Geologic time scale

The geologic time scale or geological time scale (GTS) is a

representation of time based on the rock record of Earth. It is a system of
chronological dating that uses chronostratigraphy (the process of relating
strata to time) and geochronology (a scientific branch of geology that
aims to determine the age of rocks). It is used primarily by Earth
scientists (including geologists, paleontologists, geophysicists,
geochemists, and paleoclimatologists) to describe the timing and
relationships of events in geologic history. The time scale has been
developed through the study of rock layers and the observation of their
relationships and identifying features such as lithologies, paleomagnetic
properties, and fossils. The definition of standardised international units
of geologic time is the responsibility of the International Commission on
Stratigraphy (ICS), a constituent body of the International Union of The geologic time scale, proportionally represented as
Geological Sciences (IUGS), whose primary objective[1] is to precisely a log-spiral with some major events in Earth's history. A
define global chronostratigraphic units of the International megaannus (Ma) represents one million (106) years.
Chronostratigraphic Chart (ICC)[2] that are used to define divisions of
geologic time. The chronostratigraphic divisions are in turn used to
define geochronologic units.[2]

Principles
The geologic time scale is a way of representing deep time based on events that have occurred throughout Earth's history, a time
span of about 4.54 ± 0.05 Ga (4.54 billion years).[3] It chronologically organises strata, and subsequently time, by observing
fundamental changes in stratigraphy that correspond to major geological or paleontological events. For example, the Cretaceous–
Paleogene extinction event, marks the lower boundary of the Paleogene System/Period and thus the boundary between the
Cretaceous and Paleogene systems/periods. For divisions prior to the Cryogenian, arbitrary numeric boundary definitions (Global
Standard Stratigraphic Ages, GSSAs) are used to divide geologic time. Proposals have been made to better reconcile these
divisions with the rock record.[4][5]

Historically, regional geologic time scales were used[5] due to the litho- and biostratigraphic differences around the world in time
equivalent rocks. The ICS has long worked to reconcile conflicting terminology by standardising globally significant and
identifiable stratigraphic horizons that can be used to define the lower boundaries of chronostratigraphic units. Defining
chronostratigraphic units in such a manner allows for the use of global, standardised nomenclature. The International
Chronostratigraphic Chart represents this ongoing effort.

Several key principles are used to determine the relative relationships of rocks and thus their chronostratigraphic
position.[6][7][8][9][10][11]

The law of superposition that states that in undeformed stratigraphic sequences the oldest strata will lie at the bottom of the
sequence, while newer material stacks upon the surface.[6][7][9][11] In practice, this means a younger rock will lie on top of an
older rock unless there is evidence to suggest otherwise.

The principle of original horizontality that states layers of sediments will originally be deposited horizontally under the action of
gravity.[6][9][11] However, it is now known that not all sedimentary layers are deposited purely horizontally,[11][12] but this
principle is still a useful concept.

The principle of lateral continuity that states layers of sediments extend laterally in all directions until either thinning out or being
cut off by a different rock layer, i.e. they are laterally continuous.[6] Layers do not extend indefinitely; their limits are controlled
by the amount and type of sediment in a sedimentary basin, and the geometry of that basin.
The principle of cross-cutting relationships that states a rock that cuts across another rock must be younger than the rock it cuts
across.[6][7][9][11]

The law of included fragments that states small fragments of one type of rock that are embedded in a second type of rock must
have formed first, and were included when the second rock was forming.[9][11]

The relationships of unconformities which are geologic features representing a gap in the geologic record. Unconformities are
formed during periods of erosion or non-deposition, indicating non-continuous sediment deposition.[11] Observing the type and
relationships of unconformities in strata allows geologist to understand the relative timing the strata.

The principle of faunal succession (where applicable) that states rock strata contain distinctive sets of fossils that succeed each
other vertically in a specific and reliable order.[8][11] This allows for a correlation of strata even when the horizon between them
is not continuous.

Divisions of geologic time

The geologic time scale is divided into chronostratigraphic units and their corresponding geochronologic units.

An eon is the largest geochronologic time unit and is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic eonothem.[13] There are
four formally defined eons: the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic.[2]
An era is the second largest geochronologic time unit and is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic erathem.[14][13]
There are ten defined eras: the Eoarchean, Paleoarchean, Mesoarchean, Neoarchean, Paleoproterozoic,
Mesoproterozoic, Neoproterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic, with none from the Hadean eon.[2]
A period is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic system.[14][13] There are 22 defined periods, with the current being
the Quaternary period.[2] As an exception two subperiods are used for the Carboniferous Period.[14]
An epoch is the second smallest geochronologic unit. It is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic series.[14][13] There
are 37 defined epochs and one informal one. The current epoch is the Holocene. There are also 11 subepochs
which are all within the Neogene and Quaternary.[2] The use of subepochs as formal units in international
chronostratigraphy was ratified in 2022.[15]
An age is the smallest hierarchical geochronologic unit. It is equivalent to a chronostratigraphic stage.[14][13]
There are 96 formal and five informal ages.[2] The current age is the Meghalayan.
A chron is a non-hierarchical formal geochronology unit of unspecified rank and is equivalent to a
chronostratigraphic chronozone.[14] These correlate with magnetostratigraphic, lithostratigraphic, or
biostratigraphic units as they are based on previously defined stratigraphic units or geologic features.

Formal, hierarchical units of the geologic time scale (largest to smallest)

Chronostratigraphic unit (strata) Geochronologic unit (time) Time span[note 1]

Eonothem Eon Several hundred million years to two billion years

Erathem Era Tens to hundreds of millions of years

System Period Millions of years to tens of millions of years

Series Epoch Hundreds of thousands of years to tens of millions of years

Subseries Subepoch Thousands of years to millions of years

Stage Age Thousands of years to millions of years

The subdivisions Early and Late are used as the geochronologic equivalents of the chronostratigraphic Lower and Upper, e.g.,
Early Triassic Period (geochronologic unit) is used in place of Lower Triassic System (chronostratigraphic unit).

Rocks representing a given chronostratigraphic unit are that chronostratigraphic unit, and the time they were laid down in is the
geochronologic unit, e.g., the rocks that represent the Silurian System are the Silurian System and they were deposited during the
Silurian Period. This definition means the numeric age of a geochronologic unit can be changed (and is more often subject to
change) when refined by geochronometry while the equivalent chronostratigraphic unit (the revision of which is less frequent)
remains unchanged. For example, in early 2022, the boundary between the Ediacaran and Cambrian periods (geochronologic
units) was revised from 541 Ma to 538.8 Ma but the rock definition of the boundary (GSSP) at the base of the Cambrian, and
thus the boundary between the Ediacaran and Cambrian systems (chronostratigraphic units) has not been changed; rather, the
absolute age has merely been refined.

Terminology
Chronostratigraphy is the element of stratigraphy that deals with the relation between rock bodies and the relative measurement
of geological time.[14] It is the process where distinct strata between defined stratigraphic horizons are assigned to represent a
relative interval of geologic time.

A chronostratigraphic unit is a body of rock, layered or unlayered, that is defined between specified stratigraphic horizons
which represent specified intervals of geologic time. They include all rocks representative of a specific interval of geologic time,
and only this time span. Eonothem, erathem, system, series, subseries, stage, and substage are the hierarchical
chronostratigraphic units.[14]

A geochronologic unit is a subdivision of geologic time. It is a numeric representation of an intangible property (time).[16] These
units are arranged in a hierarchy: eon, era, period, epoch, subepoch, age, and subage.[14] Geochronology is the scientific branch
of geology that aims to determine the age of rocks, fossils, and sediments either through absolute (e.g., radiometric dating) or
relative means (e.g., stratigraphic position, paleomagnetism, stable isotope ratios). Geochronometry is the field of geochronology
that numerically quantifies geologic time.[16]

A Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) is an internationally agreed-upon reference point on a stratigraphic
section that defines the lower boundaries of stages on the geologic time scale.[17] (Recently this has been used to define the base
of a system)[18]

A Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)[19] is a numeric-only, chronologic reference point used to define the base of
geochronologic units prior to the Cryogenian. These points are arbitrarily defined.[14] They are used where GSSPs have not yet
been established. Research is ongoing to define GSSPs for the base of all units that are currently defined by GSSAs.

The standard international units of the geologic time scale are published by the International Commission on Stratigraphy on the
International Chronostratigraphic Chart; however, regional terms are still in use in some areas. The numeric values on the
International Chronostratigrahpic Chart are represented by the unit Ma (megaannum, for 'million years'). For example, 201.4
± 0.2 Ma, the lower boundary of the Jurassic Period, is defined as 201,400,000 years old with an uncertainty of 200,000 years.
Other SI prefix units commonly used by geologists are Ga (gigaannum, billion years), and ka (kiloannum, thousand years), with
the latter often represented in calibrated units (before present).

Naming of geologic time

The names of geologic time units are defined for chronostratigraphic units with the corresponding geochronologic unit sharing
the same name with a change to the suffix (e.g. Phanerozoic Eonothem becomes the Phanerozoic Eon). Names of erathems in the
Phanerozoic were chosen to reflect major changes in the history of life on Earth: Paleozoic (old life), Mesozoic (middle life), and
Cenozoic (new life). Names of systems are diverse in origin, with some indicating chronologic position (e.g., Paleogene), while
others are named for lithology (e.g., Cretaceous), geography (e.g., Permian), or are tribal (e.g., Ordovician) in origin. Most
currently recognised series and subseries are named for their position within a system/series (early/middle/late); however, the
International Commission on Stratigraphy advocates for all new series and subseries to be named for a geographic feature in the
vicinity of its stratotype or type locality. The name of stages should also be derived from a geographic feature in the locality of its
stratotype or type locality.[14]

Informally, the time before the Cambrian is often referred to as the Precambrian or pre-Cambrian (Supereon).[4][note 2]
 Time span and etymology of geologic eonothem/eon names
Duration
Name Time span Etymology of name
(million years)

From Greek φανερός (phanerós) 'visible' or 'abundant' and ζωή

Phanerozoic 538.8 to 0 million years ago 538.8
(zoē) 'life'.

From Greek πρότερος (próteros) 'former' or 'earlier' and ζωή

Proterozoic 2,500 to 538.8 million years ago 1961.2
(zoē) 'life'.

Archean 4,031 to 2,500 million years ago 1531 From Greek ἀρχή (archē) 'beginning, origin'.

From Hades, ‹See Tfd›Greek: ᾍδης, translit. Háidēs, the god of

Hadean 4,567.3 to 4,031 million years ago 536.3
the underworld (hell, the inferno) in Greek mythology.

Time span and etymology of geologic erathem/era names

Duration (million
Name Time span Etymology of name
years)

Cenozoic 66 to 0 million years ago 66 From Greek καινός (kainós) 'new' and ζωή (zōḗ) 'life'.

Mesozoic 251.9 to 66 million years ago 185.902 From Greek μέσο (méso) 'middle' and ζωή (zōḗ) 'life'.

Paleozoic 538.8 to 251.9 million years ago 286.898 From Greek παλιός (palaiós) 'old' and ζωή (zōḗ) 'life'.

From Greek νέος (néos) 'new' or 'young', πρότερος (próteros)

Neoproterozoic 1,000 to 538.8 million years ago 461.2
'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (zōḗ) 'life'.

From Greek μέσο (méso) 'middle', πρότερος (próteros)

Mesoproterozoic 1,600 to 1,000 million years ago 600
'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (zōḗ) 'life'.

From Greek παλιός (palaiós) 'old', πρότερος (próteros)

Paleoproterozoic 2,500 to 1,600 million years ago 900
'former' or 'earlier', and ζωή (zōḗ) 'life'.

From Greek νέος (néos) 'new' or 'young' and ἀρχαῖος

Neoarchean 2,800 to 2,500 million years ago 300
(arkhaîos) 'ancient'.

From Greek μέσο (méso) 'middle' and ἀρχαῖος (arkhaîos)

Mesoarchean 3,200 to 2,800 million years ago 400
'ancient'.

From Greek παλιός (palaiós) 'old' and ἀρχαῖος (arkhaîos)

Paleoarchean 3,600 to 3,200 million years ago 400
'ancient'.

From Greek ἠώς (ēōs) 'dawn' and ἀρχαῖος (arkhaîos)

Eoarchean 4,031 to 3,600 million years ago 431
'ancient'.
 Time span and etymology of geologic system/period names
Duration
Name Time span (million Etymology of name
years)

First introduced by Jules Desnoyers in 1829 for sediments in

Quaternary 2.6 to 0 million years ago 2.58 France's Seine Basin that appeared to be younger than
Tertiary[note 3] rocks.[22]

Derived from Greek νέος (néos) 'new' and γενεά (geneá) 'genesis' or
Neogene 23 to 2.6 million years ago 20.45
'birth'.

Derived from Greek παλιός (palaiós) 'old' and γενεά (geneá)

Paleogene 66 to 23 million years ago 42.97
'genesis' or 'birth'.
Derived from Terrain Crétacé used in 1822 by Jean d'Omalius
Cretaceous ~145 to 66 million years ago ~79 d'Halloy in reference to extensive beds of chalk within the Paris
Basin.[23] Ultimately derived from Latin crēta 'chalk'.
Named after the Jura Mountains. Originally used by Alexander von
Jurassic 201.4 to 145 million years ago ~56.4 Humboldt as 'Jura Kalkstein' (Jura limestone) in 1799.[24] Alexandre
Brongniart was the first to publish the term Jurassic in 1829.[25][26]

From the Trias of Friedrich August von Alberti in reference to a trio of

Triassic 251.9 to 201.4 million years ago 50.502
formations widespread in southern Germany.

Permian 298.9 to 251.9 million years ago 46.998 Named after the historical region of Perm, Russian Empire.[27]
Means 'coal-bearing', from the Latin carbō (coal) and ferō (to bear,
Carboniferous 358.9 to 298.9 million years ago 60
carry).[28]

Devonian 419.2 to 358.9 million years ago 60.3 Named after Devon, England.[29]

Silurian 443.8 to 419.2 million years ago 24.6 Named after the Celtic tribe, the Silures.[30]

Ordovician 485.4 to 443.8 million years ago 41.6 Named after the Celtic tribe, Ordovices.[31][32]
Named for Cambria, a latinised form of the Welsh name for Wales,
Cambrian 538.8 to 485.4 million years ago 53.4
Cymru.[33]
Named for the Ediacara Hills. Ediacara is possibly a corruption of
Ediacaran 635 to 538.8 million years ago ~96.2
Kuyani 'Yata Takarra' 'hard or stony ground'.[34][35]

Cryogenian 720 to 635 million years ago ~85 From Greek κρύος (krýos) 'cold' and γένεσις (génesis) 'birth'.[5]

Tonian 1,000 to 720 million years ago ~280 From Greek τόνος (tónos) 'stretch'.[5]

Stenian 1,200 to 1,000 million years ago 200 From Greek στενός (stenós) 'narrow'.[5]

Ectasian 1,400 to 1,200 million years ago 200 From Greek ἔκτᾰσῐς (éktasis) 'extension'.[5]

Calymmian 1,600 to 1,400 million years ago 200 From Greek κάλυμμᾰ (kálumma) 'cover'.[5]

Statherian 1,800 to 1,600 million years ago 200 From Greek σταθερός (statherós) 'stable'.[5]

Orosirian 2,050 to 1,800 million years ago 250 From Greek ὀροσειρά (oroseirá) 'mountain range'.[5]

Rhyacian 2,300 to 2,050 million years ago 250 From Greek ῥύαξ (rhýax) 'stream of lava'.[5]

Siderian 2,500 to 2,300 million years ago 200 From Greek σίδηρος (sídēros) 'iron'.[5]
 Time span and etymology of geologic series/epoch names
Duration
Name Time span (million Etymology of name
years)

Holocene 0.012 to 0 million years ago 0.0117 From Greek ὅλος (hólos) 'whole' and καινός (kainós) 'new'

Coined in the early 1830s from Greek πλεῖστος (pleîstos)

Pleistocene 2.58 to 0.012 million years ago 2.5683
'most' and καινός (kainós) 'new'
Coined in the early 1830s from Greek πλείων (pleíōn) 'more'
Pliocene 5.33 to 2.58 million years ago 2.753
and καινός (kainós) 'new'

Coined in the early 1830s from Greek μείων (meíōn) 'less'

Miocene 23.03 to 5.33 million years ago 17.697
and καινός (kainós) 'new'

Coined in the 1850s from Greek ὀλίγος (olígos) 'few' and

Oligocene 33.9 to 23.03 million years ago 10.87
καινός (kainós) 'new'

Coined in the early 1830s from Greek ἠώς (ēōs) 'dawn' and
Eocene 56 to 33.9 million years ago 22.1 καινός (kainós) 'new', referring to the dawn of modern life
during this epoch

Coined by Wilhelm Philippe Schimper in 1874 as a

Paleocene 66 to 56 million years ago 10 portmanteau of paleo- + Eocene, but on the surface from
Greek παλαιός (palaios) 'old' and καινός (kainós) 'new'

Upper Cretaceous 100.5 to 66 million years ago 34.5

See Cretaceous
Lower Cretaceous 145 to 100.5 million years ago 44.5

Upper Jurassic 161.5 to 145 million years ago 16.5

Middle Jurassic 174.7 to 161.5 million years ago 13.2 See Jurassic
Lower Jurassic 201.4 to 174.7 million years ago 26.7

Upper Triassic 237 to 201.4 million years ago 35.6

Middle Triassic 247.2 to 237 million years ago 10.2 See Triassic
Lower Triassic 251.9 to 247.2 million years ago 4.702

Lopingian 259.51 to 251.9 million years ago 7.608 Named for Loping, China, an anglicization of Mandarin 乐平
(lèpíng) 'peaceful music'
Named for the Guadalupe Mountains of the American
Guadalupian 273.01 to 259.51 million years ago 13.5 Southwest, ultimately from Arabic ‫( َو اِد ي ٱل‬wādī al) 'valley of
the' and Latin lupus 'wolf' via Spanish

From Latin cis- (before) + Russian Урал (Ural), referring to

Cisuralian 298.9 to 273.01 million years ago 25.89
the western slopes of the Ural Mountains

Upper
307 to 298.9 million years ago 8.1
Pennsylvanian
Middle Named for the US state of Pennsylvania, from William Penn
315.2 to 307 million years ago 8.2
Pennsylvanian + Latin silvanus (forest) + -ia by analogy to Transylvania

Lower
323.2 to 315.2 million years ago 8
Pennsylvanian

Upper
330.9 to 323.2 million years ago 7.7
Mississippian
Middle Named for the Mississippi River, from Ojibwe ᒥᐦᓯᓰᐱ (misi-
346.7 to 330.9 million years ago 15.8
Mississippian ziibi) 'great river'

Lower
358.9 to 346.7 million years ago 12.2
Mississippian

Upper Devonian 382.7 to 358.9 million years ago 23.8

Middle Devonian 393.3 to 382.7 million years ago 10.6 See Devonian

Lower Devonian 419.2 to 393.3 million years ago 25.9

Named for the Homolka a Přídolí nature reserve near

Pridoli 423 to 419.2 million years ago 3.8
Prague, Czechia
Ludlow 427.4 to 423 million years ago 4.4 Named after Ludlow, England

Wenlock 433.4 to 427.4 million years ago 6 Named for the Wenlock Edge in Shropshire, England

Llandovery 443.8 to 433.4 million years ago 10.4 Named after Llandovery, Wales
 Upper Ordovician 458.4 to 443.8 million years ago 14.6
Middle Ordovician 470 to 458.4 million years ago 11.6 See Ordovician

Lower Ordovician 485.4 to 470 million years ago 15.4

Furongian 497 to 485.4 million years ago 11.6 From Mandarin 芙蓉 (fúróng) 'lotus', referring to the state
symbol of Hunan
Named for the Miao Ling mountains of Guizhou, Mandarin
Miaolingian 509 to 497 million years ago 12
for 'sprouting peaks'

Cambrian Series 2
521 to 509 million years ago 12 See Cambrian
(informal)

Terreneuvian 538.8 to 521 million years ago 17.8 Named for Terre-Neuve, a French calque of Newfoundland

History of the geologic time scale

Early history
While a modern geological time scale was not formulated until 1911[36] by Arthur Holmes, the broader concept that rocks and
time are related can be traced back to (at least) the philosophers of Ancient Greece. Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570–487 BCE)
observed rock beds with fossils of shells located above the sea-level, viewed them as once living organisms, and used this to
imply an unstable relationship in which the sea had at times transgressed over the land and at other times had regressed.[37] This
view was shared by a few of Xenophanes's contemporaries and those that followed, including Aristotle (384–322 BCE) who
(with additional observations) reasoned that the positions of land and sea had changed over long periods of time. The concept of
deep time was also recognised by Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo[38] (1031–1095) and Islamic scientist-philosophers, notably the
Brothers of Purity, who wrote on the processes of stratification over the passage of time in their treatises.[37] Their work likely
inspired that of the 11th-century Persian polymath Avicenna (Ibn Sînâ, 980–1037) who wrote in The Book of Healing (1027) on
the concept of stratification and superposition, pre-dating Nicolas Steno by more than six centuries.[37] Avicenna also recognised
fossils as "petrifications of the bodies of plants and animals",[39] with the 13th-century Dominican bishop Albertus Magnus (c.
1200–1280) extending this into a theory of a petrifying fluid.[40] These works appeared to have little influence on scholars in
Medieval Europe who looked to the Bible to explain the origins of fossils and sea-level changes, often attributing these to the
'Deluge', including Ristoro d'Arezzo in 1282.[37] It was not until the Italian Renaissance when Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)
would reinvigorate the relationships between stratification, relative sea-level change, and time, denouncing attribution of fossils
to the 'Deluge':[41][37]

Of the stupidity and ignorance of those who imagine that these creatures were carried to such places distant from the
sea by the Deluge...Why do we find so many fragments and whole shells between the different layers of stone unless
they had been upon the shore and had been covered over by earth newly thrown up by the sea which then became
petrified? And if the above-mentioned Deluge had carried them to these places from the sea, you would find the shells
at the edge of one layer of rock only, not at the edge of many where may be counted the winters of the years during
which the sea multiplied the layers of sand and mud brought down by the neighboring rivers and spread them over its
shores. And if you wish to say that there must have been many deluges in order to produce these layers and the shells
among them it would then become necessary for you to affirm that such a deluge took place every year.

These views of da Vinci remained unpublished, and thus lacked influence at the time; however, questions of fossils and their
significance were pursued and, while views against Genesis were not readily accepted and dissent from religious doctrine was in
some places unwise, scholars such as Girolamo Fracastoro shared da Vinci's views, and found the attribution of fossils to the
'Deluge' absurd.[37]

Establishment of primary principles

Niels Stensen, more commonly known as Nicolas Steno (1638–1686), is credited with establishing four of the guiding principles
of stratigraphy.[37] In De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus Steno states:[6][42]

When any given stratum was being formed, all the matter resting on it was fluid and, therefore, when
the lowest stratum was being formed, none of the upper strata existed.
 ... strata which are either perpendicular to the horizon or inclined to it were at one time parallel to the
horizon.
When any given stratum was being formed, it was either encompassed at its edges by another solid
substance or it covered the whole globe of the earth. Hence, it follows that wherever bared edges of
strata are seen, either a continuation of the same strata must be looked for or another solid substance
must be found that kept the material of the strata from being dispersed.
If a body or discontinuity cuts across a stratum, it must have formed after that stratum.

Respectively, these are the principles of superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity, and cross-cutting relationships.
From this Steno reasoned that strata were laid down in succession and inferred relative time (in Steno's belief, time from
Creation). While Steno's principles were simple and attracted much attention, applying them proved challenging.[37] These basic
principles, albeit with improved and more nuanced interpretations, still form the foundational principles of determining the
correlation of strata relative to geologic time.

Over the course of the 18th-century geologists realised that:

Sequences of strata often become eroded, distorted, tilted, or even inverted after deposition
Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely different appearances
The strata of any given area represented only part of Earth's long history

Formulation of a modern geologic time scale

The apparent, earliest formal division of the geologic record with respect to time was introduced during the era of Biblical
models by Thomas Burnet who applied a two-fold terminology to mountains by identifying "montes primarii" for rock formed at
the time of the 'Deluge', and younger "monticulos secundarios" formed later from the debris of the "primarii".[43][37] Anton Moro
(1687–1784) also used primary and secondary divisions for rock units but his mechanism was volcanic.[44][37] In this early
version of the Plutonism theory, the interior of Earth was seen as hot, and this drove the creation of primary igneous and
metamorphic rocks and secondary rocks formed contorted and fossiliferous sediments. These primary and secondary divisions
were expanded on by Giovanni Targioni Tozzetti (1712–1783) and Giovanni Arduino (1713–1795) to include tertiary and
quaternary divisions.[37] These divisions were used to describe both the time during which the rocks were laid down, and the
collection of rocks themselves (i.e., it was correct to say Tertiary rocks, and Tertiary Period). Only the Quaternary division is
retained in the modern geologic time scale, while the Tertiary division was in use until the early 21st century. The Neptunism and
Plutonism theories would compete into the early 19th century with a key driver for resolution of this debate being the work of
James Hutton (1726–1797), in particular his Theory of the Earth, first presented before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in
1785.[45][7][46] Hutton's theory would later become known as uniformitarianism, popularised by John Playfair[47] (1748–1819)
and later Charles Lyell (1797–1875) in his Principles of Geology.[9][48][49] Their theories strongly contested the 6,000 year age of
the Earth as suggested determined by James Ussher via Biblical chronology that was accepted at the time by western religion.
Instead, using geological evidence, they contested Earth to be much older, cementing the concept of deep time.

During the early 19th century William Smith, Georges Cuvier, Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy, and Alexandre Brongniart pioneered the
systematic division of rocks by stratigraphy and fossil assemblages. These geologists began to use the local names given to rock
units in a wider sense, correlating strata across national and continental boundaries based on their similarity to each other. Many
of the names below erathem/era rank in use on the modern ICC/GTS were determined during the early to mid-19th century.

The advent of geochronometry

During the 19th century, the debate regarding Earth's age was renewed, with geologists estimating ages based on denudation rates
and sedimentary thicknesses or ocean chemistry, and physicists determining ages for the cooling of the Earth or the Sun using
basic thermodynamics or orbital physics.[3] These estimations varied from 15,000 million years to 0.075 million years depending
on method and author, but the estimations of Lord Kelvin and Clarence King were held in high regard at the time due to their pre-
eminence in physics and geology. All of these early geochronometric determinations would later prove to be incorrect.

The discovery of radioactive decay by Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie, and Pierre Curie laid the ground work for radiometric
dating, but the knowledge and tools required for accurate determination of radiometric ages would not be in place until the mid-
1950s.[3] Early attempts at determining ages of uranium minerals and rocks by Ernest Rutherford, Bertram Boltwood, Robert
Strutt, and Arthur Holmes, would culminate in what are considered the first international geological time scales by Holmes in
1911 and 1913.[36][50][51] The discovery of isotopes in 1913[52] by Frederick Soddy, and the developments in mass spectrometry
pioneered by Francis William Aston, Arthur Jeffrey Dempster, and Alfred O. C. Nier during the early to mid-20th century would
finally allow for the accurate determination of radiometric ages, with Holmes publishing several revisions to his geological time-
scale with his final version in 1960.[3][51][53][54]

Modern international geologic time scale

The establishment of the IUGS in 1961[55] and acceptance of the Commission on Stratigraphy (applied in 1965)[56] to become a
member commission of IUGS led to the founding of the ICS. One of the primary objectives of the ICS is "the establishment,
publication and revision of the ICS International Chronostratigraphic Chart which is the standard, reference global Geological
Time Scale to include the ratified Commission decisions".[1]

Following on from Holmes, several A Geological Time Scale books were published in 1982,[57] 1989,[58] 2004,[59] 2008,[60]
2012,[61] 2016,[62] and 2020.[63] However, since 2013, the ICS has taken responsibility for producing and distributing the ICC
citing the commercial nature, independent creation, and lack of oversight by the ICS on the prior published GTS versions (GTS
books prior to 2013) although these versions were published in close association with the ICS.[2] Subsequent Geologic Time
Scale books (2016[62] and 2020[63]) are commercial publications with no oversight from the ICS, and do not entirely conform to
the chart produced by the ICS. The ICS produced GTS charts are versioned (year/month) beginning at v2013/01. At least one
new version is published each year incorporating any changes ratified by the ICS since the prior version.

The following five timelines show the geologic time scale to scale. The first shows the entire time from the formation of the
Earth to the present, but this gives little space for the most recent eon. The second timeline shows an expanded view of the most
recent eon. In a similar way, the most recent era is expanded in the third timeline, the most recent period is expanded in the fourth
timeline, and the most recent epoch is expanded in the fifth timeline.

Horizontal scale is Millions of years (above timelines) / Thousands of years (below timeline)

Major proposed revisions to the ICC

Proposed Anthropocene Series/Epoch

First suggested in 2000,[64] the Anthropocene is a proposed epoch/series for the most recent time in Earth's history. While still
informal, it is a widely used term to denote the present geologic time interval, in which many conditions and processes on Earth
are profoundly altered by human impact.[65] As of April 2022 the Anthropocene has not been ratified by the ICS; however, in
May 2019 the Anthropocene Working Group voted in favour of submitting a formal proposal to the ICS for the establishment of
the Anthropocene Series/Epoch.[66] Nevertheless, the definition of the Anthropocene as a geologic time period rather than a
geologic event remains controversial and difficult.[67][68][69][70]

Proposals for revisions to pre-Cryogenian timeline

Shields et al. 2021

An international working group of the ICS on pre-Cryogenian chronostratigraphic subdivision have outlined a template to
improve the pre-Cryogenian geologic time scale based on the rock record to bring it in line with the post-Tonian geologic time
scale.[4] This work assessed the geologic history of the currently defined eons and eras of the pre-Cambrian,[note 2] and the
proposals in the "Geological Time Scale" books 2004,[71] 2012,[5] and 2020.[72] Their recommend revisions[4] of the pre-
Cryogenian geologic time scale were (changes from the current scale [v2023/09] are italicised):

Three divisions of the Archean instead of four by dropping Eoarchean, and revisions to their geochronometric
definition, along with the repositioning of the Siderian into the latest Neoarchean, and a potential Kratian division
in the Neoarchean.
Archean (4000–2450 Ma)
Paleoarchean (4000–3500 Ma)
Mesoarchean (3500–3000 Ma)
Neoarchean (3000–2450 Ma)
Kratian (no fixed time given, prior to the Siderian) – from Greek κράτος (krátos) 'strength'.
Siderian (?–2450 Ma) – moved from Proterozoic to end of Archean, no start time given, base of
Paleoproterozoic defines the end of the Siderian
Refinement of geochronometric divisions of the Proterozoic, Paleoproterozoic, repositioning of the Statherian into
the Mesoproterozoic, new Skourian period/system in the Paleoproterozoic, new Kleisian or Syndian
period/system in the Neoproterozoic.
Paleoproterozoic (2450–1800 Ma)
Skourian (2450–2300 Ma) – from Greek σκουριά (skouriá) 'rust'.
Rhyacian (2300–2050 Ma)
Orosirian (2050–1800 Ma)
Mesoproterozoic (1800–1000 Ma)
Statherian (1800–1600 Ma)
Calymmian (1600–1400 Ma)
Ectasian (1400–1200 Ma)
Stenian (1200–1000 Ma)
Neoproterozoic (1000–538.8 Ma)[note 4]
Kleisian or Syndian (1000–800 Ma) – respectively from Greek κλείσιμο (kleísimo) 'closure' and σύνδεση
(sýndesi) 'connection'.
Tonian (800–720 Ma)
Cryogenian (720–635 Ma)
Ediacaran (635–538.8 Ma)
Proposed pre-Cambrian timeline (Shield et al. 2021, ICS working group on pre-Cryogenian chronostratigraphy), shown to
scale:[note 5]

Current ICC pre-Cambrian timeline (v2023/09), shown to scale:

Van Kranendonk et al. 2012 (GTS2012)
The book, Geologic Time Scale 2012, was the last commercial publication of an international chronostratigraphic chart that was
closely associated with the ICS.[2] It included a proposal to substantially revise the pre-Cryogenian time scale to reflect important
events such as the formation of the Solar System and the Great Oxidation Event, among others, while at the same time
maintaining most of the previous chronostratigraphic nomenclature for the pertinent time span.[73] As of April 2022 these
proposed changes have not been accepted by the ICS. The proposed changes (changes from the current scale [v2023/09]) are
italicised:

Hadean Eon (4567–4030 Ma)

Chaotian Era/Erathem (4567–4404 Ma) – the name alluding both to the mythological Chaos and the chaotic
phase of planet formation.[61][74][75]
Jack Hillsian or Zirconian Era/Erathem (4404–4030 Ma) – both names allude to the Jack Hills Greenstone Belt
which provided the oldest mineral grains on Earth, zircons.[61][74]
Archean Eon/Eonothem (4030–2420 Ma)
Paleoarchean Era/Erathem (4030–3490 Ma)
Acastan Period/System (4030–3810 Ma) – named after the Acasta Gneiss, one of the oldest preserved
pieces of continental crust.[61][74]
Isuan Period/System (3810–3490 Ma) – named after the Isua Greenstone Belt.[61]
Mesoarchean Era/Erathem (3490–2780 Ma)
Vaalbaran Period/System (3490–3020 Ma) – based on the names of the Kaapvaal (Southern Africa) and
Pilbara (Western Australia) cratons, to reflect the growth of stable continental nuclei or proto-cratonic
kernels.[61]
Pongolan Period/System (3020–2780 Ma) – named after the Pongola Supergroup, in reference to the well
preserved evidence of terrestrial microbial communities in those rocks.[61]
Neoarchean Era/Erathem (2780–2420 Ma)
Methanian Period/System (2780–2630 Ma) – named for the inferred predominance of methanotrophic
prokaryotes[61]
Siderian Period/System (2630–2420 Ma) – named for the voluminous banded iron formations formed
within its duration.[61]
Proterozoic Eon/Eonothem (2420–538.8 Ma)[note 4]
Paleoproterozoic Era/Erathem (2420–1780 Ma)
Oxygenian Period/System (2420–2250 Ma) – named for displaying the first evidence for a global oxidising
atmosphere.[61]
Jatulian or Eukaryian Period/System (2250–2060 Ma) – names are respectively for the Lomagundi–Jatuli
δ13C isotopic excursion event spanning its duration, and for the (proposed)[76][77] first fossil appearance of
eukaryotes.[61]
Columbian Period/System (2060–1780 Ma) – named after the supercontinent Columbia.[61]
Mesoproterozoic Era/Erathem (1780–850 Ma)

Rodinian Period/System (1780–850 Ma) – named after the supercontinent Rodinia, stable environment.[61]
Proposed pre-Cambrian timeline (GTS2012), shown to scale:

Current ICC pre-Cambrian timeline (v2023/09), shown to scale:

Table of geologic time
The following table summarises the major events and characteristics of the divisions making up the geologic time scale of Earth.
This table is arranged with the most recent geologic periods at the top, and the oldest at the bottom. The height of each table entry
does not correspond to the duration of each subdivision of time. As such, this table is not to scale and does not accurately
represent the relative time-spans of each geochronologic unit. While the Phanerozoic Eon looks longer than the rest, it merely
spans ~539 million years (~12% of Earth's history), whilst the previous three eons[note 2] collectively span ~3,461 million years
(~76% of Earth's history). This bias toward the most recent eon is in part due to the relative lack of information about events that
occurred during the first three eons compared to the current eon (the Phanerozoic).[4][78] The use of subseries/subepochs has been
ratified by the ICS.[15]

While some regional terms are still in use,[5] the table of geologic time conforms to the nomenclature, ages, and colour codes set
forth by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in the official International Chronostratigraphic Chart.[1][79] The
International Commission on Stratigraphy also provide an online interactive version of this chart. The interactive version is based
on a service delivering a machine-readable Resource Description Framework/Web Ontology Language representation of the time
scale, which is available through the Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience Information GeoSciML
project as a service[80] and at a SPARQL end-point.[81][82]
 Start,
Eonothem/ Erathem/ System/ Series/ Stage/ million
Major events years ago
Eon Era Period Epoch Age
[note 6]

Phanerozoic Cenozoic Quaternary 4.2-kiloyear event,

[note 3] Austronesian
Meghalayan expansion, 0.0042 *
increasing industrial
CO2.

8.2-kiloyear event,
Holocene climatic
optimum. Sea level
flooding of
Doggerland and
Sundaland. Sahara
becomes a desert.
Northgrippian 0.0082 *
End of Stone Age
and start of
recorded history.
Holocene Humans finally
expand into the
Arctic Archipelago
and Greenland.
Climate stabilises.
Current interglacial
and Holocene
extinction begins.
Agriculture begins. 0.0117
Humans spread ± 0.000099
Greenlandian
across the wet *
Sahara and Arabia,
the Extreme North,
and the Americas
(mainland and the
Caribbean).
Pleistocene Eemian interglacial,
last glacial period,
ending with
Younger Dryas.
Toba eruption.
Pleistocene
Upper/Late
megafauna 0.129
('Tarantian')
(including the last
terror birds)
extinction. Humans
expand into Near
Oceania and the
Americas.
Mid-Pleistocene
Transition occurs,
high amplitude 100
Chibanian
ka glacial cycles. 0.774 *
Rise of Homo
sapiens.
Further cooling of
the climate. Giant
terror birds go
Calabrian extinct. Spread of 1.8 *
Homo erectus
across Afro-
Eurasia.
Gelasian Start of Quaternary 2.58 *
glaciations and
unstable climate.[83]
Rise of the
 Pleistocene
megafauna and
Homo habilis.
Neogene Greenland ice sheet
develops[84] as the
cold slowly
intensifies towards
the Pleistocene.
Atmospheric O2
and CO2 content
reaches present-
day levels while
landmasses also
reach their current
locations (e.g. the
Piacenzian Isthmus of Panama 3.6 *
joins the North and
South Americas,
while allowing a
faunal interchange).
Pliocene The last non-
marsupial
metatherians go
extinct.
Australopithecus
common in East
Africa; Stone Age
begins.[85]
Zanclean flooding
of the
Mediterranean
Basin. Cooling
climate continues
Zanclean from the Miocene. 5.333 *
First equines and
elephantines.
Ardipithecus in
Africa.[85]
Miocene Messinian Event
with hypersaline
lakes in empty
Mediterranean
Basin. Sahara
desert formation
Messinian begins. Moderate 7.246 *
icehouse climate,
punctuated by ice
ages and re-
establishment of
East Antarctic Ice
Sheet.
Choristoderes, the
last non-crocodilian
crocodylomorphs
and creodonts go
extinct. After
separating from
Tortonian 11.63 *
gorilla ancestors,
chimpanzee and
human ancestors
gradually separate;
Sahelanthropus and
Orrorin in Africa.
Serravallian Middle Miocene 13.82 *
climate optimum
temporarily
provides a warm
 climate.[86]
Extinctions in
middle Miocene
disruption,
Langhian decreasing shark 15.98 *
diversity. First
hippos. Ancestor of
great apes.
Orogeny in
Northern
Hemisphere. Start
of Kaikoura
Orogeny forming
Southern Alps in
New Zealand.
Widespread forests
slowly draw in
Burdigalian massive amounts of 20.44
CO2, gradually
lowering the level of
atmospheric CO2
from 650 ppmv
down to around 100
ppmv during the
Miocene.[87][note 7]
Modern bird and
mammal families
become
recognizable. The
last of the primitive
whales go extinct.
Grasses become
ubiquitous.
Ancestor of apes,
including
humans.[88][89] Afro-
Arabia collides with
Aquitanian 23.03 *
Eurasia, fully
forming the Alpide
Belt and closing the
Tethys Ocean, while
allowing a faunal
interchange. At the
same time, Afro-
Arabia splits into
Africa and West
Asia.
Paleogene Grande Coupure
extinction. Start of
widespread
Antarctic
glaciation.[90] Rapid
Chattian evolution and 27.82 *
diversification of
fauna, especially
mammals (e.g. first
macropods and
Oligocene seals). Major
evolution and
dispersal of modern
types of flowering
plants.
Cimolestans,
Rupelian miacoids and 33.9 *
condylarths go
extinct. First
neocetes (modern,
fully aquatic
whales) appear.
 Moderate, cooling
climate. Archaic
mammals (e.g.
creodonts,
miacoids,
Priabonian "condylarths" etc.) 37.71 *
flourish and
continue to develop
during the epoch.
Appearance of
several "modern"
mammal families.
Primitive whales
and sea cows
diversify after
returning to water.
Birds continue to
diversify. First kelp,
Bartonian 41.2
diprotodonts, bears
and simians. The
multituberculates
and leptictidans go
extinct by the end of
the epoch.
Reglaciation of
Antarctica and
formation of its ice
cap; End of
Laramide and
Sevier Orogenies of
Lutetian the Rocky 47.8 *
Mountains in North
America. Hellenic
Orogeny begins in
Eocene Greece and Aegean
Sea.
Two transient
events of global
warming (PETM
and ETM-2) and
warming climate
until the Eocene
Climatic Optimum.
The Azolla event
decreased CO2
levels from 3500
ppm to 650 ppm,
setting the stage for
a long period of
cooling.[87][note 7]
Greater India
Ypresian collides with 56 *
Eurasia and starts
Himalayan Orogeny
(allowing a biotic
interchange) while
Eurasia completely
separates from
North America,
creating the North
Atlantic Ocean.
Maritime Southeast
Asia diverges from
the rest of Eurasia.
First passerines,
ruminants,
pangolins, bats and
true primates.
 Starts with
Chicxulub impact
and the K–Pg
extinction event,
wiping out all non-
avian dinosaurs and
pterosaurs, most
Thanetian
marine reptiles, 59.2 *
many other
vertebrates (e.g.
many Laurasian
metatherians), most
cephalopods (only
Nautilidae and
Coleoidea survived)
and many other
invertebrates.
Climate tropical.
Mammals and birds
(avians) diversify
rapidly into a
number of lineages
Paleocene Selandian 61.6 *
following the
extinction event
(while the marine
revolution stops).
Multituberculates
and the first rodents
widespread. First
large birds (e.g.
ratites and terror
birds) and
mammals (up to
bear or small hippo
size). Alpine
orogeny in Europe
and Asia begins.
Danian 66 *
First proboscideans
and
plesiadapiformes
(stem primates)
appear. Some
marsupials migrate
to Australia.
Mesozoic Cretaceous Flowering plants 72.1 ± 0.2
Maastrichtian *
proliferate (after
developing many
features since the 83.6 ± 0.2
Campanian *
Carboniferous),
along with new
types of insects, 86.3 ± 0.5
Upper/Late Santonian *
while other seed
plants
(gymnosperms and 89.8 ± 0.3
Coniacian *
seed ferns) decline.
More modern
Turonian teleost fish begin to 93.9 *
appear.
Cenomanian
Ammonoids, 100.5 *
belemnites, rudist
Lower/Early Albian ~113 *
bivalves, sea
urchins and
sponges all
common. Many new
types of dinosaurs
(e.g. tyrannosaurs,
titanosaurs,
hadrosaurs, and
ceratopsids) evolve
on land, while
 crocodilians appear
in water and
probably cause the
last temnospondyls
to die out; and
mosasaurs and
modern types of
sharks appear in
the sea. The
revolution started
by marine reptiles
and sharks reaches
its peak, though
ichthyosaurs vanish
a few million years
after being heavily
reduced at the
Bonarelli Event.
Toothed and
toothless avian
birds coexist with
pterosaurs. Modern
monotremes,
metatherian
(including
marsupials, who
migrate to South
America) and
eutherian (including
placentals,
leptictidans and
cimolestans)
mammals appear
while the last non-
mammalian
cynodonts die out.
First terrestrial
crabs. Many snails
become terrestrial.
Further breakup of
Gondwana creates
South America,
Afro-Arabia,
Antarctica,
Oceania,
Madagascar,
Greater India, and
the South Atlantic,
Indian and Antarctic
Oceans and the
islands of the Indian
(and some of the
Atlantic) Ocean.
Beginning of
Laramide and
Sevier Orogenies of
the Rocky
Aptian Mountains. ~121.4
Atmospheric
Barremian oxygen and carbon ~125.77 *
dioxide levels
Hauterivian similar to present ~132.6 *
day. Acritarchs
Valanginian ~139.8
disappear. Climate
Berriasian initially warm, but ~145
later it cools.
Jurassic Upper/Late Tithonian Climate becomes 149.2 ± 0.9
humid again.
Gymnosperms 154.8 ± 1.0
Kimmeridgian *
(especially conifers,
cycads and
 Oxfordian cycadeoids) and 161.5 ± 1.0
ferns common.
Dinosaurs,
including
sauropods,
carnosaurs,
stegosaurs and
coelurosaurs,
become the
dominant land
vertebrates.
Mammals diversify
into shuotheriids,
australosphenidans,
eutriconodonts,
Callovian multituberculates, 165.3 ± 1.2
symmetrodonts,
dryolestids and
boreosphenidans
Middle but mostly remain
small. First birds,
lizards, snakes and
turtles. First brown
algae, rays,
shrimps, crabs and
lobsters.
Parvipelvian
ichthyosaurs and
plesiosaurs diverse.
Rhynchocephalians 168.2 ± 1.3
Bathonian throughout the *
world. Bivalves,
ammonoids and 170.9 ± 1.4
Bajocian belemnites *
abundant. Sea
urchins very 174.7 ± 1.0
Aalenian common, along with *
crinoids, starfish,
Lower/Early sponges, and
terebratulid and
rhynchonellid
brachiopods.
Breakup of
Pangaea into
Laurasia and
Gondwana, with the
latter also breaking
into two main parts;
the Pacific and
Arctic Oceans form.
Tethys Ocean
forms. Nevadan 184.2 ± 0.7
Toarcian *
orogeny in North
America. Rangitata
and Cimmerian
orogenies taper off.
Atmospheric CO2
levels 3–4 times the
present-day levels
(1200–1500 ppmv,
compared to
today's 400
ppmv[87][note 7]).
Crocodylomorphs
(last
pseudosuchians)
seek out an aquatic 192.9 ± 1.0
Pliensbachian *
lifestyle. Mesozoic
marine revolution
continues from late 199.5 ± 0.3
Sinemurian *
Triassic.
 Tentaculitans 201.4 ± 0.2
Hettangian disappear. *

Triassic Rhaetian Archosaurs ~208.5

dominant on land
Upper/Late Norian as pseudosuchians ~227
and in the air as
Carnian pterosaurs. ~237 *
Dinosaurs also
arise from bipedal
archosaurs.
Ichthyosaurs and
nothosaurs (a group
of sauropterygians)
dominate large
marine fauna.
Cynodonts become
smaller and
nocturnal,
eventually
becoming the first
true mammals,
while other
remaining
synapsids die out.
Rhynchosaurs
(archosaur
relatives) also
Ladinian common. Seed ~242 *
Middle ferns called
Dicroidium
remained common
in Gondwana,
before being
replaced by
advanced
gymnosperms.
Many large aquatic
temnospondyl
amphibians.
Ceratitidan
ammonoids
extremely common.
Modern corals and
teleost fish appear,
as do many modern
insect orders and
suborders. First
starfish. Andean
Anisian Orogeny in South 247.2
America.
Lower/Early Olenekian Cimmerian Orogeny 251.2
in Asia. Rangitata
Orogeny begins in
New Zealand.
Hunter-Bowen
Orogeny in
Northern Australia,
Queensland and
New South Wales
ends, (c. 260–
225 Ma). Carnian
pluvial event occurs
around 234–232
Ma, allowing the
first dinosaurs and
lepidosaurs
(including
rhynchocephalians)
to radiate. Triassic–
Jurassic extinction
 event occurs
201 Ma, wiping out
all conodonts and
the last
parareptiles, many
marine reptiles (e.g.
all sauropterygians
except plesiosaurs
and all ichthyosaurs
except
parvipelvians), all
crocopodans except
crocodylomorphs,
pterosaurs, and
dinosaurs, and
many ammonoids
(including the whole
Ceratitida),
bivalves,
brachiopods, corals 251.902
Induan and sponges. First
± 0.024 *
diatoms.[91]
Paleozoic Permian Landmasses unite 254.14
Changhsingian into supercontinent ± 0.07 *
Lopingian Pangaea, creating
the Urals, 259.51
Wuchiapingian
Ouachitas and ± 0.21 *
Appalachians,
Guadalupian Capitanian among other 264.28
mountain ranges ± 0.16 *
(the superocean
Panthalassa or
Proto-Pacific also
forms). End of
Permo-
Carboniferous
glaciation. Hot and
dry climate. A
possible drop in
oxygen levels.
Synapsids
(pelycosaurs and
therapsids) become
widespread and
dominant, while
parareptiles and
temnospondyl
amphibians remain
common, with the
latter probably
giving rise to
modern amphibians
in this period. In the
mid-Permian,
lycophytes are
heavily replaced by
ferns and seed
plants. Beetles and
flies evolve. The
very large
arthropods and
non-tetrapod
tetrapodomorphs go
extinct. Marine life
flourishes in warm
shallow reefs;
productid and
spiriferid
brachiopods,
bivalves, forams,
ammonoids
 (including
goniatites), and
orthoceridans all
abundant. Crown
reptiles arise from 266.9 ± 0.4
Wordian earlier diapsids, and *
split into the
ancestors of 273.01
Roadian lepidosaurs, ± 0.14 *
kuehneosaurids,
choristoderes,
archosaurs,
testudinatans,
ichthyosaurs,
thalattosaurs, and
sauropterygians.
Cynodonts evolve
from larger
therapsids. Olson's
Extinction (273 Ma),
End-Capitanian
extinction (260 Ma),
and Permian–
Triassic extinction
event (252 Ma)
occur one after
another: more than
80% of life on Earth
becomes extinct in
the lattermost,
including most
retarian plankton,
corals (Tabulata
Kungurian and Rugosa die out 283.5 ± 0.6
fully), brachiopods,
bryozoans,
gastropods,
Cisuralian ammonoids (the
goniatites die off
fully), insects,
parareptiles,
synapsids,
amphibians, and
crinoids (only
articulates
survived), and all
eurypterids,
trilobites,
graptolites, hyoliths,
edrioasteroid
crinozoans,
blastoids and
acanthodians.
Ouachita and
Innuitian orogenies
in North America.
Uralian orogeny in
Europe/Asia tapers 290.1
Artinskian off. Altaid orogeny
± 0.26 *
in Asia. Hunter-
Bowen Orogeny on 293.52
Sakmarian Australian continent ± 0.17 *
begins (c. 260–
225 Ma), forming 298.9
Asselian the New England ± 0.15 *
Fold Belt.
Carboniferous Pennsylvanian Gzhelian Winged insects 303.7
[note 8] [note 9] radiate suddenly;
some (esp.
Protodonata and
Palaeodictyoptera)
 of them as well as
some millipedes
and scorpions
become very large.
First coal forests
(scale trees, ferns,
club trees, giant
horsetails,
Cordaites, etc.).
Higher atmospheric
oxygen levels. Ice
Age continues to
the Early Permian.
Goniatites,
brachiopods,
bryozoa, bivalves,
and corals plentiful
Kasimovian in the seas and 307 ± 0.1
oceans. First
woodlice. Testate
forams proliferate.
Euramerica collides
with Gondwana and
Siberia-
Kazakhstania, the
latter of which forms
Laurasia and the
Uralian orogeny.
Variscan orogeny
continues (these
collisions created
orogenies, and
Moscovian ultimately 315.2 ± 0.2
Pangaea).
Amphibians (e.g.
temnospondyls)
spread in
Euramerica, with
some becoming the
first amniotes.
Carboniferous
Rainforest Collapse
occurs, initiating a
dry climate which
favors amniotes
over amphibians.
Amniotes diversify
rapidly into
synapsids,
Bashkirian parareptiles, 323.2 *
cotylosaurs,
protorothyridids and
diapsids.
Rhizodonts
remained common
before they died out
by the end of the
period. First sharks.
Mississippian Large lycopodian
[note 9] primitive trees
flourish and
amphibious
eurypterids live
amid coal-forming
Serpukhovian coastal swamps, 330.9 ± 0.2
radiating
significantly one last
time. First
gymnosperms. First
holometabolous,
paraneopteran,
polyneopteran,
 odonatopteran and
ephemeropteran
insects and first
barnacles. First
five-digited
tetrapods
(amphibians) and
land snails. In the
oceans, bony and
cartilaginous fishes
are dominant and 346.7 ± 0.4
Viséan *
diverse;
echinoderms
(especially crinoids
and blastoids)
abundant. Corals,
bryozoans,
orthoceridans,
goniatites and
brachiopods
(Productida,
Spiriferida, etc.)
recover and
become very
common again, but
trilobites and
nautiloids decline.
Glaciation in East
Gondwana
continues from Late
Devonian. Tuhua
Orogeny in New
Zealand tapers off. 358.9 ± 0.4
Tournaisian Some lobe finned *
fish called
rhizodonts become
abundant and
dominant in
freshwaters. Siberia
collides with a
different small
continent,
Kazakhstania.

Devonian First lycopods, 372.2 ± 1.6

Famennian ferns, seed plants *
Upper/Late (seed ferns, from
earlier 382.7 ± 1.6
Frasnian *
progymnosperms),
first trees (the
Middle Givetian progymnosperm 387.7 ± 0.8
*
Archaeopteris), and
first winged insects
(palaeoptera and
neoptera).
Strophomenid and
atrypid
brachiopods,
rugose and tabulate
corals, and crinoids
are all abundant in
the oceans. First
fully coiled
cephalopods
(Ammonoidea and
Nautilida,
independently) with
the former group
very abundant
(especially
goniatites).
 Trilobites and
ostracoderms
decline, while jawed
fishes (placoderms,
lobe-finned and ray-
finned bony fish,
and acanthodians
and early
cartilaginous fish)
proliferate. Some
lobe finned fish
transform into
digited fishapods,
slowly becoming
amphibious. The
last non-trilobite 393.3 ± 1.2
Eifelian *
artiopods die off.
First decapods (like
prawns) and
isopods. Pressure
from jawed fishes
cause eurypterids
to decline and some
cephalopods to lose
their shells while
anomalocarids
vanish. "Old Red
Continent" of
Euramerica persists
after forming in the
Caledonian
orogeny. Beginning
of Acadian Orogeny
for Anti-Atlas
Mountains of North 407.6 ± 2.6
Emsian Africa, and *
Appalachian
Mountains of North
Lower/Early America, also the
Antler, Variscan,
and Tuhua
orogenies in New
Zealand. A series of
extinction events,
including the
massive Kellwasser
and Hangenberg
ones, wipe out
many acritarchs,
corals, sponges,
molluscs, trilobites,
eurypterids,
graptolites,
brachiopods,
crinozoans (e.g. all 410.8 ± 2.8
Pragian *
cystoids), and fish,
including all
419.2 ± 3.2
Lochkovian placoderms and *
ostracoderms.
Silurian Pridoli Ozone layer 423 ± 2.3 *
thickens. First
Ludlow Ludfordian vascular plants and 425.6 ± 0.9
fully terrestrialised *
arthropods:
myriapods,
hexapods (including
insects), and
arachnids.
Eurypterids
diversify rapidly,
becoming
 widespread and
dominant.
Cephalopods
continue to flourish.
True jawed fishes,
along with
427.4 ± 0.5
Gorstian ostracoderms, also *
roam the seas.
Tabulate and
rugose corals,
brachiopods
(Pentamerida,
Rhynchonellida,
etc.), cystoids and
crinoids all
abundant. Trilobites 430.5 ± 0.7
Homerian *
and molluscs
Wenlock diverse; graptolites
not as varied. Three
minor extinction
events. Some
echinoderms go
extinct. Beginning
of Caledonian
Orogeny (collision
433.4 ± 0.8
Sheinwoodian between Laurentia, *
Baltica and one of
the formerly small
Gondwanan
terranes) for hills in
England, Ireland,
Wales, Scotland,
and the
Scandinavian
Mountains. Also 438.5 ± 1.1
Telychian *
continued into
Devonian period as
the Acadian
Llandovery
Orogeny, above
(thus Euramerica
forms). Taconic
Orogeny tapers off.
Icehouse period
ends late in this
440.8 ± 1.2
Aeronian period after starting *
in Late Ordovician.
Lachlan Orogeny 443.8 ± 1.5
Rhuddanian on Australian *
continent tapers off.
Ordovician The Great 445.2 ± 1.4
Hirnantian *
Ordovician
Biodiversification
Upper/Late Katian Event occurs as 453 ± 0.7 *
plankton increase in
number: 458.4 ± 0.9
Sandbian *
invertebrates
diversify into many
Middle Darriwilian new types 467.3 ± 1.1
*
(especially
brachiopods and
molluscs; e.g. long
straight-shelled
cephalopods like
the long lasting and
diverse
Orthocerida). Early
corals, articulate
brachiopods
(Orthida,
Strophomenida,
etc.), bivalves,
 cephalopods
(nautiloids),
trilobites, ostracods,
bryozoans, many
types of
echinoderms
(blastoids, cystoids,
crinoids, sea
urchins, sea
cucumbers, and
star-like forms,
etc.), branched
graptolites, and
other taxa all
common. Acritarchs
Dapingian still persist and 470 ± 1.4 *
common.
Cephalopods
become dominant
and common, with
some trending
toward a coiled
shell.
Anomalocarids
decline. Mysterious
tentaculitans
appear. First
eurypterids and
ostracoderm fish
appear, the latter
probably giving rise
Floian to the jawed fish at 477.7 ± 1.4
(formerly the end of the *
Arenig) period. First
Lower/Early
uncontroversial
terrestrial fungi and
fully terrestrialised
plants. Ice age at
the end of this
period, as well as a
series of mass
extinction events,
killing off some
cephalopods and
many brachiopods,
bryozoans,
echinoderms,
graptolites,
trilobites, bivalves, 485.4 ± 1.9
Tremadocian corals and *
conodonts.
Cambrian Stage 10 Major diversification ~489.5
of (fossils mainly
Furongian Jiangshanian show bilaterian) life ~494 *
in the Cambrian
Paibian Explosion as ~497 *
oxygen levels
Miaolingian Guzhangian
increase. Numerous ~500.5 *
fossils; most
modern animal
phyla (including
arthropods,
molluscs, annelids,
echinoderms,
hemichordates and
chordates) appear.
Reef-building
archaeocyathan
sponges initially
abundant, then
vanish.
 Stromatolites
replace them, but
quickly fall prey to
the Agronomic
revolution, when
some animals
started burrowing
through the
microbial mats
(affecting some
other animals as
well). First artiopods
(including trilobites),
priapulid worms,
Drumian inarticulate ~504.5 *
brachiopods
Wuliuan ~509
(unhinged
lampshells),
hyoliths, bryozoans,
graptolites,
pentaradial
echinoderms (e.g.
blastozoans,
crinozoans and
eleutherozoans),
and numerous other
animals.
Anomalocarids are
dominant and giant
predators, while
many Ediacaran
Stage 4 fauna die out. ~514
Series 2 Crustaceans and
molluscs diversify
rapidly.
Prokaryotes,
protists (e.g.,
forams), algae and
fungi continue to
present day. First
vertebrates from
earlier chordates.
Petermann
Orogeny on the
Australian continent
tapers off (550–
Stage 3 535 Ma). Ross ~521
Orogeny in
Terreneuvian Stage 2 Antarctica. ~529
Delamerian
Orogeny (c. 514–
490 Ma) on
Australian
continent. Some
small terranes split
off from Gondwana.
Atmospheric CO2
content roughly 15
times present-day
(Holocene) levels
(6000 ppm
compared to
today's
400 ppm)[87][note 7]
Arthropods and
streptophyta start
colonising land. 3
extinction events
occur 517, 502 and
488 Ma, the first
and last of which
 wipe out many of
the anomalocarids,
artiopods, hyoliths,
brachiopods,
molluscs, and 538.8 ± 0.2
Fortunian conodonts (early *
jawless
Proterozoic vertebrates).
Good fossils of primitive animals. Ediacaran biota
flourish worldwide in seas, possibly appearing after an
explosion, possibly caused by a large-scale oxidation
event.[92] First vendozoans (unknown affinity among
animals), cnidarians and bilaterians. Enigmatic
vendozoans include many soft-jellied creatures shaped
like bags, disks, or quilts (like Dickinsonia). Simple
trace fossils of possible worm-like Trichophycus,
Ediacaran etc.Taconic Orogeny in North America. Aravalli Range ~635 *
orogeny in Indian subcontinent. Beginning of Pan-
African Orogeny, leading to the formation of the short-
lived Ediacaran supercontinent Pannotia, which by the
end of the period breaks up into Laurentia, Baltica,
Siberia and Gondwana. Petermann Orogeny forms on
Australian continent. Beardmore Orogeny in Antarctica,
633–620 Ma. Ozone layer forms. An increase in
oceanic mineral levels.
Possible "Snowball Earth" period. Fossils still rare. Late
Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in Antarctica tapers off. First
Cryogenian ~720
uncontroversial animal fossils. First hypothetical
Neoproterozoic terrestrial fungi[93] and streptophyta.[94]
Final assembly of Rodinia supercontinent occurs in
early Tonian, with breakup beginning c. 800 Ma.
Sveconorwegian orogeny ends. Grenville Orogeny
tapers off in North America. Lake Ruker / Nimrod
Orogeny in Antarctica, 1,000 ± 150 Ma. Edmundian
Orogeny (c. 920–850 Ma), Gascoyne Complex,
Western Australia. Deposition of Adelaide Superbasin
and Centralian Superbasin begins on Australian
continent. First hypothetical animals (from holozoans)
and terrestrial algal mats. Many endosymbiotic events 1000
Tonian concerning red and green algae occur, transferring [note 10]
plastids to ochrophyta (e.g. diatoms, brown algae),
dinoflagellates, cryptophyta, haptophyta, and euglenids
(the events may have begun in the
Mesoproterozoic)[95] while the first retarians (e.g.
forams) also appear: eukaryotes diversify rapidly,
including algal, eukaryovoric and biomineralised forms.
Trace fossils of simple multi-celled eukaryotes.
Neoproterozoic oxygenation event (NOE), 850–540
Ma.[96]
Narrow highly metamorphic belts due to orogeny as
Rodinia forms, surrounded by the Pan-African Ocean.
Sveconorwegian orogeny starts. Late Ruker / Nimrod 1200
Stenian [note 10]
Orogeny in Antarctica possibly begins. Musgrave
Orogeny (c. 1,080–), Musgrave Block, Central
Australia. Stromatolites decline as algae proliferate.
Platform covers continue to expand. Algal colonies in
1400
Ectasian the seas. Grenville Orogeny in North America. [note 10]
Mesoproterozoic Columbia breaks up.

Platform covers expand. Barramundi Orogeny,

McArthur Basin, Northern Australia, and Isan Orogeny,
c. 1,600 Ma, Mount Isa Block, Queensland. First
archaeplastidans (the first eukaryotes with plastids from 1600
Calymmian [note 10]
cyanobacteria; e.g. red and green algae) and
opisthokonts (giving rise to the first fungi and
holozoans). Acritarchs (remains of marine algae
possibly) start appearing in the fossil record.
 First uncontroversial eukaryotes: protists with nuclei
and endomembrane system. Columbia forms as the
second undisputed earliest supercontinent. Kimban
Orogeny in Australian continent ends. Yapungku 1800
Statherian Orogeny on Yilgarn craton, in Western Australia. [note 10]
Mangaroon Orogeny, 1,680–1,620 Ma, on the
Gascoyne Complex in Western Australia. Kararan
Orogeny (1,650 Ma), Gawler Craton, South Australia.
Oxygen levels drop again.
The atmosphere becomes much more oxygenic while
more cyanobacterial stromatolites appear. Vredefort
Paleoproterozoic and Sudbury Basin asteroid impacts. Much orogeny.
Penokean and Trans-Hudsonian Orogenies in North 2050
Orosirian [note 10]
America. Early Ruker Orogeny in Antarctica, 2,000–
1,700 Ma. Glenburgh Orogeny, Glenburgh Terrane,
Australian continent c. 2,005–1,920 Ma. Kimban
Orogeny, Gawler craton in Australian continent begins.
Bushveld Igneous Complex forms. Huronian glaciation. 2300
Rhyacian First hypothetical eukaryotes. Multicellular Francevillian [note 10]
biota. Kenorland disassembles.
Great Oxidation Event (due to cyanobacteria) increases
2500
Siderian oxygen. Sleaford Orogeny on Australian continent, [note 10]
Gawler Craton 2,440–2,420 Ma.
Stabilization of most modern cratons; possible mantle overturn event.
Insell Orogeny, 2,650 ± 150 Ma. Abitibi greenstone belt in present-day
2800
Neoarchean Ontario and Quebec begins to form, stabilises by 2,600 Ma. First [note 10]
uncontroversial supercontinent, Kenorland, and first terrestrial
prokaryotes.
First stromatolites (probably colonial phototrophic bacteria, like
cyanobacteria). Oldest macrofossils. Humboldt Orogeny in Antarctica. 3200
Mesoarchean [note 10]
Blake River Megacaldera Complex begins to form in present-day Ontario
and Quebec, ends by roughly 2,696 Ma.

Archean Prokaryotic archaea (e.g. methanogens) and bacteria (e.g.

cyanobacteria) diversify rapidly, along with early viruses. First known
phototrophic bacteria. Oldest definitive microfossils. First microbial mats. 3600
Paleoarchean [note 10]
Oldest cratons on Earth (such as the Canadian Shield and the Pilbara
Craton) may have formed during this period.[note 11] Rayner Orogeny in
Antarctica.
First uncontroversial living organisms: at first protocells with RNA-based
genes around 4000 Ma, after which true cells (prokaryotes) evolve along 4031
Eoarchean with proteins and DNA-based genes around 3800 Ma. The end of the [note 10]
Late Heavy Bombardment. Napier Orogeny in Antarctica,
4,000 ± 200 Ma.

Formation of protolith of the oldest known rock (Acasta Gneiss) c. 4,031 to 3,580 Ma.[97][98]
Possible first appearance of plate tectonics. First hypothetical life forms. End of the Early 4567.3
Hadean Bombardment Phase. Oldest known mineral (Zircon, 4,404 ± 8 Ma).[99] Asteroids and ± 0.16
[note 10]
comets bring water to Earth, forming the first oceans. Formation of Moon (4,510 Ma),
probably from a giant impact. Formation of Earth (4,543 to 4,540 Ma)

Non-Earth based geologic time scales

Some other planets and satellites in the Solar System have sufficiently rigid structures to have preserved records of their own
histories, for example, Venus, Mars and the Earth's Moon. Dominantly fluid planets, such as the giant planets, do not comparably
preserve their history. Apart from the Late Heavy Bombardment, events on other planets probably had little direct influence on
the Earth, and events on Earth had correspondingly little effect on those planets. Construction of a time scale that links the
planets is, therefore, of only limited relevance to the Earth's time scale, except in a Solar System context. The existence, timing,
and terrestrial effects of the Late Heavy Bombardment are still a matter of debate.[note 12]

Lunar (selenological) time scale

The geologic history of Earth's Moon has been divided into a time scale based on geomorphological markers, namely impact
cratering, volcanism, and erosion. This process of dividing the Moon's history in this manner means that the time scale
boundaries do not imply fundamental changes in geological processes, unlike Earth's geologic time scale. Five geologic
systems/periods (Pre-Nectarian, Nectarian, Imbrian, Eratosthenian, Copernican), with the Imbrian divided into two series/epochs
(Early and Late) were defined in the latest Lunar geologic time scale.[100] The Moon is unique in the Solar System in that it is the
only other body from which humans have rock samples with a known geological context.

Millions of years before present

Martian geologic time scale

The geological history of Mars has been divided into two alternate time scales. The first time scale for Mars was developed by
studying the impact crater densities on the Martian surface. Through this method four periods have been defined, the Pre-
Noachian (~4,500–4,100 Ma), Noachian (~4,100–3,700 Ma), Hesperian (~3,700–3,000 Ma), and Amazonian (~3,000 Ma to
present).[101][102]

Martian time periods (millions of years ago)

Epochs:

A second time scale based on mineral alteration observed by the OMEGA spectrometer on board the Mars Express. Using this
method, three periods were defined, the Phyllocian (~4,500–4,000 Ma), Theiikian (~4,000–3,500 Ma), and Siderikian (~3,500
Ma to present).[103]

See also

Geology portal

Age of the Earth List of geochronologic names

Cosmic calendar Logarithmic timeline
Deep time Lunar geologic timescale
Evolutionary history of life Martian geologic timescale
Formation and evolution of the Solar System Natural history
Geological history of Earth New Zealand geologic time scale
Geology of Mars Prehistoric life
Geon (geology) Timeline of the Big Bang
Graphical timeline of the universe Timeline of evolution
History of Earth Timeline of the geologic history of the United States
History of geology Timeline of human evolution
History of paleontology Timeline of natural history
List of fossil sites Timeline of paleontology

Notes
1. Time spans of geologic time units vary broadly, and there is no numeric limitation on the time span they can
 represent. They are limited by the time span of the higher rank unit they belong to, and to the chronostratigraphic
boundaries they are defined by.
2. Precambrian or pre-Cambrian is an informal geological term for time before the Cambrian period
3. The Tertiary is a now obsolete geologic system/period spanning from 66 Ma to 2.6 Ma. It has no exact equivalent
in the modern ICC, but is approximately equivalent to the merged Palaeogene and Neogene
systems/periods.[20][21]
4. Geochronometric date for the Ediacaran has been adjusted to reflect ICC v2023/09 as the formal definition for the
base of the Cambrian has not changed.
5. Kratian time span is not given in the article. It lies within the Neoarchean, and prior to the Siderian. The position
shown here is an arbitrary division.
6. The dates and uncertainties quoted are according to the International Commission on Stratigraphy International
Chronostratigraphic chart (v2023/06). An * indicates boundaries where a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and
Point has been internationally agreed.
7. For more information on this, see Atmosphere of Earth#Evolution of Earth's atmosphere, Carbon dioxide in the
Earth's atmosphere, and climate change. Specific graphs of reconstructed CO2 levels over the past ~550, 65, and
5 million years can be seen at File:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png, File:65 Myr Climate Change.png, File:Five
Myr Climate Change.png, respectively.
8. The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian are official sub-systems/sub-periods.
9. This is divided into Lower/Early, Middle, and Upper/Late series/epochs
10. Defined by absolute age (Global Standard Stratigraphic Age).
11. The age of the oldest measurable craton, or continental crust, is dated to 3,600–3,800 Ma.
12. Not enough is known about extra-solar planets for worthwhile speculation.

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terrains of the Seine basin and [that] constitute a
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distinct geological formation; preceded by an outline
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désirerais ... dont il faut également les distinguer."
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17. "Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Points" (htt perhaps after that of the Seine had been completely
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p://doi.wiley.com/10.1080/00241160500409223). "Quaternary" because the distinction between
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(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Letha..39...13 p. 193: "La crainte de voir mal comprise ... que ceux
K). doi:10.1080/00241160500409223 (https://doi.org/ du bassin de la Seine." (The fear of seeing my
10.1080%2F00241160500409223). opinion in this regard be misunderstood or
19. Remane, Jürgen; Bassett, Michael G; Cowie, John exaggerated, has made me abandon the word
W; Gohrbandt, Klaus H; Lane, H Richard; Michelsen, "quaternary", which at first I had wanted to apply to all
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ICS (1 September 1996). "Revised guidelines for the 23. d'Halloy, d'O., J.-J. (1822). "Observations sur un
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(ICS)" (https://doi.org/10.18814%2Fepiiugs%2F199 om/books?id=c-ocAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA353)
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5-3797). formation de la craie, sera désigné par le nom de
20. Head, Martin J.; Gibbard, Philip; Salvador, Amos (1 terrain crétacé." (The third, which corresponds to
June 2008). "The Quaternary: its character and what was already called the "chalk formation", will be
definition" (http://www.episodes.org/journal/view.html? designated by the name "chalky terrain".)
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Further reading
Aubry, Marie-Pierre; Van Couvering, John A.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas; Landing, Ed; Pratt, Brian R.; Owen, Donald
E.; Ferrusquia-Villafranca, Ismael (2009). "Terminology of geological time: Establishment of a community
standard". Stratigraphy. 6 (2): 100–105. doi:10.7916/D8DR35JQ (https://doi.org/10.7916%2FD8DR35JQ).
Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, J. G. (2004). "A Geologic Time scale 2004 – Why, How and Where Next!" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20180417173639/http://eesc.columbia.edu/courses/w4937/Readings/Gradstein_Ogg_2004.pdf)
(PDF). Lethaia. 37 (2): 175–181. Bibcode:2004Letha..37..175G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Letha..3
7..175G). doi:10.1080/00241160410006483 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00241160410006483). Archived from the
original (https://eesc.columbia.edu/courses/w4937/Readings/Gradstein_Ogg_2004.pdf) (PDF) on 17 April 2018.
Retrieved 30 November 2018.
Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G. (2004). A Geologic Time Scale 2004 (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=rse4v1P-f9kC). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78142-8. Retrieved
18 November 2011.
Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G.; Bleeker, Wouter; Laurens, Lucas, J. (June 2004). "A new
Geologic Time Scale, with special reference to Precambrian and Neogene" (https://doi.org/10.18814%2Fepiiugs%
2F2004%2Fv27i2%2F002). Episodes. 27 (2): 83–100. doi:10.18814/epiiugs/2004/v27i2/002 (https://doi.org/10.18
814%2Fepiiugs%2F2004%2Fv27i2%2F002).
Ialenti, Vincent (28 September 2014). "Embracing 'Deep Time' Thinking" (https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2014/
09/28/351692717/embracing-deep-time-thinking). NPR. NPR Cosmos & Culture.
Ialenti, Vincent (21 September 2014). "Pondering 'Deep Time' Could Inspire New Ways To View Climate Change"
(https://www.npr.org/sections/13.7/2014/09/21/350344129/pondering-deep-time-could-inspire-new-ways-to-view-c
limate-change). NPR. NPR Cosmos & Culture.
Knoll, Andrew H.; Walter, Malcolm R.; Narbonne, Guy M.; Christie-Blick, Nicholas (30 July 2004). "A New Period
for the Geologic Time Scale" (http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~ncb/Selected_Articles_all_files/17_Science%20305.
621.pdf) (PDF). Science. 305 (5684): 621–622. doi:10.1126/science.1098803 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscienc
e.1098803). PMID 15286353 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15286353). S2CID 32763298 (https://api.semantic
scholar.org/CorpusID:32763298). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20111215034718/http://www.ldeo.columb
ia.edu/%7Encb/Selected_Articles_all_files/17_Science%20305.621.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 15 December
2011. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
Levin, Harold L. (2010). "Time and Geology" (https://books.google.com/books?id=D0yl7Cqsu78C&pg=PA29). The
Earth Through Time (https://books.google.com/books?id=D0yl7Cqsu78C). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley &
Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-38774-0. Retrieved 18 November 2011.
Montenari, Michael (2016). Stratigraphy and Timescales (https://books.google.com/books?id=xzJQDAAAQBAJ)
(1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-811549-7.
Montenari, Michael (2017). Advances in Sequence Stratigraphy (https://www.sciencedirect.com/bookseries/stratig
raphy-and-timescales/vol/2/suppl/C) (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-813077-3.
Montenari, Michael (2018). Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology (https://www.sciencedirect.com/bookseries/str
atigraphy-and-timescales/vol/3/suppl/C) (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-
815098-6.
Montenari, Michael (2019). Case Studies in Isotope Stratigraphy (https://www.sciencedirect.com/bookseries/strati
graphy-and-timescales/vol/4/suppl/C) (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-817552-1.
 Montenari, Michael (2020). Carbon Isotope Stratigraphy (https://www.sciencedirect.com/bookseries/stratigraphy-a
nd-timescales/vol/5/suppl/C) (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-820991-2.
Montenari, Michael (2021). Calcareous Nannofossil Biostratigraphy (https://www.sciencedirect.com/bookseries/str
atigraphy-and-timescales/vol/6/suppl/C) (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-12-
824624-5.
Montenari, Michael (2022). Integrated Quaternary Stratigraphy (https://www.sciencedirect.com/bookseries/stratigr
aphy-and-timescales/vol/7/suppl/C) (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-323-98913-8.
Montenari, Michael (2023). Stratigraphy of Geo- and Biodynamic Processes (https://www.sciencedirect.com/book
series/stratigraphy-and-timescales/vol/8/suppl/C) (1st ed.). Amsterdam: Academic Press (Elsevier). ISBN 978-0-
323-99242-8.
Nichols, Gary (2013). Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (https://books.google.com/books?id=Gcgp5oLFrZMC) (2nd
ed.). Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-3592-4
Williams, Aiden (2019). Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (https://books.google.com/books?id=etVhxQEACAAJ)
(1st ed.). Forest Hills, NY: Callisto Reference. ISBN 978-1-64116-075-9

External links
The current version of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart can be found at stratigraphy.org/chart (https://st
ratigraphy.org/chart)
Interactive version of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart is found at stratigraphy.org/timescale (https://stra
tigraphy.org/timescale)
A list of current Global Boundary Stratotype and Section Points is found at stratigraphy.org/gssps (https://stratigra
phy.org/gssps/)
NASA: Geologic Time (https://web.archive.org/web/20050418090602/http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect2/Sect2_1b.htm
l) (archived 18 April 2005)
GSA: Geologic Time Scale (https://web.archive.org/web/20190120115100/https://www.geosociety.org/GSA/Educa
tion_Careers/Geologic_Time_Scale/GSA/timescale/home.aspx) (archived 20 January 2019)
British Geological Survey: Geological Timechart (http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/time/timechart/home.h
tml)
GeoWhen Database (https://web.archive.org/web/20040623025505/http://www.stratigraphy.org/geowhen/)
(archived 23 June 2004)
National Museum of Natural History – Geologic Time (https://web.archive.org/web/20051111150720/http://www.n
mnh.si.edu/paleo/geotime/index.htm) (archived 11 November 2005)
SeeGrid: Geological Time Systems (https://www.seegrid.csiro.au/twiki/bin/view/CGIModel/GeologicTime).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080723195950/https://www.seegrid.csiro.au/twiki/bin/view/CGIModel/Ge
ologicTime) 23 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Information model for the geologic time scale.
Exploring Time (http://exploringtime.org/?page=segments) from Planck Time to the lifespan of the universe
Episodes (https://web.archive.org/web/20120425232455/http://www.episodes.co.in/www/backissues/272/Time%2
0Scale.pdf), Gradstein, Felix M. et al. (2004) A new Geologic Time Scale, with special reference to Precambrian
and Neogene, Episodes, Vol. 27, no. 2 June 2004 (pdf)
Lane, Alfred C, and Marble, John Putman 1937. Report of the Committee on the measurement of geologic time (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=ckIrAAAAYAAJ)
Lessons for Children on Geologic Time (https://web.archive.org/web/20110714173934/http://www.newscienceless
ons.com/geology_lesson_plans.html) (archived 14 July 2011)
Deep Time – A History of the Earth : Interactive Infographic (http://deeptime.info)
Geology Buzz: Geologic Time Scale (https://geology.buzz/threads/geologic-time-scale.36/). Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20210812084221/https://geology.buzz/threads/geologic-time-scale.36/) 12 August 2021 at the
Wayback Machine.

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