TOPIC SEVEN: MINERALS AND ROCKS.

d) Hardness
- The measure of degree of resistance of a mineral to
Definition of minerals disintegration. Different minerals have different degrees
- A Mineral is an inorganic substance occurring naturally of hardness e.g. Diamond is hard while Talc is soft.
beneath/ at earth’s surface.
e) Shapes
Classes/Types of minerals. - Some minerals aggregate into distinct shapes, for
a. Metallic minerals example, a crystal of quartz is a six- sided prism.
a) Ferrous minerals- contains iron e.g. limonite, magnetite,
siderite and haematite. f) Composition
b) Non-ferrous minerals- do not contain iron e.g. copper, - Some minerals are composed of one element such as gold,
Aluminium, gold, lead, zinc and tin. copper, diamond and silver while others such as bauxite and
b. Non-metallic minerals feldspar have two or more elements.
 Examples - Graphite, Coal, Petroleum, Phosphates, Nitrates,
Potash, silica/silicates. g) Density
- Minerals have different specific densities/gravity e.g.
c. Fossil fuels and energy minerals gold/lead are heavy while silicate minerals are light.
- They include petroleum, natural gas, coal and uranium.
h) Cleavage/fracture
Characteristics of Minerals - Minerals have cleavage. This is the tendency of a mineral to
a) Tenacity break along a certain line of weakness. Some minerals tend
- Minerals have different degrees of tenacity. Tenacity is the to break along certain lines while others break irregularly.
ability of a mineral to resist/to withstand tearing, crushing or
breaking hence they are brittle, elastic, ductile or flexible. i) Texture
- Minerals have different textures i.e. some are coarse
b) Lustre while others are fine textured.
- Refers to the surface appearance of minerals as it reflects
light. Minerals differ in their brightness depending on the j) Streak
nature of their reflective surfaces (smooth surfaces are - Minerals differ in streak. This is the colour mineral leaves
shiny whereas rough surfaces are dull) e.g. iron is dull and when it is rubbed against a hard surface.
opaque while mica is glassy and shiny. k) Minerals differ in their ability to allow
light to pass through them.
c) Colour - Some minerals are opaque, some are transparent while others
- Different minerals display different colours for example are translucent.
gold is yellow, Copper is brown and gypsum is white.

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 ROCKS - At times, magma cools near the earth surface at a medium
- A rock is a naturally occurring substance that is an rate and solidifies to form hypabyssal igneous rocks e.g.
aggregate/combination of mineral particles forming part of Dolerite
the earth’s crust. - On reaching the earth surface, lava cools rapidly and
solidifies to form extrusive igneous/volcanic rocks e.g.
Ways in which rocks can be classified. granite.
a) By mode of formation or origin.
b) By appearance (physical and chemical characteristics) Types of Igneous Rocks
c) By age i. Intrusive/plutonic igneous rocks
ii. Extrusive igneous rocks/Volcanic rocks
Classification of Rocks According to the Mode of Formation or
Origin a) Intrusive / Plutonic Igneous Rocks
- There are three classes/types of rocks namely: - Plutonic igneous rocks are igneous rocks that are formed
1. Igneous rocks when magma cools and solidifies within the earth’s crust.
2. Sedimentary rocks - They are divided into:
3. Metamorphic rocks i) Hypabyssal rocks
- They are igneous rocks formed when magma cools and
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS solidifies at a shallow depth in the crust.
- Igneous rocks are rocks that are formed when molten rock - Examples of hypabyssal igneous rocks:
material/ magma/ lava cools and solidifies.  Dolerite - Porphyry - Diabase
- Magma is a hot molten rock material found in the earth’s  Lamprophyre - Porphyrite - Granophyre
interior.
- Lava is a hot molten rock material that has reached the - Characteristics of hypabyssal igneous rocks;
earth’s surface.  They form from the cooling and solidification of magma.
 They are found near the earth surface/shallow depth.
Formation of Igneous Rocks  They have medium sized crystals.
- Land forming processes like tectonic movement leads to the  They have a medium texture.
formation of lines of weaknesses within the crustal rocks.
- Heat and pressure beneath cause rocks to melt forming ii) Plutonic rocks
magma. - These are igneous rocks that are formed when magma cools
- Magma escape from the earth’s interior towards the earth’s and solidifies deep below the earth’s surface.
surface through the lines of weaknesses within the crustal Examples of plutonic igneous rocks:
rocks.  Granite - Diorite - Peridotite
- Magma may fail to reach the earth surface but cools slowly  Gabbro - Syenite - Nephnine
and solidifies in the earth’s interior forming
intrusive/plutonic igneous rocks e.g. granite - Characteristics of plutonic igneous rocks;

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  They form from cooling and solidification of magma. 2. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 They form deep inside the crust/at great depth. - Sedimentary Rocks are rocks that are formed when
 They have large crystals. sediments from original rocks are compacted and cemented
 They are coarse textured. together.
- The particles forming the sediments are derived from the
b) Extrusive Igneous Rocks/Volcanic rocks. following sources:
- Extrusive igneous/volcanic rocks are igneous rocks that are i) When pre-existing rocks are weathered, eroded and
formed when lava cools and solidifies on the earth’s surface. transported by water, wind or moving ice.
ii) When mineral compounds which were dissolved in
- Examples of Extrusive/volcanic igneous rocks: water are deposited at the bottom of a waterbody.
 Rhyolite - Andesite - Basalt iii) Remains of millions of organisms which settle on the
 Obsidian - Scoria - Trachyte seabed.
 Pumice - Tuff - Phonolite iv) Plant remains which were buried on land and later
 Tephrite compressed.

- Characteristics of extrusive/volcanic igneous rocks; Characteristics of sedimentary rocks

 They are formed from cooling and solidification of lava.  They form horizontal layers/ are stratified.
 They are formed on the earth’s surface.  They have bedding planes.
 They have small crystals  They have cleavage/joints.
 They are fine textured.  Some sedimentary rocks contain fossils.
 They are non-crystalline.
- General characteristics of igneous rocks  They form from pre-existing/original rocks.
 They are crystalline in nature.  Many are multi-coloured.
 Some have a glassy appearance.
 They lack fossils. Classification/Types of sedimentary rocks
 They lack layers. A. Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks
 They are rich in minerals. B. Organically formed sedimentary rocks
- Differentiate between the processes of formation of C. Chemically formed sedimentary rocks.
plutonic and volcanic rocks
A) Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks
 Plutonic rocks form from magma which cools slowly and - They are also called Clastic rocks.
solidifies within cracks and chambers in the earth’s crust - They are rocks that are formed by compaction and
while volcanic rocks form from the lava that cools fast and cementation of sediments from original rocks are transported
solidifies onto the surface of the earth. by agents of erosion and deposited in layers on land or in the
sea.

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 Formation of mechanically formed sedimentary rocks iv. Carbonaceous rocks e.g. coal
 Sediments used to form the rocks are derived from
weathering of existing rocks. C) Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
 The weathered materials are transported by - These are rocks that are formed when mineral precipitates or
wind/water/moving ice. crystals are compacted and cemented together.
 The weathered materials are deposited in layers on land or in Formation of Chemically formed sedimentary rocks
the sea.  Some soluble minerals in some pre-existing rocks are
 They are then compacted and cemented into mechanically dissolved when it rains.
formed sedimentary rocks e.g. sandstone, mudstone, shale,  The dissolved minerals are transported into water bodies.
claystone, breccia, grit.  They are then precipitated/evaporated over a long period of
time.
Types of mechanically formed sedimentary rocks.  The precipitates/evaporites are then compacted to form
i. Argillaceous rocks - they have very small particles e.g. chemically formed sedimentary rocks e.g. Trona, dolomite,
shale, mudstone, claystone, siltstone, loess gypsum, rock salt. chert and flint.
ii. Arenaceous rocks- they have mainly sand particles e.g.
sandstone and Grit Types of chemically formed sedimentary Rocks
iii. Rudaceous rocks- they have larger particles than sand i. Carbonates e.g. Travertine, Dolomite and Trona.
e.g. breccia, conglomerate, boulder clay ii. Sulphates e.g. Gypsum
iii. Chlorides e.g. Rock salt
B) Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks iv. Silicates e.g. chert and flint
- These are rocks that are formed from the compaction and v. Iron stones e.g. limonite and haematite
cementation of the remains of dead plants and animals.
3. METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Formation of organically formed sedimentary Rocks - A metamorphic rock is a rock formed when the
 These rocks are formed from the remains of dead plants and original/igneous/sedimentary rock is subjected to intense
animals/fossils. pressure/intense heat which changes its
 These remains accumulate in the oceans/basins/land in form/structure/composition.
layers.
 The accumulated materials are compressed, compacted and Factors determining the ease and degree of change of rocks
cemented together into organically formed sedimentary during metamorphosis
rocks e.g. limestone, chalk, ironstone, diatomite, coal i. The resistance of the rock to crushing.
ii. The grain size of the rock being changed.
Types of organically formed sedimentary rocks iii. The porosity of the rocks.
i. Calcareous rocks e.g. limestone, chalk iv. The solubility of the constituents of the rocks.
ii. Ferruginous rocks e.g. ironstone iv. The chemical action of the minerals.
iii. Siliceous rocks e.g. Diatomite

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- The process of formation of metamorphic rocks is called  Pressure is caused by compressional force while heat is due
metamorphism. to rocks being in contact with magma.
Causes of metamorphosis/change of rocks from the original  Both heat and pressure may occur during mountain building
state. processes.
a.) Heat which causes the minerals to re –crystalize; such action is  They modify the structure of the original rocks forming new
called thermal rocks.
Metamorphism.
b.) Pressure which causes alteration in the rock structure. This Changes that occur in rocks during metamorphism
action is called dynamic/kinetic/regional metamorphism.  New minerals are formed.
c.) The action of both heat and pressure. This action is called  The rocks are hardened / become more resistant.
Thermal-Dynamic metamorphism.  Some minerals recrystallize further.
 The chemical composition of the rocks change.
Metamorphic processes/Types of metamorphism  Physical characteristics / appearance of the rock
a) Dynamic / Kinetic/Regional metamorphism. changes/ is altered.
 Original rock is subjected to intense pressure.
 Pressure is caused by compressional force when the crustal Examples of rocks and their metamorphic equivalent.
plates collide.
 The great pressure alters the mineral line up/composition in Original rock Metamorphic rock
the rock/structure.
 The rock changes their physical appearance and Sandstone Quartzite/slate
characteristics forming a new rock.
Limestone Marble
b) Thermal/Contact metamorphism
 Rocks are subjected to intense heat. Coal Graphite
 Heat may be due to rocks being buried at great depths/due to
contact with magma. Clay/shale/mudstone Slate/schist
 The hot magma melts the minerals of the original rock, they
cool and solidify to form a totally different rock/recrystallize Basalt Hornblende
the rock grains.
Peridotite Serpentinite
 New minerals may also be added into the rock by the
intruding magma. Granite Gneiss
 The new rocks change their physical appearance/chemical
composition.
- Give three examples of metamorphic rocks
c) Thermal – dynamic metamorphism.  Schist - Hornblende - Slate
 Original rocks are subjected to both intense pressure and  Marble - Quartzite - Gneiss
heat.  Graphite - Serpentinite

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 The Rock formation cycle.
- It is a series of changes that occur in the formation of three
types of rocks.
Distribution of major Types of Rocks in Kenya.

Characteristics of Rocks
 Some rocks have joints.
 Rocks have varied degree of hardness.
 Rocks have cleavage.
 Rocks have varied texture.
 Rocks have different colours. NOTE: Read on the Distribution of Rocks in the:
 Some rocks have lustre.  Coastal Region
 Rocks have varied specific density.  Nyika plateau and dry lowlands
 Rocks have different streak.  Rift valley and its associated highlands
 Rocks have different minerals.  Western Kenya
 Rocks have varied mineral structure.
Why coral rocks are widespread at the coast
 Salty water favours growth of coral polyps.

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  Warm water for the growth of coral polyps.  Some rocks are used for scrubbing human bodies/ as
 Clear water which is free from silt or mud favour coral sharpening tools.
polyps growth.  Some rocks are used for educational purposes/research.
 Shallow water to which sunlight can penetrate for coral
polyps growth.
 Well oxygenated water for coral polyps growth. QUIZ: Why is industrial diamond used in shaping hard stones and
metals?
Reasons why sedimentary rocks are dominant along the Kenyan  Because it is the hardest mineral/It does not break easily.
coast
 High temperature at the coast causes water to evaporate leaving
behind rock salts.
 The shallow continental shelf has conducive environment for the
formation of coral rocks.
 The coastal plain is lowland which has facilitated deposition of
sediments.
 Some parts of the coastal plain emerged from the sea where
sedimentation occurred.
 Coral polyps die in large numbers in the ocean leading to the
growth of coral reef which is a sedimentary rock.

Significance/Uses of rocks
 Some rock outcrops like granitic tors form unique sceneries
that attract tourists.
 Rocks weather down to form soils which support agriculture.
 Some rocks provide materials for building/construction.
 Some sedimentary rocks contain fossil fuels which are
sources of energy for domestic/ industrial use.
 Some rocks contain valuable minerals which are exploited.
 Some rocks act as storage for water which can be supplied
for domestic/ industrial use /irrigation.
 Some rocks provide raw materials for manufacturing
industry e.g. Trona is processed to obtain soda ash used in
glass-making industry.
 Some rocks like soapstone are used in carving.
 Some rocks provide salt licks for livestock/human beings.

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