a centering, or mandala-like, appearance and something of a
spiritual theme. It is in this process that the healing power of sandplay resides.
Clients are shown the figurines and the sandtray and invited to “create
a world in the sand.” Depending on theoretical orientation, some clinicians
may be more directive than others. Some may invite clients to create specific
scenes, such as how clients see their place in the classroom or family. Clients
are typically allowed to build their trays without interruption or attempts
at interpretation by the clinician. After a tray is considered “complete” by the
client, clinicians may invite the client to discuss their work. For instance, a
clinician might ask the client open-ended questions such as, “Where are you
located in the action here in the tray?” “What do you believe is going to happen
next?” or “If you were to name this tray, what name would you choose?”
Some clinicians may simply witness the creation of the tray and make notes
or sketches of the tray as the client builds the scene. As in nondirective play
therapy practice, some may reflect what the client is doing as the client
builds the scene (i.e., “You’re placing a tiger right beside the three rabbits in
the tray”). The method used depends on the clinician’s orientation and the
presenting concern of the client. Both adults and children can benefit from
this adjunctive therapy which accesses the active imagination to express that
which is difficult to express in words. Sandplay has been compared with the
dream process in that the images that appear are not the product of conscious
thought (Kalff, 1991). Many clinicians refer to resources that describe the
symbolic meaning of the figures or the placement of the figures in the tray
for insight.
The first tray created by a client often holds not only part of the problem
but also part of the solution. It is important to reflect on all the material the
 Expressive Arts in Schools 223

client presents during each sandtray, both verbal communications and non-
verbal, such as which objects go in first, which are removed before the tray is
“set,” and which objects are picked up, considered, but not chosen. Much can
be gleaned from the clients’ physical movements as well as their activity level
during the creation of their tray. After a client leaves the session, clinicians
frequently photograph the tray to add to any sketches made during the
session, so that a record of the client’s work exists and client progress can
be followed.
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Although there are numerous books available on symbolism that clinicians

may use to reflect on what shows up in a client’s sandtray, it is the process
itself that leads the client to transformation. The clinician’s role is to support
and validate the process, not offer in-session interpretations to the client. If
a particular figure or placement resonates with work the client is doing, the
clinician may ask the client whether the figure might be a metaphor of their
progress. The clinician does not force interpretations on the client, however,
because the client is always viewed as the expert.
Sandtray has been found to be effective in addressing children’s external-
izing and internalizing behaviors, even in small group sandtray work (Flahive
& Ray, 2007). Group sandtray has also been effective in helping young ado-
lescents raise their self-esteem levels (Shen & Armstrong, 2008). Nasab and
Alipour (2015) found that sandtray therapy decreased young children’s sepa-
ration anxiety. In addition, sandplay was found to be effective as a crisis inter-
vention with children who had experienced a disaster (Yeh, Aslan, Mendoza,
& Tsukamoto, 2015). Sandplay has been used with young clients diagnosed
with cerebral palsy (Yang et al., 2011); parents reported improvements in
their children’s emotional and mental functioning. Kyoung (2015) noted that
a client’s physiological reactions during the creation of sandtrays include tears
as well as activation of the autonomic nervous system, giving evidence of the
multilayered effect of this therapeutic modality. As clients engage in the pro-
cess of creating their sandtray worlds, they often focus on the task much as
they would during meditation with similar salutogenic physiological results.

USING THE CREATIVE ARTS THERAPY MODALITIES

ACROSS DIVERSE POPULATIONS

Each of the expressive arts modalities can be modified to meet the needs of
diverse clients. Creative expression is innate, and young clients are eager to
explore the various mediums of expression. The withholding of evaluative
responses to client work and the willingness to be flexible and spontaneously
engaged in modifications, as needed, are key attributes needed by the clini-
cian for effective application of an expressive arts intervention. Visual arts can
be modified for individuals who may face physical, emotional, or develop-
mental challenges and are particularly useful with those who have limited
verbal ability or when language barriers exist. For instance, existing pieces of
 224 Suzanne Degges-White

art (e.g., photographs, prints, sculptures) can be incorporated into counseling

for those who lack the ability to control or manipulate art materials such as
paintbrushes or drawing instruments. There are no “right or wrong” expec-
tations about what a client produces during an art therapy session, so the
medium provides clients a great deal of freedom to express themselves in
whatever way they are able.
Movement is a natural aspect of our physical presence in the world, and
although dance is one form of movement therapy, there are many other forms
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that movement therapy may take. Even for students who have a variety of
physical challenges, those with limited mobility may still benefit from move-
ment therapy through stretching and moving their bodies as much as they
may be able (Horowitz, 2000). One important benefit of movement inter­
ventions is that they encourage clients to reconnect with their physical pres-
ence while discouraging clients from rumination or negative thinking. In its
most basic form, it can invite the purest form of client movement, thus inviting
participation regardless of client ability.
Drama therapy can be used by individuals of virtually any diverse identity
who possess the necessary cognitive capacities to respond to the clinician’s
prompts regarding role-play, imagined dialog, and playacting. One caveat is
that the client must be able to comprehend the difference between reality and
fantasy. Puppets can be used with younger clients as a way for them to engage
with emotions that may be too confusing or frightening to explore in a more
personal way.
Sandtray is highly appropriate for diverse individuals because it does not
rely on client explanations of their work or clinician interpretation of the
client’s work. Well-curated sandtray miniature collections should include
figures from as many diverse cultures as possible. Through the selection
of sturdy figures, clinicians can feel comfortable allowing younger or less
dexterous clients to use the figures. In addition, the size of the sandtray used
can be varied according to multiple variables, including limited space or the
need to have a sandtray accessible on a table, desk, or the tray of a wheelchair.
Sandtray has been noted for its utility in cross-cultural settings or across
language barriers (Ramsey, 2014) and its effectiveness among children with
intellectual disabilities (Moghadam, Malekpour, & Abedi, 2014).

INTEGRATING CREATIVE ARTS THERAPIES

INTO THE SCHOOL SETTING

Although not all school mental health providers or school administrators

embrace the healing value of the creative arts, there are school systems, such
as Jersey City public schools, that have successfully integrated this form of
programming into their schools (Nelson, 2010). Using a team of art therapists
and music therapists, the school system showed positive effects with children
with and without special needs. According to Nelson (2010), the program
 Expressive Arts in Schools 225

comprised eight weekly sessions in which students participated in expressive

arts therapy once a week for 1 hour during the school day. These sessions
were led by a music therapist, an art therapist, and a licensed clinical social
worker. Activities included student musical compositions that provided them
the opportunity to reflect on and express difficult emotions including grief.
Other activities included drawing, singing, and making music with instruments.
Another program used with groups of fourth graders included drumming
circles and free expression; the teachers found that over the course of the
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session, students showed increased interpersonal skills and prosocial behaviors,

although progress speed varied, just as academic achievements do. Nelson
(2010) also reported that the successfully attained goals included increased
student self-confidence, emotional coping skills, and ability to manage tran-
sitions. For art therapists to provide maximum benefits to their clients, Regev,
Green-Orlovich, and Snir (2015) indicated that attention must be given to the
working conditions for art therapists, the school population’s understanding
of art therapy, and compensation for the time spent completing documentation
and other nontreatment tasks required of the position. Children often learn
best through different sensory channels (e.g., visual, auditory, kinesthetic);
therefore, there is not a single best mode of creative expression that would
serve the needs of all students. However, the versatility of the arts allows for
the integration of multiple expressive modalities with groups or individuals.

APPLICATION OF SANDTRAY ACROSS MULTIPLE TIERS

Sandtray work is flexible enough to be used one-on-one, as well as with

groups and in classrooms with some modifications such as the availability of
multiple sandtrays or sequential groups creating sandtrays one at a time.
Following is a case example using sandtray as the creative medium. This
intervention could be implemented across multiple service delivery tiers
including individuals, small groups, and classrooms with clients who present
with a wide variety of emotional, mental, or physiological disorders. Further,
technology has allowed the sandtray experience to be available via interactive
computers so that it is even more accessible for individuals whose physical
ability is limited (Hancock, ten Cate, Carpendale, & Isenberg, 2010).

CASE EXAMPLE: LEANN’S HEALING JOURNEY

THROUGH THE SAND

LeAnn was an 8-year-old third grader who had become uncharacteristically

unruly in the classroom. The school counselor, Ms. Norris, reached out to
LeAnn’s mother, Mrs. Christoph, to discuss the behavioral changes that
included tantrums in the classroom and aggressive behavior with her peers.
LeAnn’s mother revealed that she and LeAnn’s father had divorced 5 years
 226 Suzanne Degges-White

earlier but that LeAnn’s father had recently remarried and was requesting
increased visitation. Mrs. Christoph shared that LeAnn had begun having
temper tantrums at home and engaged in crying spells when dropped off at
school or her father’s home for visitation. LeAnn’s mother agreed to meet
with the school counselor the following day.
At the meeting, Mrs. Christoph related that she felt helpless in dealing
with her daughter’s behavior. She explained that she and LeAnn had become
“very close” after the divorce and admitted having encouraged a “you and me
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against the world” attitude in her daughter. In fact, LeAnn’s teacher had
reported that LeAnn had once told her, “When Dad left, I had to take care of
Mom—I mean my Mom had to take care of me—by herself.” LeAnn’s father’s
exit was traumatic for both daughter and mother.
For the counselor, the first goal of therapy was to validate the child’s
fears and feelings as well as help her work through the separation anxiety
and disruptive behaviors that were disrupting school and family routines.
Ms. Norris felt that sandtray would be an ideal medium for the 8-year-old to
express her complicated emotions. Sandtray facilitates emotional growth at a
nonthreatening, client-controlled pace that leaves the client in charge of its
tempo. During the next 2 months, LeAnn met with the counselor five times
and created a total of four sandtrays in the school counselor’s office. Each
counseling session lasted 30 to 35 minutes and incorporated expressive arts
therapy and nondirective play therapy.

Session 1

As LeAnn entered the counselor’s office for her first session, she quickly
noticed and headed toward the sandtray on the floor and the low bookcase
filled with miniatures. Ms. Norris invited LeAnn to “create a world in the
sand.” LeAnn’s first experience with the sandtray began with her running her
hands through the sand. She then chose a large seashell and began digging in
the sand telling the counselor of a time she had participated in a similar activity
at a relative’s house. LeAnn stated she used a shell to dig in the backyard and
found treasure she dug up.
As LeAnn’s play continued, she narrated aloud her activities as she added
figures to the tray. Ms. Norris occasionally validated LeAnn’s activity by reflect-
ing back LeAnn’s statements, but she did not ask direct questions or try to
control LeAnn’s activity. LeAnn used the shell to dig a deep hole in the center
of the tray and described it as a “watering hole.” She then placed two small
tigers in the sand at the top left corner of the tray. She then placed a larger
tiger beside each smaller one. LeAnn explained to the counselor that the two
baby tigers were best friends and that one of the baby tigers was trying to get
next to the other. She then shared that the tiger moms did not know the
babies were friends and that the moms were fighting to protect their cubs.
Both the seashell and the watering hole can be symbolic of the womb
according to many books on symbolism (i.e., Pearson & Wilson, 2003;
 Expressive Arts in Schools 227

Ronnberg, 2010). The tiger “mother and child” pairs are tightly bonded, and
the mothers are ferociously protective of the cubs. However, the mothers are
viciously fighting unaware of the deep friendship of their children. No father
figure was included in LeAnn’s tray, although the client talked of succeeding
generations of mothers and babies behaving in the same way as the original
figures were doing.
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Session 2

At the next session, 1 week later, LeAnn moved to the sand as soon as she
arrived. Ms. Norris stated, “You’re ready to create another scene in the sand
today.” LeAnn began by digging a “watering hole” in the center of the tray
and placing three mermaids on one side of the water. Next, she placed the
figure of a human baby by each mermaid saying that the mommies were
holding their babies. She next placed a sandcastle across the water from
the mermaids. She added what she described as “evil king” and a dog. She
explained that the king’s dog, his “faithful companion,” would bark at night
and everyone would try to hide. In front of the king, LeAnn placed the figure
of a whale as a “guard.”
LeAnn moved her attention to the upper left corner of the tray and placed
a small forest (small plastic shrubs) there, which she stated was surrounded
by trees, and inside the forest, she placed a tree with figures of monkeys, a
large gorilla figure, and a small gorilla figure. Ms. Norris reflected, “You’ve
placed the monkeys and gorillas up in a corner in the forest.”
Each mother again has a baby she is trying to protect; LeAnn had described
to the counselor that the mermaids would “bury their babies in the sand” to
protect them from the king and his dog. The only male figures in the tray
were the “evil king,” who was seen as a threat to the others, and his dog.
The maternal pairing is still central to LeAnn’s perspective, but her world
widened through the addition of the king and his male dog. The whale is
often used as a symbol or precursor of integration. Thus, the placement of the
whale between the king and the mothers was perceived as significant by
the counselor.
In the same corner that LeAnn had located the crude battle between tigers
in her first tray, she now placed the wild world of the jungle. In this second
tray, however, the activity in this wild, primal world is not antagonistic but
more contained and calmer. Ms. Norris reflected that LeAnn appeared to be
learning how to create boundaries for her more negative, primal impulses,
which can be a good first step in learning to control and resolve them.

Session 3

When LeAnn arrived for her third session, she told Ms. Norris that she wanted
to play with the puppets, which is another form of expressive arts therapy.
As in the theme of the children’s book Are You My Mother? by P. D. Eastman
 228 Suzanne Degges-White

(1962), LeAnn acted out a tale of a kitten who was looking for her family and
friends. The kitten had been told to meet them at a certain place, but they
were nowhere to be found. LeAnn’s puppet drama involved both friendly and
aggressive interactions between the kitten and other animals, but the story
ended with the kitten returning home safely to its family.
Shortly after this session, LeAnn’s father phoned the school counselor. The
counselor commended him for supporting LeAnn’s participation in therapy
while she was still young enough that she could make lasting changes that
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might prevent future difficulties. The counselor encouraged him to give LeAnn
opportunities to make some small decisions in his household to give LeAnn
a better sense of control of her world. She also normalized the difficulties
LeAnn had been experiencing and provided information regarding stepfamily
adjustments and jealousy that might arise in daughters regarding a father’s
new wife.

Session 4

A week later, LeAnn came to her fourth session and announced she was going
to tell a story in the sand that day. Working quietly at first, LeAnn placed a
circle of wire fencing in the center of the tray. She then placed “food for horses”
in the circle, added two horse figures and a small unicorn figure. As LeAnn
worked, Ms. Norris would occasionally verbally reflect LeAnn’s actions. LeAnn
placed a wooden moon and star in the sand by the unicorn. She next created
a “watering hole” for the horses. LeAnn placed four plastic columns, the kind
used to separate cake layers in tiered cakes, at each corner of the tray and
placed feathers and flowers in the center of each column. She placed small
flat mirrors at both short ends of the tray. She placed butterflies in the center
of two long sides of the tray. She then added a “magic wand” with a star at the
end in a corner and placed a dove at the opposite side corner. She added some
stones she had brought with her to school for “show and tell” and arranged
them around the dove. The counselor noted that the dove and the egg now
replaced the wild, coarse jungle, where the ferocious fighting began in the
initial tray.
LeAnn jumped into her narrative story of the tray explaining that a baby
horse (the unicorn) had somehow gotten out of the pen. LeAnn then grabbed
an adult female doll and said that this was the horses’ owner. LeAnn said that
the owner saw the baby horse looking at the mirror and told the horse what
a mirror was and described that its purpose was to help the horse to see itself.
Then the baby horse wandered off to some “sinking sand.” LeAnn’s story
continued with the mother horse running to the baby horse’s rescue. LeAnn
then said, “The father horse . . .” and she paused, looked up at the counselor,
and began again, “The father horse ran to help the baby. Even the owner came,
and she pulled with all her strength and might to help get the baby out of the
sinking sand.” The unicorn figure (“baby horse”) was successfully pulled out
of the sand, went flying through the air, landed outside the farm, and then
 Expressive Arts in Schools 229

everyone helped to get the baby “back in the barnyard, where they all lived
happily ever after.” After this tray was complete, LeAnn was energized and
spontaneously began reciting made-up impromptu poetry about nature and
“recipes.” She asked Ms. Norris for paper and pencil to use to write them
down so she would remember them. When the counselor alerted LeAnn that
the session was almost over, LeAnn told the counselor that she was ready to
return to class.
In this tray, LeAnn appeared to have created a constellation of self tray.
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This was suggested by the circle of fencing and the symmetrical placement of
columns, feathers and flowers, butterflies, and mirrors. The counselor believed
this try to be an excellent example of the self tray, which marks a client’s
midpoint in their journey of healing. Another significant addition appeared
to be the introduction of a male figure who was described as both paternal
and caring. This was a major development for LeAnn, as was the metaphor
she seemed to create for the therapy process itself in the way that she described
the mirror in the tray. The baby horse got stuck in a place where everyone
had to work together to form an alliance to rescue her. In point of fact, the
client had been made aware by her mother that Ms. Norris had begun a
conversation with LeAnn’s father to strengthen the parental alliance.
It is important, also, to note that the move from actively participating in
sandtray storytelling to poetry recitation is a typical reaction after creating a
constellation tray. Clients might begin to sing or hum and seem unable to
participate in any “therapeutic” activities for the remainder of the session. By
creating her “recipes,” LeAnn was able to focus on the creation of something
new and marked this phase by laboriously handwriting the ingredients of her
creations.

Session 5

Two weeks later, LeAnn arrived in Ms. Norris’s office and stated that she had
a story she wanted to tell the counselor using the sandtray. LeAnn began by
stating that she was creating a forest and added lots of trees to the back half
of the tray. She then dug a water hole in the lower center of the tray. She
added animals that included a turtle, a “mother” and “father” rabbits, “baby”
birds, and “mother, father, and grandma birds.” She then had the animal
families all make themselves homes in the wrong places (rabbits in the tree,
birds underground, land animals in the water). LeAnn then added a small
teepee and two Native American figures and a campfire to the scene. LeAnn
began her story saying that the Native American wife went walking through
the forest and thought she heard snakes, but the Native American husband
assured her that it was the sound of her feet moving through the sand. The
wife came across the animals in the sand and told them their homes were in
the wrong places. The wife tracked them all down and then threw all the
animals into the water. The rabbits then went underground, the birds went to
the nest in the tree, and the turtle came onto the land. LeAnn finished her
 230 Suzanne Degges-White

story by placing the Native American husband and the Native American
wife up on the edge of the tray and said, “This may not be true, but I believe
it is. The Native American wife and husband are still there looking after
everything.”

Implications
This tray was the first tray after the client had “met herself” in the mirror in
the previous sandtray, and her storytelling appeared strikingly different from
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earlier sessions. There were many more characters involved in the action, and
there was the acknowledgment of the existing bond between the marital
couple, as well as paternal figures within each animal family. The client’s
energy was devoted to the natural world, and the addition of human figures
showed increased emotional development. There was a new sense of belong-
ing for the client as LeAnn ended the story with all the creatures ending up
back in their rightful homes. Of particular interest was the “baptism” of the
animals by the Native American wife as she tossed them all into the water
before they returned to their respective homes.

Case Summary

Sandtray is an integration of multiple modes of creative arts expression and

proved to be highly appropriate and productive for LeAnn. Sandtray allows
clients to explore complex feelings and events at a safe distance through
expressive modalities. LeAnn was able to visually represent complex feelings
and the turmoil she felt but could not verbally express. At the start of therapy,
she exhibited behavior similar to that of a much younger child who experi-
enced severe separation anxiety on leaving her mother. This can be typical of
children who undergo substantial trauma at a young age and appear to be
“stuck” at that age emotionally. This may have been unintentionally encour-
aged by LeAnn’s mother who was extremely protective of LeAnn and encour-
aged a “me and you against the world” perspective between the two. At the
beginning of therapy, the client seemed focused on the mother–child attach-
ment bond and seemed unable to accept the presence of her father in her life
or his recent marriage. LeAnn needed space to catch back up with her chrono-
logical age mates.
Through the integration of sandtray into the school counselor’s practice,
the student was able to work through mother–child separation anxiety, begin
to accept her father as a caregiving and loving parent, and acknowledge the
importance of his marriage to her stepmother. It would be difficult for a child,
even one as bright and articulate as LeAnn, to verbalize these developments.
The sandtray allowed her to work through the pain of growing up and away
from the infant-like dependence on her mother toward a desire to move for-
ward into the world by finding a new sense of belonging with the significant
people in her life.
LeAnn also made significant behavioral progress in the school and at home.
Her teacher reported that LeAnn was no longer acting out in the classroom
 Expressive Arts in Schools 231

and was coming into the classroom eager to start the day each morning. Her
mother noted that LeAnn’s temper tantrums had decreased dramatically and
that LeAnn was no longer exhibiting the extreme separation anxiety that she
had previously shown.

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