EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER - Solar system formed from gas and

dust orbiting the sun

- Hypothesis can explain for similar
direction of rotation.
Big Bang Theories - Does not satisfy the principle of
- Hypothesis of the primeval atom conversation.
- In the middle of nowhere Ocsillating Theory
- Georges Lemaitre (1927)
- Extremely dense and hot - Albert Einstein ( 1930)
- Edwin hubble discovered that the - Cyclic model
distance to far away galaxies were - 13.7 billion years
generally proportional to their - Universe following an eternal
redshift series of oscillations, beginning
- Without any evidence associated with the big bang ending with a
with the earliest instant of the
big crunch
expansion
- Universe is expanding
Steady State Theory - Cosmic microwave background
radiation in 1965.
- Infinite universe
- Big freeze
- No beginning or end
- Everywhere Creation Theory
- Matter is continuously created
- Creater, unmoved mover
as the universe expands
- Belieft system “ faith”
- There is no need for a
- Before time was created
convoluted explanation for its
beginning Bigbang Theory Evidences
- Discovery of the cosmic
- Galaxies moving away
microwave background
- Red shift theory ( Edwin Hubble)
radiation (CMB) 1965, Big Bang
theory. - Presence of the microwave
- Fred hoyle ( 1948) ground (CMB)
- Stephen hawking said that - Hydrogen and helium
microwave radiation had found INTERACTION OF EARTH SPHERES
was thought to be left over from
the big bang “ the final nail in Earth system
the coffin of the steady state - System if a group of related objects
theory” orparts that work together to form
a whole.
Nebular Hypothesis - Earth system is all of the matter,
- Immanuel kant ( 1755) energy, and processes within
- Formation and evolution of the Earth’s boundary.
solar system GEOSPEHRE
- No beginning or end
- Through the universe
 - Geosphere is mostly solid, rocky most gases lie within 8 to 50 km of
part of earth. It extend from the Earth’s surface.
center of earth the surface of the - Atmosphere is about 78 percent
earth nitrogen, 21 precent oxygen, and 1
- Thin outermost layer of the percent many other gases.
geosphere is called crust. Made - Minor gases in the atmosphere
mostly of silicate minerals include argon, carbon dioxide, and
- Oceanic crust is 5 to 10 km thick. water vapor.
Continental crust is 35 to 70 km - Contains the air we breath
thick - Traps some energy from the sun,
- Mantle is the layer that lies below which helps keep earth warm
the crust. It is about 2,900 km thick enough for living things to survive
- Mantle made of very slow flowing, and multiply.
solid rock, consisting of silicate - Some gases of the atmosphere
minerals that are denser that
absorb and reflect harmful
silicate in the crust. ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun,
- Earths central part, called core,
protecting Earth and its living things.
has a radius of about 3,500 km
- Also causes space debris to burn
thick. Made of iron and nickel and
very dense. up before reachinh Earth’s
surface and causing harm.
HYDROSPREHE
BIOSPHERE
- Hydrosphere is the part of earth
- Made up of living things and the
that is liquid water.
areas
- Ocean, lake, rivers, marshes,
- Organisms usually need oxygen or
groundwater, rain, and the water
droplets in clouds are part of the carbon dioxide to carry out life
hydrosphere. processes.
- Water on earth is constantly - Liquid water, moderate
moving. temperatures, and a stable source
of energy are also important for
CRYOSPHERE most living things.

- Made up of all the frozen water on

earth
How do Earth’s spheres interact
- Snow, ice, glaciers, ice shelves,
icebergs and permafrost are all - All five spehres of earth interact as
part of the cryospehre. matter and energy change and
- Changes in cryosphere can play cycle through the system.
an important role on earth’ s - Result of these interactions is that
climate and species’ survival. they make life on earth possible
- Earth’s sphere interact as matter
ATMOSPEHRE moves between. In some
- Mixture of mostly invisible gases processes, matter moves through
that surround Earth. several spheres.
- Extend outward about 500 to 600
km from Earth’s surface, but
 - Also interact as energy moves - Inorganic substance ( non living)
from one spheres to another, back - Crystalline solid
and forth between spheres. - Ordered arrangement of atoms
- Specific chemical compostion
1. Color- every mineral is some color
What is the source of the earth’s and some are found in multiple
energy? colors
- Could be very helpful and
- Almost all of the Earth’s energy distinctive or could be very
comes from the sun. ambiguous.
- Tiny fraction of Earth’s energy 2. Luster- the manner in which a
comes from ocean tides and mineral reflects light
geothermal sources such as lava Glassy- reflects like a piece of
and magma. glass does
- Energy is transferred between Metallic- Reflect light like a piece of
Earth’s sphere, but is not created metal does
or destroyed.
- Any addition of energy to one 3. Streak- the color of the pulverized
sphere must be balanced by an powder of a mineral.
equal subtraction of energy from – the color could be different from
another sphere. the crystal’s color, and is always
- Movement of energy through distinctive.
Earth’s system forms an energy
budget. 4. Hardness- the scratchability of a
- Earth’s energy flow is balanced, mineral, or a mineral’s durability.
global temperatures stay relatively - Uses the Moh’s Hardness scale
stable over long periods of time. with a rating system of 1-10
- Changes in the system cause the o 1= very soft
Earth’s energy budget to become o 10= hardest
unbalanced. - Has 7 hardness
What can disturb Earth’s energy budget? 5. Crystal shape/ External crystal
form/ Crystal systems
- Increase in greenhouse gases - Set of faces that have a definite
traps more energy in the geometric relationship to each
atmosphere and decrease the other
amount of energy radiated out to
space. COMMON FACE ARRANGMENT AND
- Polar ice and glaciers reflect ANGLES
sunlight. A. Isometric- most symmetrical
- Each case, Earth’s atmosphere - Three axes of equal length
becomes warmer, which my lead - All axes at right angles to each
to climate changes. other
B. Tetragonal- similar to isometric
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL
- Three axes, two equal length
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS - All axes at right angles to each
A. Minerals- known to be other
- Naturally occurring C. Hexagonal
- Three equal axes in the same plane the x rays are deflected out
- Intersect at angles of 60 degrees specific angles
- Fourth axis is at a right angle to the g. Chemical tests- how do
other three minerals react to specific
D. Orthorhombic chemicals
- Three axes all unequal to each
other CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
- All axes intersect at right angles 1. Silicate class- largest group of
E. Monoclinic minerals
- Two non-equal axes at right angles - Silicon, oxygen, some aluminum,
to each other magnesium, iron and calcium
- Third axis is inclined to one of the - MAFIC ( magnesium)
first two - FELSIC ( feldspar)
F. Triclinic 2. Carbonate class
- Three axes - Deposited in marine environments
- All axes are inclined with respect to COMMON EXAMPLE
each other - Aragonite
6. Mineral Cleavage- the ability of a - Calcite
mineral to break, when struck - Malachite
along specific planes Uses- carbon paper, glass and
- Based on the bonding between ceramic, rayon, soap and
atoms detergent, livestock and mineral
- Where the bonds are weakest= supplement, soda ash
breakage plane 3. Sulphate class- where salty water
7. Fracture slowly evaporate
- Minerals with no cleavage COMMON EXAMPLE
generally break with irregular - Barite
fracture - Gypsum
8. Other special properties - Celestite
a. Taste- few minerals have a
characteristic taste halite tastes Uses: plaster, algaecide, mineral and
like salt suplement, Epsom salt, surfactant,
b. Odor- few minerals have lead-acid battery
characteristics odor clay
4. Halide class- contains natural salts
minerals have an “ earthy”
COMMON EXAMPLE
smell
- Halite
c. Striations- straight parallel lines
- Flourite
on the flat surface of the
Uses: metal halide lamps, steel and
cleavage directions aluminum, fertilizer, rock salt
d. Magnetism- some minerals
5. Oxide class- most important class
with large amount of iron oxide
to human civilization
are attracted to magnets SCOMMON EXAMPLE
e. Double Refraction- clear
- Hematite
mineral
- Corundum
f. X-ray fingerprints- when x-rays Uses: inorganic sunscreen, flame
are directed through minerals,
retardant, coloring agent, alkali
batteries
 6. Sulphide class- contains most of adjacent areas without digging
the economically significant
deeper vertically.
minerals to man
COMMON EXAMPLES - Quarrying: the activity of removing
- Acanthite rock from the ground for use in
- Chalcocite construction, road building, and other
Uses: photocelss, fungicide, industries.
infared sensor, photoluminescent 2. Underground mining: In this
strips in emergency lights. method, minerals are extracted
7. Phosphate class- important
from beneath the Earth's
biological minerals
COMMON EXAMPLE surface through tunnels and
- Turquoise shafts.
- Wavellite
- Apetite Ore- rock that contains enough
metal or metal compounds so that
Uses: phosphate fertilizers, health it can be mined profitably
nutrients, phosphate salts
8. Element class- contains pure PRIMARY STEPS INVOLVED IN
native elements PROCESSING MINERALS
COMMON EXAMPLE 1. Sampling- is the removal of a
Gold portion which represents a
Copper whole needed for the analysis
Bismuth of this material.
Uses: jewelries, wires, cosmetics 2. Analysis- is important to
evaluate to valuable
component in an ore
MINING 3. Communication- the process
- Exctracting useful materials where the valuable
from earth components of the ore are
separated through crushing and
2 TYPES OF MINING grinding.
4. Concentration- involves the
1. Surface mining: This method separation of the valuable
involves extracting minerals minerals from the raw material
from the Earth's surface, 5. 5. Dewatering- uses the
typically in open pits or quarries. concentration to convert it to
- Open-pit mining: the activity of usable minerals.
removing the earth to access the FOSSIL FUELS
mineral deposits and continuing to
o Energy mix- the specific
do it vertically in an open-pit.
combination of different
- Strip mining: the activity of removing energy sources a country
a layer of earth to access the uses to meet its energy
minerals that are in shallow deposits consumption needs.
and continuing to do the same in
 o Crude oil- formed from - When coal are burnt it releases
phytoplankton and carbon dioxide
zooplankton.
NUCLEAR
o Organic rich sediments- - Uranium and plutonium are nuclear
buried by layers and layers fuels- fission reactions
of sediment
UNCONVETIONAL NON- RENEWABLE
Tar sand- mixture of clay, sand, water and
OIL AND GAS bitumen
o Crude oil is refined by
fractional distillation in Tar sands- mined
kerosene, petrol, diesel, etc. Provide massive economic growth
before it is used as a fuel.
Open pit mining produces a lot of waste
o Relatively inexpensive to
Methane hydrates are methane
extract.
GEOTHERMAL AND HYDROELECTRIC
o When oil and gas are burnt ENERGY
they release gas into the
atmosphere (carbon Geothermal energy- heat has been
dioxide) radiating from the Earth’s core for billion
years. Heat is originated since the
COAL FORMATION formation of the earth
- Near the Earth’s core, the
o Most of the coal we have on temperature ranges about 5500
Earth today was formed in degrees Celsius.
the carboniferous period ( - Geo= Earth, thermal= heat
360-299) - One of the largest energy sources
o Tropical, swampy climate recovered from natural sources.
o Squashed plant material
accumulates over thousand Geothermal reservoirs- energy rises
upwards due to one of the said reasons
of years
and causes large amount of underground
o Plant material= peat
water to be heated
o Peat used for fuel Ireland,
Scotland, finland Geothermal powerplant- uses steam
o Peat is buried by layers of obtained from the geothermal reservoirs
sediment and subjected to
1. Dry steam
increased heat and
2. Flash steam power plant
pressure
3. Binary steam plant
o Type of coal get depends
on how long it was buried. HYDROELECTRIC ENERY
COAL Hydroelectric energy- hydro energy
installed on land, rivers, lake and ocean
- Coal is cheap and there is lots of it
 - Kinetic energy generated by
moving water has been used to
drive watermills that produce
mechanical energy used by
humankind for centuries.
- Modern hydropower ( white coal)
- Hydropoweplants are the world’s
biggest renewable energy source,
83% renewable power.
1. Dam
2. Penstock
3. Power house
TYPES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER
PLANT
IMPOUNDMENT- large hydropower
system, uses a dam to store river water in
a reservoir.
DIVERSION- called “ run of the river”
facility, channels a portion of a river
through a canal or penstock
PUMPED STORAGE- works like a giant
battery.PSH facility can store the
electricity generated by other power
sources, like solar, wind, and nuclear , for
the later use.