Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Introduction
-It is an equipment which converts supply at one AC voltage rating into supply at
another voltage rating, without changing the total apparent power in KVA and
without changing the frequency of the system.
-Michael Faraday is the father of transformer and his law of magnetic induction
led to the discovery of transformer.
-The law says : "EMF is induced in a closed conducting circuit when the magnetic
flux linked with that circuit changes with time and EMF is proportional to the rate
of change of the magnetic flux.
-The Transformer characteristics: -
• It has no moving parts,
• No electrical connection between the primary and secondary windings,
• Windings are magnetically coupled,
• Rugged and durable in construction,
• Efficiency is very high i.e., more than 95 %,
• Frequency is unchanged.

Some history of transformers

-Historically, the first electrical power distribution system developed by Edison in
1880s was transmitting DC. It was designed for low voltages (safety and
difficulties in voltage conversion); therefore, high currents were needed to be
generated and transmitted to deliver necessary power. This system suffered
significant energy losses!
-The second generation of power distribution systems (what we are still using) was
proposed by Tesla few years later. His idea was to generate AC power of any
convenient voltage, step up the voltage for transmission (higher voltage implies
lower current and, thus, lower losses), transmit AC power with small losses, and
finally step down its voltage for consumption. Since power loss is proportional to
the square of the current transmitted, raising the voltage, say, by the factor of 10
would decrease the current by the same factor (to deliver the same amount of
energy) and,therefore, reduce losses by factor of 100.

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Basic principle
-Transformer comprises a closed magnetic circuit called core.
-Two or more windings are placed on the core as per design criteria.
-The operating frequency in our country is 50 C/S. Core provides a high
permeability path to the magnetic circuit besides supporting the winding.
-When 50 C/S supply is given to a winding called primary winding, it sets up an
alternating magnetic flux of 50 C/S in the core.
-As the core provides high permeability path and as the second winding is provided
on the same core, the magnetic flux linked with the secondary winding also
alternates at the same frequency of 50 C/S.
-This alternating flux there, sets up an EMF in the secondary winding as per the
Faraday's law.
-The EMF induced in the secondary winding is at the same frequency as that of
magnetic flux and primary current.
-However, its direction is opposite to the applied voltage.
-If a load is connected to the secondary winding, the EMF drives a current.
-The change in the voltage is accomplished by the difference in the number of
turns in the primary and secondary windings.
-The induced EMF has the same voltage per turn as the primary winding (when
secondary is without any electrical load).
-If N1 and N2 are number of turns in primary and secondary winding, then when
secondary is not connected to any electrical load,
-N1/ N2 = V1/V2 (V1 and V2 are voltages in primary and secondary winding .
-When corresponding currents are I1 and I2, as transferred apparent power is the
same,
KVA = I1 V1 = I2 V2
V1/ V2 = I2/ I1 = N1/ N2
-Under ideal conditions, primary ampere turns are equal to the secondary ampere
turns.
I1N1 = I2N2
-The transformer can be used only in Alternate Current (AC) system but not in
Direct Current (DC) system.

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

-When DC supply of the same voltage is applied to the transformer, a very high
current will pass in it, as in the DC system there won't be reactance and the
resistance is too small.
-Unless there is a protective system, the transformer will fail in a quick time due to
the over current.

Advantages of Transformer
-It is a stationary equipment without any internal rotating parts. Hence O & M
cost would be less.
-The stationary nature facilitates high voltage insulation and thus stepping up and
stepping down of voltages.
-Its operational efficiency is very high ( up to 95% for distribution and 99% for
EHT transformers)
-Besides facilitating power supply at different voltages of utilization, it can be used
in metering and protection systems of the network. It can also be used for earthing
of the neutral of a power transformer.
-Transformer is the most important and relatively a more costlier equipment in
distribution or sub- transmission.

Types of Transformers
 Main classification based on application :
-Power transformer : Transfer of power
-Distribution Transformer : Transfer of power
-Instrument Transformer : Measuring and protection
-Earthing Transformer : Earthing
-Rectifier Transformer : For providing controlled supply suitable to process.

 -Further classification of Power/Distribution transformer - By Construction.

 As per core :
1. Core type 2. Shell type
 As per phases:
1. Single phase
2. Three phase
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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

 As per number of windings:

1. Single winding
2. Two winding
3. Three winding
 As per VOLTAGE – LT,HT,EHT,UHT
LT- up to 650V
HT- 11kV to 33kV
EHT- 66kV to 400kV
UHT- 765kV onwards
 As per voltage ratio - Step up, Step down
As per Insulation - Dry type, Oil immersed, Gas filled

Transformer Structure
A transformer consists of 3 basic components
-Primary Coil or Primary Winding : It is an electrical wire wrapped around the
core on the input side
-Secondary Coil or Secondary Winding: It is an electrical wire wrapped around the
core on the output side
-Core : A ferromagnetic material that can conduct a magnetic field through it.
Example: Iron.

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Working Principle of Transformer

-There are two types of windings in a single-phase transformer. These are called
primary and secondary windings or coils. The primary winding is connected to the
alternating voltage source and the secondary winding is connected to the load.
-A sinusoidal current flows in the primary winding when it is connected to an
alternating voltage source. This current establish a flux u which moves from the
primary winding to the secondary winding through low reluctance magnetic core.
-About 95 % of this flux moves from the primary to the secondary through the low
reluctance path of the magnetic core and this flux is linked by the both windings
and a small percent of this flux links to the primary winding.
-According to the Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction, a voltage will be
induced across the secondary winding as well as in the primary winding. Due to
this voltage, a current will flow through the load if it is connected with the
secondary winding. Hence, the primary voltage is transferred to the secondary
winding without a change in frequency.

Transformer Operation
-An electrical transformer normally consists of a ferromagnetic core and two coils
called "windings".
-A transformer uses the principle of mutual inductance to create an AC voltage in
the secondary coil from the alternating electric current flowing through the primary
coil.
-The voltage induced in the secondary can be used to drive a load.
Flux in a Transformer

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

- The current in the primary winding establishes a flux. The flux that moves from
primary to secondary and links both the windings is called the mutual flux and
its maximum value is represented by ϕm.
- -Flux which links only the primary winding and completes the magnetic path
through the surrounding air is known primary leakage flux ϕ1l.
- -The secondary leakage flux ϕ2l is that flux which links only the secondary
winding and completes the magnetic path through the surrounding air.

Ideal transformers
For ideal transformers, we assume the following:
1. Windings have zero resistance – no losses in windings
2. Permeability of the core is infinite, 𝜇 = ∞, and the
reluctance of the core is zero, 𝑅 = 0
3. All flux is entirely confined to the core – no leakage flux
4. No core losses – no hysteresis or eddy currents
5.Large reactance coils;
6. Unity Coupling a=1.

Transformer Types
-Isolation Transformer
-In isolation transformer, the primary and secondary are physically isolated
(no electrical connection).The advantages of Isolation Transformer

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

 Voltage spikes that might occur on the primary are greatly reduced or
eliminated in the secondary.
 If the primary is shorted somehow, any load connected to the secondary is not
damaged .
 Example: In TV monitors to protect the picture tube from voltage spikes in
main power lines.

Ideal transformers
For ideal transformers, we assume the following:
1. Windings have zero resistance – no losses in windings
2. Permeability of the core is infinite, 𝜇 = ∞, and the
reluctance of the core is zero, 𝑅 = 0
3. All flux is entirely confined to the core – no leakage flux
4. No core losses – no hysteresis or eddy currents.

Dots on symbol indicate polarity

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

e other.

other.

Ideal Transformers – Current Relationships

- Evaluate Ampere’s law around a closed contour, 𝐶

𝑙
𝑯-field

-The magnetic field is tangential to 𝐶, so

-Contour encloses 𝑁1 turns of the primary winding and 𝑁2 turns of the secondary
in the opposite direction.

𝑰 = 𝑁1𝑰1 - 𝑁2𝑰2

Ampere’s law gives us

𝑯𝑙 = 𝑁1𝑰𝟏 – 𝑁2𝑰𝟐 (6)

𝑯 = 𝑩/𝜇 (7)
-sectional area of the core, we get the flux
𝚽 = 𝑩𝐴 = 𝜇𝑯𝐴 → 𝑯 = 𝚽/𝜇A (8)

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

(𝑙/A𝜇)𝚽 = 𝑁1𝑰𝟏 − 𝑁2𝑰𝟐 (9)

𝑅 = 𝑙/𝜇A (10)

𝑁1𝑰𝟏 − 𝑁1𝑰𝟐 = 𝑅𝚽 (11)

𝑅 = 0, so
𝑁1𝑰𝟏 = 𝑁2𝑰𝟐 (12)

or
(13)

winding to the number of turns on the secondary winding

𝑎𝑡 =𝑁1/𝑁2 (14)
urns ratio, the current relationships are

(15)
Ideal Transformers – Voltage Relationships

the flux through that winding

𝑽𝟏 = −𝑁1 𝑑𝚽/dt and 𝑽𝟐 = −𝑁2 𝑑𝚽/dt (16, 17)

(16) by (17) gives

𝑽𝟏/𝑽𝟐 =𝑁1/𝑁2
So,

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

(18)

𝑰𝟐 = 𝑎𝑡𝑰𝟏
𝑽𝟐 = (1/𝑎𝑡)𝑽𝟏

 Step-up transformer
t < 1, 𝑁1 < 𝑁2

 Step-down transformer
t > 1, 𝑁1 > 𝑁2

Ideal Transformers - Power

transformer is
𝑺𝟏 = 𝑽𝟏𝑰𝟏∗ (19)
is
𝑺𝟐 = 𝑽𝟐𝑰𝟐 ∗ (20)
ansformer voltage and current relationships,(19) becomes
𝑺𝟏 = 𝑎𝑡𝑽𝟐 (1/𝑎𝑡) ∗ 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑽𝟐∗ 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑺𝟐

- As expected, since we’ve assumed there are no losses

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Ideal Transformers – Impedance

- By definition, the impedance seen looking into the primary side of a
transformer is 𝑍𝑖n = 𝑽𝟏/𝑰𝟏 (21)
- An impedance 𝑍2, connected to the secondary side dictates
𝑍2 = 𝑽𝟐/𝑰𝟐 (22)
-Using the 𝐼/𝑉 relationships, we get

(23)
-The impedance seen looking into the primary side of a transformer is the
impedance connected to the secondary side multiplied by the turns ratio squared

Induced Voltages
-Induced Voltages: The induced emf in primary winding is:
Ep = 4.44 Np Φm f,
where Np is the number of winding turns in primary winding, Φm, the maximum
(peak) flux, and f the frequency of the supply voltage.
- Similarly, the induced emf in secondary winding:
Es = 4.44 Ns Φm f,
- where Ns is the number of winding turns in secondary winding.
- Turns Ratio, a = Vp/Vs = Np/Ns

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

-Windings of a transformer are not connected electrically. The windings are
magnetically coupled with each other. In the equivalent circuit, the related
parameters need to be transferred either from the primary to the secondary or vice
versa.
-Copper losses are resistive losses in the primary and secondary windings of the
transformer core. They are modeled by placing a resistor R1 in the primary circuit
of the transformer and a resistor R2 in the secondary circuit.
-The leakage flux will be modeled by primary inductor X1 and secondary inductor
X2.
-The magnetization current im is a current proportional (in the unsaturated region)
to the voltage applied to the core and lagging the applied voltage by 90 o, so it can
be modeled by a reactance XM connected across the primary voltage source.
-The core-loss current ih+e is a current proportional to the voltage applied to the
core that is in phase with the applied voltage, so it can be modeled by a resistance
Rc connected across the primary voltage source.
-The figure below is an accurate model of a transformer; it is not a very useful one.
To analyze practical circuits containing transformers, it is normally necessary to
convert the entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a single voltage level.

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Equivalent Circuit referred to the primary

The figure is the exact equivalent circuit referred to the primary where all the
parameters are transferred from the secondary to the primary and these parameters
are

Equivalent Circuit referred to the secondary

The figure is the exact equivalent circuit referred to the secondary where all the
parameters are transferred from the primary to the secondary and these parameters
are

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Transformer Phasor Diagram with Different Loads

𝐸2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2𝑍2
𝑉1 = -𝐸1 + 𝐼1𝑍1

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Efficiency of a Transformer
The efficiency (η), of the transformer can be defined as the ratio of its output
power to the input power. Mathematically, it can be expressed as,

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

There are three types of losses present in transformers:

1- Copper Losses
Copper losses occur due to the primary and secondary resistances. The
full load copper losses can be determined as
𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 𝐼12𝑅1 + 𝐼22𝑅2
𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 𝐼22𝑅𝑒𝑞
The iron loss of a transformer is often called as core loss, which is a result of an
alternating flux in the core of the transformer. The iron loss consists of the eddy
current loss and the hysteresis loss.
𝑃𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 𝑃𝑒 + 𝑃ℎ
2- Eddy Current Losses
A current will flow in that parts of the transformer. This current does not contribute
in output of the transformer but dissipated as heat. This current is known as eddy
current and the power loss due to this current is known as eddy current loss. The
eddy current loss Pe is directly proportional to the square of the frequency (f )
times the maximum magnetic flux density Bm
and the eddy current loss can be expressed as,
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑘𝑒𝑓2𝐵𝑚2 where ke is the proportionality constant.
3- Hysteresis Losses
The hysteresis loss Ph is directly proportional to the frequency (f ) and 2.6th power
of the maximum magnetic flux density (Bm) and the expression of hysteresis loss
is

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

𝑃ℎ = 𝑘ℎ𝑓𝐵𝑚𝑛 where k h is the proportionality constant. n=1.5-2.5

Practically, hysteresis loss depends on the voltage and the eddy current loss
depends on the current. Therefore, total losses of the transformer depend on the
voltage and the current not on the power factor. That is why the transformer rating
is always represented in kVA instead of kW.
Condition for Maximum Efficiency

To find the condition for maximum efficiency, put the derivative of the efficiency
with respect to I2 equal to zero.

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Dot Convention for Ideal Transformers

Typical circuits illustrating polarity for voltages and direction of currents of an
ideal transformer

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Voltage Regulation of a Transformer

The voltage regulation (VR) of a transformer is defined as the difference between
the no-load terminal voltage (V2NL) to full load terminal voltage (V2FL) and is
expressed as a percentage of full load terminal voltage. It is therefore can be
expressed as,
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =((𝑉2𝑁𝐿 − 𝑉2𝐹𝐿)/𝑉2𝐹𝐿) × 100%
Since at no load, V2 = V1/a, the voltage regulation can also be expressed as

Usually it is a good practice to have as small a voltage regulation as possible. For

an ideal transformer, Voltage Regulation = 0 percent. It is not always a good idea
to have a low-voltage regulation, sometimes high-impedance and high-voltage
regulation transformers are deliberately used to reduce the fault currents in a
circuit.

Transformer Tests
-Open Circuit Test
-The main objectives of the open circuit test are to determine the no-loadcurrent
and iron loss. The components of the no-load current are used to determine the no-
load circuit resistance and reactance.
-In an open circuit test, the high voltage side is considered to be open circuit,and
the low voltage coil is connected to the source, where all measuring instruments
are connected in the low voltage side. A specific alternating voltage is applied to
the low voltage winding. Then the wattmeter will measure the iron loss and small
amount of copper loss. The ammeter and voltmeter will measure the no-load
current and the voltage, respectively. Since, the no-load current is very small, the
copper losses can be neglected.

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

The wattmeter reading can be expressed as

𝑃𝑜= 𝑉 𝐼𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑜
The no load power factor can be determined as
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑜 =𝑃𝑜 /𝑉𝐼𝑜
The no load current components can be determined as
𝐼ℎ+𝑒 = 𝐼𝑜𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑜
𝐼𝑚= 𝐼𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑜
The no load resistance and reactance can be determined as
𝑅𝑐 =𝑉/𝐼ℎ+𝑒
𝑋𝑚=𝑉 / 𝐼𝑚

-Short Circuit Test

-The main objectives of the short circuit test are to determine the equivalent
resistance, reactance, impedance and full load copper loss.
-The supply voltage and the measuring instruments (e. g,. wattmeter, ammeter) are
connected to the high voltage side and the low voltage winding is connected with
ammeter. The voltage is adjusted until the current in the low voltage winding is
equal to the rated low voltage side current. Under this condition, the wattmeter will
measure the full load copper loss.
The full load copper loss and it can be written as
𝑃𝑠𝑐 = 𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑐
The short circuit power factor can be determined as
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑐 =𝑃𝑠𝑐/(𝑉𝑠𝑐 𝐼𝑠𝑐)

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

The equivalent impedance can be calculated as,

𝑍𝑒𝑞 =𝑉𝑠𝑐/ 𝐼𝑠𝑐
The equivalent resistance and reactance can be calculated as
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑐
𝑋𝑒𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒𝑞 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑐

Autotransformer
-Autotransformers usually used in the educational laboratory as well as in the
testing laboratory.
-An autotransformer has one continuous winding common to both the primary and
the secondary. Therefore, in an autotransformer, the primary and secondary
windings are connected electrically.
Autotransformer Advantages over a two-winding transformer
-lower initial investment
-lower leakage reactance
-lower losses compared to conventional transformer
-lower excitation current

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Nc: indicates the common winding.

Ns: indicates the series winding.

The total voltage in the primary side is

From the above equation

The load current can be written as

a)step-down autotransformer

V1 I N  N2 N
 2  1  1 1
V2 I1 N2 N2
b) step-up autotransformer

V1 I N2
 2 
V2 I1 N1  N 2

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Example1: The number of turns in the secondary coil of a 22 kVA, 2200V/220V

single-phase transformer is 50. Find
(i) number of primary turns,
(ii) Primary full load current,
(iii) Secondary full load current.
Neglect all kinds of losses in the transformer.
Solution

Example2: A 25 kVA single-phase transformer has the primary and secondary

number of turns of 200 and 400, respectively. The transformer is connected to a
220 V, 50 Hz source. Calculate
(i) turns ratio,
(ii) mutual flux in the core.
Solution

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Example 3: We need to determine the equivalent circuit impedances of a 20 kVA,

8000/240 V, 60 Hz transformer. The open-circuit and short-circuit tests led to the
following data:
V OC = 8000 V VSC = 489 V
I OC = 0.214 A ISC = 2.5 A
P OC = 400 W PSC = 240 W

Solution
The power factor during the open-circuit test is

The excitation admittance is

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Instrument Transformers
-The magnitude of the voltage and the current are normally high in the power
system networks. To reduce the magnitude of the voltage and current, instrument
transformers are used.
-The current transformer is connected in series with the line to step down the high
magnitude of the current to a rated value for the ammeter and the current coil of
the wattmeter.
-The potential transformer is used to step down to the voltage to a suitable value of
the voltage at the secondary for supplying the voltmeter and the voltage coil of the
wattmeter.

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Example 4: Determine the core area, the number of turns and the position of the
tapping point for a 500-kVA, 50-Hz, single-phase, 6,600/5,000-V auto-
transformer, assuming the following approximate values : e.m.f. per turn 8 V.
Maximum flux density 1.3 Wb/m2
Solution

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Example 5: The primary and secondary voltages of an auto-transformer are 500 V

and 400 V respectively. Show with the aid of diagram, the current distribution in
the winding when the secondary current is 100 A and calculate the economy of Cu
in this particular case.
Solution

Example 6:. A 30 kVA, 2400/120-V, 50-Hz transformer has a high voltage

winding resistance of 0.1 Ω and a leakage reactance of 0.22Ω. The low voltage
winding resistance is 0.035 Ω and the
leakage reactance is 0.012 Ω. Find the equivalent winding resistance, reactance and
impedance referred to the (i) high voltage side and (ii) the low-voltage side.

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Electric Machinery1 EE352 Single Phase Transformer

Solution

Example 7: The full-load copper loss on the h.v. side of a 100-kVA,

11000/317-V, 1-phase transformer is 0.62 kW and on the L.V. side is 0.48 kW.(i)
Calculate R1, R2 and R3 in ohms (ii) the total reactance is 4 per cent, find X1, X2
and X3 in ohms if the reactance is divided in the same proportion as resistance.
Solution

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