Metabolism

Metabolism
- the sum of chemical reactions that take place in the body’s cell for the production of
energy and materials needed for growth and reproduction
- The sum of all chemical reactions involved in maintaining the dynamic state of a cell or
organism

Stages of Metabolism:
1. Biodegradation (catabolism) - process of breaking down large molecule into smaller
molecules.
2. Biosynthesis (anabolism) - the formation of large from smaller molecules
3. Energy production associated with Kreb Cycle and electron transport chain.

Uses of ATP
1. For muscle contraction and movement
2. For active transport of molecules and ions
3. For sysnthesis of biomolecules and ions

Categories of Carbohydrate metabolism in Human:

1. Glycogenesis - the synthesis of glycogen from glucose
2. Glycogenolysis - the breakdown of glycogen to glucose
3. Glycolysis - the oxidation of glucose or glycogen to glucose
4. Hexose monophosphate shunt - an alternative oxidate path for glucose
5. Kreb or citric acid cycle and electron transort chain - the final oxidative path for
carbon dioxide and water
6. Gluconeogenesis - the formation of glucose from non carbohydrate group

Hexose monophosphate shunt (Pentose Shunt)

The oxidation of glucose to lactic acid can also proceed through a series of steps called
the hexose monophosphate shunt or pentose shunt. This sequence is important because it
provides a five carbon sugar needed for the synthesis of nucleic acid and nuceotides and
because it makes available NADPH, the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate (NADP+), a coenzyme necessary for the synthesis of fatty acid and steroids. The
pathway is much more active in adipose tissue than in muscle. ATP is not generated in this in
pathway.

Glycolysis - anaerobic sequence for the breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid and lactic acid
each step is catalyzed by a particular enzyme and takes place in the absence of oxygen.
Glycolysis supplies the ATP needed for muscle contration.

Citric Acid Cycle (Kreb Cycle) - the aerobic sequence that convert pyruvic acid from
glycolysis through a series of steps to carbon dioxide and water. The cycle takes place in
mitochondria.
The role of vitamin B in the Citric Acid Cycle

There are four vitamin B necessary for the proper functioning of the citric acid cycle.
1. Riboflavin in the form of Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) a cofactor in the
alpha-ketoglutrate dehydrogenase complex and also in succinate dehydrogenase.
2. Thiamin , vitamin B1, which is the enzyme for decarboxylation in the alpha-ketoglutrate
dehydrogenase reaction, lipoic acid also in involved in the decarboxylationof alpha-keto
acids.
3. Niacin is the form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), the coenzyme for the
dehyrogenase in the citric acid cycle.
4. Panthothenic which is part of coenzyme A

Oxidate Phosphorylation: Electron Transport Chain

In the electron transport chain or electron transport system, electrons are transferred
from NADH through a series of steps to oxygen, with the regeneration NAD and FAD and the
formation of water. The energy yieled is used for the formation of ATP.
Digestion
Digestion -process by which food molecules- are broken down into simpler molecules that can
be absorbed into the blood through the intestinal wall.

Most food carbohydrates, fats and proteins are composed of large molecules that are usually
not soluble in water. Before food can be absorbed through the alimentary canal,, they must be
broken down into smaller soluble molecules.

Digestion involves the use of hydrolases - the hydrolytic enzymes. The hydrolases catalyze the
hydrolysis of carbohydrates to monosaccharide, fats to fatty acid and glycerol and proteins to
amino acids.

However not all food require digestion, Monosaccharide are already in their simplest form, and
do not require digestion, Inorganic salts and vitamins also do not require digestion.

Digestion of food takes place in the mouth, the stomach and the small intestine, each area
having its own particular enzyme or enzymes that catalyze hydrolytic reactions

SALIVARY DIGESTION
During chewing the food mixes with saliva. The saliva moistens the food so that swallowing is
easier. Saliva is approximately 99.5% water. The remaining 0.05% consists of mucin, a
glycoprotein,that acts as a lubricant, several inorganic salts acts as a buffers, salivary amylase
an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of starches, the lingual lipase that catalyzes the
hydrolysis of triglyceride. Saliva also acts as an excretory fluid for drugs, such as morphine and
alcohol and certain inorganic ions such as K+, Ca2+, HCO3 and SCN. Saliva has a pH range of
5.75 to 7.0 with an optimum pH of 6.6.

GASTRIC DIGESTION
When food is swallowed it passes down the esophagus into the stomach, where it is mixed with
gastric juice. The gastric juice is secreted by glands in the walls of the stomach. When food
enters the stomach, it causes the production of hormone gastrin. Gastrin diffuses into the blood
stream, which carries it back to the stomach, where it then stimulate the flow of gastric juice.
Remain in the mouth long enough to

INTESTINAL DIGESTION
The food in the stomach is very acidic. When this material enters the small intestine, it stimulate
the mucosa to release the hormone secretin. Secretin, inturn stimulate the pancreas to release
the pancreatic juice into the small intestine. Three different digestive juices enters the small
intestine. These digestive juices are alkaline and neutralizes the acid content coming from the
stomach. The three digestive juices entering the small intestine are pancreatic juice, intestinal
juice and bile.

Digestion of Carbohydrate

In the mouth
Saliva contains salivary amylase (ptyalin) which catalysis the hydrolysis of starch into maltose.
However, this enzyme become inactive at a Ph 4.0, so that its activity ceases, when it mixed
with the content of the stomach, where the pH falls to about 1.5. Salivary amylase does not
serve very important function in digestion because the food does remain in the mouth long
enough for any appreciable hydrolysis to take place. Some hydrolysis of carbohydrates
catalyzed by salivary amylase may take place in the stomach before the food is thoroughly
mixed with the contents of the stomach, but this is of little importance because, there are
intestinal enzyme capable of hydrolyzing starch and maltose. The principal function of saliva is
to lubricate and moisten the food so it can be easily swallowed.

In the Stomach
The stomach contains no carbohydrases, so no digestion of carbohydrate s occur there except
for the catalyzed by salivary amylase.. The activity of salivary amylase ceases as it becomes
mixed with the acid contents of the stomach.

In the small intestine

The major digestion of carbohydrates takes place in the small intestine through the action of
enzymes in the pancreatic and intestinal juices.

The pancreatic juice contain the enzyme pancreatic amylase which catalyzes the hydrolysis of
starch and dextrin to maltose. The maltose thus produce is hydrolyzed to glucose through the
activity of the enzyme maltase from the intestinal mucosal cells. The optimum pH of pancreatic
amylase is 7.1. The intestinal mucosal cells also contains the enzyme sucrase and lactase.,
which catalyze the hydrolysis and lactose respectively.