Machine Design

For

Mechanical Engineering

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 Syllabus

Syllabus for Machine Design

Design for Static and Dynamic Loading; Failure Theories; Fatigue Strength and the
S-N Diagram; Principles of the Design of Machine Elements such as Bolted, Riveted and
Welded Joints, Shafts, Spur Gears, Rolling and Sliding Contact Bearings, Brakes and Clutches.

Previous Year GATE Papers and Analysis

GATE Papers with answer key

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Subject wise Weightage Analysis

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 Contents

Contents
Chapters Page No.
#1. Design for Combined Loading 1–9
 Introduction 1
 Theories of Failure 1–4
 Solved Examples 4–9

#2. Design for Dynamic Loading 10 – 23

 Introduction 10
 Stress Concentration 10 – 12
 Fatigue 12
 Fatigue or Endurance Limit 12 – 13
 Linear Elastic Fatigue-Life Methods 14 – 17
 Factors Effecting Endurance Limit 18 – 20
 Solved Examples 20 – 23

#3. Design of Joints 24 - 44

 Introduction 24
 Riveted Joints 25 – 27
 Types of Riveted Joints 27 – 28
 Tearing of Plate in Front of the Rivet 28 – 32
 Bolted/Screw Joints 32 – 36
 Welded Joints 36 – 40
 Solved Examples 40 – 44

#4. Design of Bearings 45 – 57

 Introduction 45
 Rolling Contact Bearings 45 – 48
 Bearing Life 48 – 50
 Sliding Contact/Journal Bearings 51 – 55
 Solved Examples 55 – 57

#5. Design of Brakes and Clutches 58 – 71

 Introduction 58
 Brake Design 58 – 62
 Clutch Design 63 – 68
 Solved Examples 68 – 71

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 Contents

#6. Design of Spur Gears 72 – 80

 Introduction 72
 Gear Nomenclature 72 – 73
 Lewis Equation – Beam strength of Gear Teeth 74 – 75
 Permissible Working Stress 75 – 76
 Solved Examples 76 – 80

Reference Books 81

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 “Success consists of going from failure to
failure without loss of enthusiasm.”

1
(Winston Churchill)

1
CHAPTER

Design for Combined Loading

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Theories of Failure
2. Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)
3. Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory)
4. Maximum Principal Strain Theory (Saint Venant Theory)
5. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von-Mises Theory)

Introduction
A static load is a stationary force or couple applied to a member. To be stationary, the force or
couple must be unchanging in magnitude, point or points of application and direction. A static load
can produce axial tension or compression, a shear load, a bending load, a torsional load, or any
combination of these. To be considered static, the load cannot change in any manner. In most testing
of these properties of materials that relate to the stress-strain diagram, the load is applied gradually,
to give sufficient time for the strain to fully develop. Furthermore, the specimen is tested to
destruction, and so the stresses are applied only once. Testing of this kind is applicable, to what are
known as static conditions; such conditions closely approximate the actual conditions to which
many structural and machine members are subjected. Another important term in design is “failure”.
The definition of failure varies depending upon the component and its application. Failure can mean
a part has separated into two or more pieces has become permanently distorted, thus ruining its
geometry has its reliability downgraded or has its function compromised, whatever the reason.

Theories of Failure
Events such as distortion, permanent set, cracking and rupturing are among the ways that a
machine element fails. In uni-axial tension test the failure mechanisms is simple as elongations are
largest in the axial direction, so strains can be measured and stresses inferred up to “failure.” The
“failure” conclusion becomes challenging when the loading is bi-axial or tri-axial. Unfortunately,
there is no universal theory of failure for the general case of material properties and stress state.
Instead, over the years several hypotheses have been formulated and tested, leading to today’s
accepted practices. These “practices” as known as theories of failure and are used to analyse the
failure of materials.

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 Design for Combined Loading

Structural metal behavior is typically classified as being ductile or brittle, although under special
situations, a material normally considered ductile can fail in a brittle manner. Ductile materials are
normally classified such that εf ≥ 0.05 and have an identifiable yield strength that is often the same
in compression as in tension (Syt = Syc = Sy ). Brittle materials, εf < 0.05, do not exhibit identifiable
yield strength, and are typically classified by ultimate tensile and compressive strengths, S ut and Suc,
respectively (where Suc is given as a positive quantity).

The Generally Accepted Theories are:

1. Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankine’s theory)
2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guest’s or Tresca’s theory)
3. Maximum principal (or normal) strain theory(also known as Saint Venant theory)
4. Maximum strain energy theory(also known as Haigh’s theory)
5. Maximum distortion energy theory(also known as Hencky and Von-Mise’s theory)

Since ductile material usually fail by yielding i.e., when permanent deformation occurs in the
material and brittle materials fail by fracture, therefore the limiting strength for these two classes of
materials is normally measured by different mechanical properties. For ductile materials the
limiting strength is the stress at yield point as determined from simple tension test and it is
assumed to be equal in tension and compression. For brittle materials the limiting strength is the
ultimate stress in tension or compression.

Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
principal or normal stress system reaches the limiting strength of the material in a simple tension
test.
Since the limiting strength brittle materials (which do not have well defined yield point) the limiting
strength is ultimate stress, therefore according to the above theory, taking factor of safety (F.O.S) in
to consideration, the maximum principal or normal stress (σt1 ) in a bi-axial system is given by
σyt
σt1 = For ductile material
F. S
σu
= For brittle material
F. S
Where, σyt = Yield points stress in tension as determined from simple tension test, and
σu = Ultimate stress
Since the maximum principal stress or stress theory is based on failure in tension or compression
and ignores the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, therefore it is not used for ductile
materials. However, for brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in tension or
compression this theory is generally used.

Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory)

According to this theory the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
shear stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches a value equal to the shear at yield reaches a value
equal to the shear at yield point in a simple tension test mathematically
τmax = τyt /F. O. S ------------ (i)

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 Design for Combined Loading

Where, τmax = Maximum shear stress in a bi-axial stress system

τyt = Shear stress at yield point as determined from simple tension test
F.O.S = Factor of Safety
Since the shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test is equal to one-half the yield stress in
tension, therefore the equation (i) may be written as;
σyt
τmax =
2 × F. O. S
This theory is mostly used for designing members of ductile material.

Maximum Principal Strain Theory (Saint Venant Theory)

According to this theory the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
principal (or normal) strain in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting value of strain (strain a
yield point) as determined from a simple tensile test. The maximum principal (or normal) strain in a
bi-axial stress system is given by,
σt1 σt2
εmax = −
E m. E
∴ According to the above theory
σt1 σt2 σyt
εmax = − = ε= − − − − − (i)
E m. E E × F. O. S
Where
σt1 and σt2 = Maximum and minimum principal stresses in bi-axial stress system
ε = Strain at yield point as determined from simple tension test
1/m = Poisson’s ratio
E = Young’s modulus
F. O. S = Factor of safety
From equation no (i), we may write that
σt2 σyt
σt1 − =
m F. O. S
This theory is not used, in general, because it only gives reliable results in particular cases.

Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haigh’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the strain
energy per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strain energy (i.e., strain
energy at the yield pant) per unit volume as determined from simple tension test.
We know that strain energy per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system
1 2 2 2σt1 × σt2
U1 = [(σt1 ) + (σt2 ) − ]
2E m
and limiting strain energy per unit volume for yielding as determined from simple tension test
1 σyt 2
U2 = ( )
2E F. O. S
According to the above theory, U1 = U2
1 2 2 2σt1 × σt2 1 σyt 2
∴ [(σt1 ) + (σt2 ) − ]= ( )
2E m 2E F. O. S
2 2 2σt1 × σt2 σyt 2
or (σt1 ) + (σt2 ) − =( )
m F. O. S

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 Design for Combined Loading

Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von-Mises Theory)

According to this theory the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the distortion
strain energy (also called shear strain energy) per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches
the limiting distortion energy (i.e., distortion energy at yield point) per unit volume as determined
from a simple tension test mathematically the maximum distortion energy theory for yielding is
expressed as
2 2 σyt 2
(σt1 ) + (σt2 ) − σt1 × σt2 = ( )
F. O. S
This theory is mostly used fir ductile materials in place of maximum strain energy theory.

Solved Examples
Example 1
Find the maximum principal stress developed in a cylindrical shaft, 8 cm in diameter and
subjected to a bending moment of 2.5 kNm and a twisting moment of 4.2 kNm. If the yield
stress of the shaft material is 300 MPa. Determine the factor of safety of the shaft
according to the maximum shearing stress theory of failure.
Solution:
Given: d = 8 cm = 0.08 m; M = 2.5 kNm = 2500 Nm; T = 4.2 kNm = 4200 Nm
σyield (σyt ) = 300 MPa = 300 MN/m2
Equivalent torque, Te = √M 2 + T 2
= √(2.5)2 + (4.2)2 = 4.888 kNm
Maximum shear stress developed in the shaft,
16Te 16 × 4.888 × 103
τmax = = × 10−6 MN⁄m2 = 48.62 MN⁄m2
πd3 π × (0.08)3
300
Permissible shear stress = = 150 MN/m2
2
150
∴ Factor safety = = 3.085
48.62

Example 2
A cube of 5mm side is loaded as shown in Figure.
(i) Determine the principle stresses σ1 , σ2 and σ3 .
(ii) Will the cube yield if the yield strength of the material is 70 MPa? Use Von-Mises
theory.
Solution:
Yield strength of the material, σet = 70 MPa = 70 MN/m2 or 70 N/mm2

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 Design for Combined Loading

1000 N
y
800 N

800 N 5 mm
500 N

2000 N

5 mm
z x
5 mm
(i) Principal stresses σ1 , σ2 and σ3 :
2000
σx = = 80 N⁄mm2
5 ×5
1000
σy = = 40 N⁄mm2
5 ×5
500
σz = = 20 N⁄mm2
5 ×5
800
τxy = = 32 N⁄mm2
5 ×5
σx + σy σx − σy 2 80 + 40 80 − 40) 2
σ = √
± ( 2
) + τxy = √
± ( ) + (32)2
2 2 2 2
= 60± √(20)2 + (32)2 = 97.741, 22.26
∴ σ1 = 97.74 N/mm2 or 97.74 MPa
σ2 = 22.26 N/mm2 or 22.26 MPa
σ3 = σZ = 20 N/mm2 or 20 MPa
(ii) Will the cube yield?
According to Von-Misses yield criteria, yielding will occur if
(σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2 ≥ 2σ2yt
Now, (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 + (σ3 − σ1 )2
⇒ (97.74 – 22.26)2 + (22.26 − 20)2 + (20 − 97.74)2
⇒ 5697.2 + 5.1 + 6043.5 = 11745.8 … (i)
2 2
2σyt = 2 × (70) = 9800 … (ii)
Since 11745.8 (i) > 9800, (ii) Hence yielding will occur

Example 3
A thin-walled circular tube of wall thickness t and min radius r is subjected to an axial
load P and torque T in a combined tension-torsion experiment.
(i) Determine the state of stress existing in the tube in terms of P and T.
(ii) Using Von-Mises – Henky failure criteria show that failure takes place
when√σ2x + 3τ2xy , where σ0 is the yield stress in uniaxial tension, σx and τxy are
respectively the axial and torsional stresses in the tube.
Solution:
Min radius of the tube = r
Wall thickness of the tube = t
Axial load = P
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 Design for Combined Loading

Torque = T
(i) The State of Stress in the Tube
P
Due to axial load, the axial stress in the tube σx =
2πrt
Due to torque, shear stress,
Tr Tr T
τxy = = 3
=
Jp 2πr t 2πr 2 t
π
Jp = 2 {(r + t)4 − r 4 } = 2πr 3 t − neglecting t 2 higher power of t
P T
∴ The state of stress in the tube is, σx = 2πrt , σy = 0, τxy= 2πr2 t
(ii) Von Mises-Henky Failure in Tension for 2-Dimensional Stress is
σ20 = σ12 + σ22 − σ1 σ2
σx + σ y σx − σy 2
σ1 = + √( ) + τ2xy
2 2

σx + σ y σx − σy 2
σ2 = − √( ) + τ2xy
2 2

σx σ2x
In this case, σ1 = + √ + τ2xy and
2 4

σx σ2x
σ2 = − √ + τ2xy (∵ σy = 0)
2 4
2 2
σ σ2 σ 2 σ2x σ2x
∴ σ20 = [ x +√ x + τ2xy ] +[ x − √σx + τ2xy ] −[
σx
+√
σx
+ τ2xy ] [ −√ + τxy ]
2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4

σ2x σ2x σx σ2x

= [ + + τ2xy + 2 √ + τ2xy ]
4 4 2 4

σ2x σ2x σx σ2x σ2 σ2

+[ + + τ2xy − 2 √ + τ2xy ] − [ x − x − τ2xy ]
4 4 2 4 4 4
= σ2x + 3τ2xy
σ0 = √σ2x + 3τ2xy Proved

Example 4
Compute factor of safety, based upon the distortion-energy theory, for stress elements
at A and B of the member shown in the figure. This bar is made of AISI 1006 cold-drawn
steel and is loaded by the forces F = 0.55 kN, P = 8.0 kN and
T = 30 N. m., Sy = 280 MPa

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 Design for Combined Loading

100 mm

A F
B

z
D
P x
20 – mm T
Solution:
32Fl 4P 32(0.55)(103 )(0.1) 4(8)(103 )
A: σx = + = +
πd3 πd2 π(0.020)3 π(0.020)2
= 95.49 × 106 Pa = 95.49 MPa
16T 16(30)
τxy = 3= = 19.10 × 106 Pa = 19.10 MPa
πd π(0.020)3
1 1
σ′ = (σ2x + 3τ2xy )2 = [95.492 + 3(19.1)2 ]2 = 101.1 MPa
Sy 280
n= ′ = = 2.77
σ 101.1
4P 4(8)(103 )
B: σx = 3 = = 25.47 × 106 Pa = 25.47 MPa
πd π(0.020)2
16T 4 V 16(30) 4 0.55(103 )
τxy = + = + [ ]
πd3 3 A π(0.020)3 3 (π) (0.020)2
4
= 21.43 × 106 Pa = 21.43 MPa
1
σ′ = [25.472 + 3(21.43)2 ]2 = 45.02 MPa
280
n= = 6.22
45.02

Example 5
The figure is a schematic drawing of a countershaft that supports two V-belt pulleys. For
each pulley, the belt tensions are parallel. For pulley A consider the loose belt tension is
15 percent of the tension on the tight side. The steel shaft of uniform diameter selected
for this application has yield strength of 370 MPa. For a static analysis with a factor of
safety of 3.0, determine the minimum preferred size diameter. Use the distortion-energy
theory.

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 Design for Combined Loading

y 45o
300 400
T2
T1 150
0
300 Dia
z
A
250 Dia
50 N x
R c
Dimension in mm

270 N
Solution:
At R
T = (270 − 50)(0.150) = 33 N. m, Sy = 370 MPa
(T1 − 0.15T1 ) (0.125) = 33 ⇒ T1 = 310.6N, T2 = 0.15(310.6) = 46.6 N
(T1 + T2 ) cos 45 = 252.6 N
107.0 N 252.6 N
y

163.4 N 252.6 N 89.2 N 300 400 150

300 A 400 150

0 z
B C 320 N
x-y Plane x-z Plane 174.4 N
MA = 0.3√163. 42 + 1072 = 58.59 N. m (maximum)
MB = 0.15√89. 22 + 174.42 = 29.38 N. m
32(58.59) 596.8
σx = =
πd3 d3
16(33) 168.1
τxy = =
πd3 d3
1/2
′
596.8 2
1/2 168.1 2 664.0 370(106 )
σ = +(σ2x 3τ2xy )
= [( 3 ) + 3 ( 3 ) ] = =
d d d3 3.0
−3 )m
d = 17.5(10 = 17.5 mm, so use 18 mm

Example 6
The clevis pin shown in the figure is 12 mm in diameter and has the dimensions
a = 12 mm and b = 18 mm. The pin is machined from hot-rolled steel having yield
strength of 220 MPa and is to be loaded to no more than 4.4 kN. Determine whether or
not the assumed loading of figure c yields a factor of safety any different from that of
figure d. Use the maximum-shear-stress theory.

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 Design for Combined Loading

(b)

b
2

d
a+b
(c)

a a b
F
b
a+b
(a) (d)
Solution:
For the loading scheme shown in figure (c)
F a b 4.4
Mmax = ( + ) = (6 + 4.5) = 23.1 N. m
2 2 4 2
For a stress element at A:
32M 32(23.1)(103 )
σx = = = 136.2 MPa
πd3 π(12)3
The shear at C is
4(F/2) 4(4.4/2)(103 )
τxy = = = 25.94 MPa
3πd2 /4 3π(12)2 /4
1/2
136.2 2
τmax = [( ) ] = 68.1 MPa
2
220 Ssy 110
Since Sy = 220 MPa, Ssy = = 110 MPa and n = = = 1.62
2 τmax 68.1

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 "The will to do springs from the
knowledge that we can do."
… James Allen

2
CHAPTER

Design for Dynamic Loading

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Stress Concentration
2. Fatigue or Endurance Limit
3. Linear Elastic Fatigue – Life Method
4. Factor Effecting Endurance Limit

Introduction
In previous chapter we considered the analysis and design of parts subjected to static loading. The
behavior of machine parts is entirely different when they are subjected to time varying loading.
A particular fiber on the surface of a rotating shaft subjected to the action of bending loads
undergoes both tension and compression for each revolution of the shaft. These and other kinds of
loading occurring in machine members produce stresses that are called variable, repeated,
alternating or fluctuating stresses. Different machine elements fail under the action of repeated or
fluctuating stresses. The peculiar feature of fatigue failure is that the actual maximum stresses were
well below the ultimate strength of the material and quite frequently even below the yield strength.
The most significant characteristic of these failures is that the stresses have been repeated a very
large number of times. Failure of a component under static load is accompanied by large deflections
which are due to the fact that stress has exceeded the yield strength. This gives a visual warning of
impending failure of the component. This is not present in dynamic or fatigue failure and there is a
sudden failure. Fatigue failure has an appearance similar to a brittle fracture, as the fracture
surfaces are flat and perpendicular to the stress axis with the absence of necking.

Stress Concentration
In the development of the basic stress equations for tension, compression, bending and torsion, it
was assumed that no geometric irregularities occurred in the member under consideration. But it is
quite difficult to design a machine without permitting some changes in the cross sections of the
members. Rotating shafts must have shoulders designed on them so that the bearings can be
properly seated and so that they will take thrust loads and the shafts must have key slots machined
into them for securing pulleys and gears. A bolt has a head on one end and screw threads on the
other end, both of which account for abrupt changes in the cross section. Other parts require holes,
oil grooves and notches of various kinds. Any discontinuity in a machine part alters the stress
distribution in the neighborhood of the discontinuity so that the elementary stress equations no

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 Design for Dynamic Loading

longer describe the state of stress in the part at these locations. Such discontinuities are called stress
raisers and the regions in which they occur are called areas of stress concentration.

A theoretical or geometric, stress-concentration factor K t or K ts is used to relate the actual

maximum stress at the discontinuity to the nominal stress. The factors are defined by the equations
σmax τmax
Kt = , K ts =
σ0 τ0
Where K t is used for normal stresses and K ts for shear stresses.
σ0 , τ0 − Nominal stress

Stress Concentration due to Holes and Notches

Consider a plate with transverse elliptical hole and subjected to a tensile load as shown in Fig. (a).
we see from the stress-distribution that the stress at the point away from the hole is practically
uniform and the maximum stress will be induced at the edge of the hole. The maximum stress is
given by
2a
σmax = σ (1 + )
b
and the theoretical stress concentration factor
σmax 2a
Kt = = (1 + )
σ b
When a/b is large, the ellipse approaches a crack transverse to the load and the value of K t becomes
very large. When a/b is small, the ellipse approaches a longitudinal slit [as shown in Fig. (b)] and the
increase in stress is small, when the hole is circular as shown in Fig. (c), then a/b = 1 and the
maximum stress is three times tunes the nominal value,

σmax σmax σmax

σ σ σ
+ + +
b a

a/b=2 a/b=1/2 a/b=1

σmax =5σ σmax =2σ σmax =3σ
(a) (b) (c)
Stress Concentration due to Holes

The stress concentration in the notched tension member, as shown in Fig. is influenced by the depth
a of the notch and radius r at the bottom of the notch. The maximum stress, which applies to
members having notches that are small in comparison with the width of the plate, may be obtained
by the following equation
2a
σmax = σ (1 + )
r

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 Design for Dynamic Loading

r
+

Stress Concentration due

to Notches

Fatigue
When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point stresses.
Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue. The fatigue of material is effected by the size of
the component, relative magnitude of static and fluctuating loads and the number of load reversals.
Fatigue failure is due to crack formation and propagation. A fatigue crack will typically initiate at a
discontinuity in the material where the cyclic stress is a maximum.

Discontinuities can arise because of

 Design of rapid changes in cross section, keyways, holes, etc. where stress concentrations occur
 Elements that roll and/or slide against each other (bearings, gears, cams, etc.) under high
contact pressure, developing concentrated subsurface contact stresses that can cause surface
pitting or spilling after many cycles of the load.
 Carelessness in locations of stamp marks, tool marks, scratches and burrs; poor joint design;
improper assembly; and other fabrication faults.
 Composition of the material itself as processed by rolling, forging, casting, extrusion, drawing,
heat treatment, etc. Microscopic and submicroscopic surface and subsurface discontinuities
arise, such as inclusions of foreign material, alloy segregation, voids, hard precipitated particles
and crystal discontinuities.

Conditions that Accelerate Crack Initiation

 Residual tensile stresses
 Elevated temperatures
 Temperature cycling
 Corrosive environment
 High-frequency cycling

Fatigue or Endurance Limit

Endurance or fatigue limit (σe ) is defined as maximum value of the completely reversed bending
stress which a polished standard specimen can withstand without failure, for infinite number of
cycles (usually107 cycles)
Endurance limit is used for reversed bending only while for other types of loading, the term
endurance strength may be used when referring the fatigue strength of the material. It may be
defined as the safe maximum stress which can be applied to the machine part working under actual
conditions.
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 Design for Dynamic Loading

The endurance limit or endurance strength can be graphically depicted as below.

Stress
σe

No. of Cycles
(d)
Endurance or Fatigue Limit

The stress verses time diagram for fluctuating stress having values σmin and σmax is shown in
Fig (e). The variable stress, in general, may be considered as a combination of steady (or mean or
average) stress and a completely reversed stress component σv .
The following relations are derived from Fig (e)
1. Mean or average stress
σmax + σmin
σm =
2
2. Reversed stress component or alternating or variable stress
σmax − σmin
σv =
2
For repeated loading the stress varies from maximum to zero (i.e., σmin = 0)
σmax
∴ σm = σv =
2
σmax
3. Stress ratio, R = . for completely reversed stresses, R = −1 and for repeated stresses R = 0.
σmin
It may be noted that R cannot be greater than unity.
4. The following relation between endurance limit and stress ration may be used
3σe
σ′e =
2−R
Where, σ′e = Endurance limit for any stress range represented by R
σe = Endurance limit for completely reversed stresses and
R = Stress ratio
Tension

σmax
σm
Compression

σmin

(e)

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 Design for Dynamic Loading

Linear Elastic Fatigue-Life Methods

 Stress-life method
 Strain-life method
 Linear-elastic fracture mechanics method
These methods attempt to predict the life in number of cycles to failure, N, for a specific level of
loading.
N ≤ 103 - Low-cycle fatigue
N > 103 - High-cycle fatigue

Stress-Life Method
 Based on stress levels only.
 Least accurate approach, especially for low-cycle applications.
 Easiest to implement for a wide range of design applications.
 Has ample supporting data.
 Represents high-cycle applications adequately.

Strain-Life Method
 More detailed analysis of the plastic deformation at localized regions where the stresses and
strains are considered for life estimate.
 Good Method for low-cycle fatigue applications.
 In applying this method, several idealizations must be compounded and so some uncertainties
will exist in the results.

Linear Elastic
Fracture Mechanics Method
 Assumes a crack is already present and detected. It is then employed to predict crack growth
with respect to stress intensity
 Most practical when applied to large structures in conjunction with computer codes and a
periodic inspection program

Endurance Limit Modifying Factors

Modifying factors are defined and used to account for differences between the specimen and the
actual machine part with regard to surface conditions, size, loading, temperature, reliability and
miscellaneous factors.

Factor of Safety for Fatigue Loading

When a component is subjected to fatigue loading, the endurance limit is the criterion for failure.
Therefore, the factor of safety should be based on endurance limit. Mathematically,
Endurance limit stress σe
Factor of safety (FOS) = =
Design or working stress σd
For steel,
σe = 0.8 to 0.9σy

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 Design for Dynamic Loading

Where,
σe = Endurance limit stress for completely reversed stress cycle
σy = Yield point stress

Factors to be considered while Designing Machine Parts to avoid Fatigue Failure

 The variation in the size of the component should be as gradual as possible.
 The holes, notches and other stress raisers should be avoided.
 The proper stress de-concentrators such as fillets and notches should be provided wherever
necessary.
 The parts should be protected from corrosive atmosphere.
 A smooth finish of outer surface of the component increases the fatigue life.
 The material with high fatigue strength should be selected.
 The residual compressive stresses over the parts surface increase its fatigue strength.

Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor

When a machine member is subjected to cyclic or fatigue loading, the value of fatigue stress
concentration factor shall be applied instead of theoretical stress concentration factor. Since the
determination of fatigue stress concentration factor is not an easy task, therefore from experimental
tests it is defined as
Fatigue stress concentration factor,
Endurance limit without stress concentration
Kf =
Endurance limit with stress concentration

Notch Sensitivity Factor

The notch sensitivity of a material is a measure of how sensitive a material is to notches or
geometric discontinuities. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Kf − 1
q=
Kt − 1
Where, K t = Theoretical stress concentration factor for axial or bending loading
0≤q≤1

Design for Reversed Stresses

The strength-life (S-N) diagram provides the fatigue strength Sf versus cycle life N of a material. The
results are generated from tests using a simple loading of standard laboratory controlled specimens.
The loading often is that of sinusoidally reversing pure bending. The laboratory-controlled
specimens are polished without geometric stress concentration at the region of minimum area.
7
3 in
16

0.30
7
in 9 in
8
R. for Fatigue
Test-Specimen

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 Design for Dynamic Loading

Low Cycle High

Finite Life cycle
Infinite Life

Sut
Fatigue Strength Sf . kpti. N

100

50

102 100103 104 105 101

106 107 108
Number of Stress Cycle. N
S-N Diagram for Steel, Normalized; Sut = 116 kpsi; Maximum Sut = 125 kpsi

For steel and iron, the S-N diagram becomes horizontal at some point. The strength at this point is
called the endurance limit [maximum value of the completely reversed bending stress which a
polished standard specimen can withstand without failure for infinite number of cycles (usually 10 7
cycles)]. Se’ and occurs somewhere between 106 and 107 cycles. For non-ferrous materials that do
not exhibit an endurance limit, a fatigue strength at a specific number of cycles,Sf′, may be given. The
strength data are based on many controlled conditions that will not be the same as that for an actual
machine part. What follows are practices used to account for the differences between the loading
and physical conditions of the specimen and the actual machine part.

Combination of Mean Stress and Fluctuating Stress

The mean stress can have a significant effect on the failure due to fatigue and must be considered in
combination with the alternating stress. (Under normal fatigue loading conditions the mean stress is
small compared to the alternating stress)
A number of interaction criteria are used to quantify the combined stress and the relevant design
factors of safety. These are potted together below
Yield Line
Syt
Soderberg Line
Stress Amplitude

Se Gerber Line

Goodman Line
Modified Goodman
σamp

Line

σmean Syt Sut

Mean Stress

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 Design for Dynamic Loading

The mean Stress σmean is plotted on the horizontal axis and the alternating stress σamp is plotted on
the vertical axis.

Soderberg Line
If the point of the combined stress is below the Soderberg line then the component will not fail. This
is a very conservative criteria based on the material yield point Syt
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Soderberg Criteria
K f σamp σmean 1
+ =
Se Syt Nf

Goodman Line/Modified Goodman Line

If the point of the combined stress is below the relevant Goodman line then the component will not
fail. This is a less conservative criteria based on the material ultimate strength yield point Sut
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Goodman Criteria
K f σamp σmean 1
+ =
Se Sut Nf

Gerber Line or Gerber Parabola

If the point of the combined stress is below the Gerber line then the component will not fail. This is a
less conservative criteria based on the material ultimate strength Sut
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Gerber Criteria
Nf K f σamp Nf σmean 2
+( ) =1
Se Sut
 Se = The modified fatigue strength
 Sut = The ultimate tensile strength
 Syt = The yield tensile strength
 Nf = The factor of safety applicable for fatigue

Stages of Fatigue Failure

Fracture features of a fatigue failure, are quite different from a static brittle fracture. The fatigue
fracture has three stages of development. Stage I is the initiation of one or more micro cracks due to
cyclic plastic deformation followed by crystallographic propagation extending from two to five
grains about the origin. Stage I cracks are not normally discernible to the naked eye. Stage II
progresses from micro cracks to macro cracks forming parallel plateau-like fracture surfaces
separated by longitudinal ridges. The plateaus are generally smooth and normal to the direction of
maximum tensile stress. During cyclic loading, these cracked surfaces open and close, rubbing
together and the beach mark appearance depends on the changes in the level or frequency of
loading and the corrosive nature of the environment. Stage III occurs during the final stress cycle
when the remaining material cannot support the loads, resulting in a sudden, fast fracture. A stage
III fracture can be brittle, ductile or a combination of both. Quite often the beach marks, if they exist.

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 Design for Dynamic Loading

Factors Effecting Endurance Limit

As we know that specimens used in the laboratory to determine endurance limits is prepared very
carefully and tested under closely controlled conditions. It is unrealistic to expect the endurance
limit of a mechanical or structural member to match the values obtained in the laboratory.

Some Differences Include

 Material: Composition, basis of failure, variability
 Manufacturing method, heat treatment, fretting corrosion, surface condition, stress
concentration
 Environment: Corrosion, temperature, stress state, relaxation times
 Design: Size, shape, life, stress state, stress concentration, speed, fretting, galling
Marin identified factors that quantified the effects of surface condition, size, loading,
temperature and miscellaneous items.
A Marin equation is therefore written as
Se = K a K b K c K d K e K f S′e
Where
ka = Surface condition modification factor
kb = Size modification factor
kc = Load modification factor
kd = Temperature modification factor
ke = Reliability factor
kf = Miscellaneous-effects modification factor
S'e = Rotary-beam test specimen endurance limit
Se = Endurance limit at the critical location of a machine part in the geometry and condition of
use
When endurance tests of parts are not available, estimations are made by applying Marin
factors to the endurance limit.
The details of various factors are explained as under:

Surface Factor ka
The surface of a rotating-beam specimen is highly polished, with a final polishing in the axial
direction to smooth out any circumferential scratches. The surface modification factor depends on
the quality of the finish of the actual part surface and on the tensile strength of the part material. To
find quantitative expressions for common finishes of machine parts (ground, machined or cold-
drawn, hot-rolled and as-forged), the coordinates of data points were recaptured from a plot of
endurance limit versus ultimate tensile strength. The data can be represented by
b
k a = aSut
Where Sut is the minimum tensile strength and a and b are to be found in Table
Surface Factor a Exponent
Finish Sut kpsi Sut MPa b
Ground 1.34 1.58 −0.085
Machine or Cold-drawn 2.70 4.51 −0.265
Hot-rolled 14.4 57.7 −0.715
As-forged 39.9 272 −0.995

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 Design for Dynamic Loading

Size Factor 𝐤 𝐛
The result for bending and torsion may be expressed as
(d/0.3)−0.107 = 0.879d−0.107 0.11 ≤ d ≤ 2 in
−0.157
k b = 0.91d −0.107 2 < d ≤ 10 in
(d/7.62) = 1.24d−0.107 2.79 ≤ d ≤ 51 mm
{ 1.51d−0.157 51 < d ≤ 254 mm
For axial loading there is no size effect, so
kb = 1

Loading Factor 𝐤 𝐜
When fatigue tests are carried out with rotating bending, axial (push-pull) and torsion-al loading,
the endurance limits differ with Sut
Here, we will specify average values of the load factor as
1 Bending
k c = {0.85 Axial
0.59 Torsion

Temperature Factor kd
When operating temperatures are below room temperature, brittle fracture is a strong possibility
and should be investigated first. When the operating temperatures are higher than room
temperature, yielding should be investigated first because the yield strength drops off so rapidly
with temperature. Any stress will induce creep in a material operating at high temperatures so this
factor must be considered too.

The k d can be estimated by referring the below equation and table.

Temperature, 𝐨 𝐂 𝐒𝐓 /𝐒𝐑𝐓
20 1.000
50 1.010
100 1.020
150 1.025
200 1.020
250 1.000
300 0.975
350 0.943
400 0.900
450 0.843
500 0.768
550 0.672
600 0.549
S
Kd = S T
RT

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 Design for Dynamic Loading

Reliability Factor 𝐤 𝐞
The reliability modification factor can be obtained from the relation
k e = 1 − 0.08za
Reliability, % Transformation Variate 𝐳𝐚 Reliability Factor 𝐤 𝐞
50 0 1.000
90 1.288 0.897
95 1.645 0.868
99 2.326 0.814
99.9 3.091 0.753
99.99 3.719 0.702
99.999 4.265 0.659
99.9999 4.753 0.620

Miscellaneous-Effects Factor kf
Though the factor kf is intended to account for the reduction in endurance limit due to all other
effects, it is really intended as a reminder that these must be accounted for, because actual values of
kf are not always available. Therefore, if not explicitly provided, it can be taken as 1.

Solved Examples
Example 1
A spherical pressure vessel of 600 mm internal diameter is made of 3 mm thick cold
drawn sheet steel with static strength properties of Sut = 440 MPa and Syp = 370 MPa.
and Se = 220 MPa. Determine the maximum pressure for (a) Static yielding and
(b) Eventual fatigue failure, when the pressure fluctuates between 0 and Pmax when
yielding is also not permitted, (Do not apply any factor of safety)
Solution:
PD
Sh =
4t
Where P = Internal Pressure
D = Diameter
T = Thickness
Pmax D
(a) St = Syp =
4t
Syp × 4t 370 × 106 × 4 × 0.003
Pmax = =
D 0.6
6
= 7.4 × 10 Pa = 7.4 MPa
(b) When pressure fluctuates between 0 and Pmax
Sm = Sa
As no yielding is allowed. Soderberg’s equation is to be used.
Sm Sa 1
i. e. , + =
Syp Se F. S
P × 0.6 P × 0.6
+ = 1
2 × 4 × 0.003 × 370 2 × 4 × 0.003 × 220
Solving, P = 5051 × 106 Pa = 5.51 MPa

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 Design for Dynamic Loading

Example 2
A steel rod is subjected to a reversed axial load of 180 kN. Find the diameter of the rod for
a factor of safety of 2. Neglect column action. The material has an ultimate strength of
1070 N/mm2and yield strength of 910 N/mm2. The endurance limit in reversed bending
may be assumed to be one-half of ultimate tensile strength. Other correction factors may
be taken as: for axial loading = 0.7; for machined surfaces = 0.8; for size = 0.85; for stress
concentration = 1.0
Solution
Wmax = 180 kN; Wmin = −180 kN; factor of safety (F.O.S) = 2
σu = 1070 N/mm2 , σy = 910 N/mm2 , σe = 0.5 σu = k a = 0.7
K sur = 0.8; K rz = 0.85; K f = 1
Let, d = Diameter of the rod in mm
π
Area of the rod, A = 4 × d2 = 0.7845 d2 mm2 (where d = dia. of the rod)
Wmax + Wmin 180 + (−180)
Mean (or Average) load, Wm = = = 180 kN
2 2
Wm
∴ Mean stress, σm = =0
A
Wmax − Wmin 180 − (−180)
Variable load, Wv = = = 180 × 103 N
2 2
Wv 180 × 103 229 × 103
∴ Variable stress, σv = = = = N/m2
A 0.7854 d2 d2
Endurance limit in reversed axial loading,
σea = σe × K a = 0.5 σu × 0.7 = 0.35 σu (∴ σe = 0.5 σu )
= 0.35 × 1070 = 374.5 N/mm2
According to Soderberg’s method for reversed axial loading, we have
1 σm σv × K f
= +
F. O. S σy σea × K sur × K sz
1 229 × 103 × 1 900
or = 0 + 2 ≈ 2 or d = 42.42 mm
2 d × 374.5 × 0.8 × 0.85 d

Example 3
A rectangular plate with a central hole is subjected to a completely reversed axial load of
20 kN as shown in Fig. The notch sensitivity can be assumed as 0.8. Determine the plate
thickness for infinite life, if the factor of safety is 2. Assume the ultimate tensile strength
as 500 MPa. The surface factor is 0.8, size factor is 0.85 and the calculations are expected
at 90% reliability, for which the reliability factor is 0.897. The theoretical stress
concentration factor for (b/d = 0.2) may be taken as 2.5.

± 20 kN
b = 100

± 20 kN

d = 20

150 t

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 Design for Dynamic Loading

Solution:
P = ± 20 × 103 N
q = 0.8
F. O. S = 2
Sut = 500 N/mm2
SE′ = 0.5; Sut = 0.5 × 500 = 250 N/mm2
k a = 0.8
k b = 0.85
k c = 0.897
K T = 2.5
∴ K F = 1 + q (K T − 1)
= 1 + 0.8 × (2.5 − 1)
= 2.2
1 1
kd = = = 0.455
K F 2.2
∴ SE = k a k b k c k d SE′
= 0.8 × 0.85 × 0.897 × 0.455 × 250
= 69.314 N/mm2
For an infinite life, the stress developed in the section must be less than or equal to the
endurance strength of the material.
Stress developed at the weaker section considering the factor of safety will be:
P
σ= × F. O. S = SE
(b − d)t
20 × 103
= × 2 = 69.314
(100 − 20)t
t = 7.214 mm ≈ 8 mm

Example 4
A bar of steel has following properties:
Corrected Endurance Strength = 275 MPa
Tensile Yield Strength = 415 MPa
Ultimate Tensile Strength = 550 MPa
If it is subjected to an alternative torsional stress of ± 205 MPa, find the factor of safety
against fatigue failure or the expected life of the component. Assume that the S-N curve
for torsional loading as a straight line drawn from 0.8 × Sut at 103 cycles to SSE at 106
cycles on a log – log paper. Also assume that Ssu = 0.577 Sut and SSE = 0.577 SE .
Solution:
SE = 275 N/mm2
SY = 415 N/mm2
Sut = 550 N/mm2
SSu = 0.577 Sut
= 0.577 × 550 = 317.35 N/mm2
SSE = 0.577 SE
= 0.577 × 275 = 158.675 N/mm2
SSF = 205 N/mm2

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 Design for Dynamic Loading

To determine the life in cycles, consider the SN diagram as shown in Fig.

log10 (0.8 SSu ) A

log10 (SSF ) C

B
Stress

log10 (SSE )

Infinite Life
Finite Life
E F
log10 (N)
3 4 D 5 6 7 8
Number of Cycles
The key data points are represented by
A = log10 (0.8 SSu ) = log10(0.8 × 317.35)
= 2.4046
B = log10(SSE ) = log10 (158.675)
= 2.2005
C = log10(SSF ) = log10 (205)
= 2.3118
D = log10(N)
E=3
F=6
A−B A−C
∴ Taking slopes, =
E−F E−D
2.4046 − 2.2005 2.4046 − 2.3118
=
3−6 3−D
or D = 4.364 = log10 (N)
∴ N = 23122.63 cycles
or N = 23122 cycles

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 "It is observed that successful people get
ahead in the time that other people waste."
…. Henry Ford

3
CHAPTER

Design of Joints

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Riveted Joints, Types of Riveted Joints
2. Tearing of the plate in front of the Rivet
3. Bolted/ Screw Joints
4. Welded Joints

Introduction
A machine is built by joining together several parts either by sliding joints or by fixed joints. The
requirement of sliding joints primarily depends upon the kinematic considerations. However, in
engineering practice, fixed joints are more important because they are required to carry load.
The fixed joints used in most machines may be either permanent or temporary. The selection of a
type of joint is dictated by the functional requirements of the joint in a particular machine.
The classification of joints is shown in figure below.
Joints

Permanent joints Temporary or

Detachable joints

Welded Riveted Joint by

brazed joints interference Threaded Catered Keyed
soldered and joints pinned and joints
adhesive knuckle
joints joints

Permanent joints cannot be disassembled without fracture of the connecting parts. These joints are
made by welding, brazing, riveting and adhesive bonding. Temporary fasteners or detachable joints
allow the disassembly of a machine without damaging the elements of assembly. The most
commonly used detachable joints are formed by threaded members, cotter, and knuckle pin and
keyed members. In this chapter we will be covering three important joints, namely, bolted joints,
riveted joints and welded joints.

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 Design of Joints

Riveted Joints
A rivet is a round bar consisting of an upset end called the head and a long part called the shank, as
shown in figure below. In the riveting process, the shank passes through a cylindrical hole made in
the plates which are to be joined together and then a second head, called the point, is formed on the
tail of the rivet. If the point is prepared by the cold working process, then it is called cold riveting.
However, if the tail end of the rivet is first heated and then the point is formed by upset forging, the
process is termed as hot riveting. Cold riveting is generally used for structural fabrication, whereas
hot riveting is employed in pressure vessels or leak proof joints.

Head

Shank

Tail

Rivet

Rivet Heads
The rivets with different types of heads are shown in figure below. The dimensions of a rivet are
specified in terms of shank diameter D. A snap-head rivet is most widely used in structural work
and machine riveting, while pan and conical-head rivets with taper neck are used in pressure
vessels and leak proof joints. The countersunk head rivet is used for obtaining a smooth surface, e.g.
in shipbuilding. Tubular and semi-tubular rivets are used extensively for quick assembly
operations. These rivets are used for connecting sheet metal and die-cast components where only
the shear stresses are induced in the shank owing to external loads.
1.6 d 1.6 d 2.25 d 2d
1.516 d 0.29 d
0.7 d 0.7 d d 0.5 d
Length
Length
Length

Length

120o

d d d d
(a) Snap Head (b) Pan Head (c) Mushroom Head (d) Counter Sunk
Head 120o

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 Design of Joints

2d 0.25 d
1.5 d 1.5 d
d 2d
0.5 d 0.433 d 0.433 d
d d
90o 60o

Length
60o

Length
Length

Length
d d d
(e) Flat Counter Sunk (f) Flat Counter Sunk d
(g) Round Counter Sunk
Head 90o Head 60o Head 60o
(h) Flat Head
head.

Rivet Terminology
In riveted joints, the following terms are most commonly used (Gauge line is heading) Gauge line.
The line passing through the centers of rivets and parallel to the edge of the plate is called the Gauge
line. It is also known as the pitch line figure below.
Section on 10o
A x-x

D B
t

1.5d 1.5d
p=3d

x A B x

Gauge Line
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐞 − 𝐑𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐋𝐚𝐩 𝐉𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭

Pitch (p): The distance between the centres of adjacent rivets measured on the gauge line is called
the pitch.
Transverse Pitch (ptr): The distance between the rivet centres in two adjacent gauge lines is called
the back pitch or transverse pitch below Figure (a).

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 Design of Joints

10o Section on
A x−x
10o
d D B A
t ~ d d B
~
1.5 d 2d+6 1.5 d
1.5 2d+6 1.5
D D

Diagonal Pitch
p = 3d

B B
A

p = 3d
A
x x
Ptr
x
x

(b)Zig-Zag Riveting
(a)Chain Riveting
𝐃𝐨𝐮𝐛𝐥𝐞 − 𝐑𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐋𝐚𝐩 𝐉𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭

Diagonal Pitch (𝐩𝐝 ): The distance between the adjacent rivet centres on adjacent gauge lines in zig-
zag or chain riveting is called the diagonal pitch.

Chain/Zig-Zag Riveting: If the rivets in adjacent rows arc placed opposite to each other, the
arrangement is termed chain riveting. Otherwise, it is called zig-zag riveting.

Margin (m): The distance between the outermost gauge line and the edge of the plate is called the
margin or margin pitch.

Types of Riveted Joints

The riveted joints can be broadly classified into two categories, namely (i) Lap joint (ii) Butt joint.

Lap Joint
A lap joint consists of two overlapping plates held together by one or more rows of rivets. A single-
riveted lap joint is shown in Figure (Single reverted lap joint). A double-riveted lap joint can have
rivets either staggered (zig-zag riveting) or in-line (chain riveting) as shown in Figure above.

Butt Joint
The butt joints are formed by butting two plates against each other and joining them by overlapping
straps or cover plates. A butt joint has straps either on one side, called the single-strap butt joint or
on both sides, called the double-strap butt joint. A single-strap butt joint may get bent like a lap
joint. Therefore, this type of joint is not recommended in leak-proof joints. The butt joint with two
straps, one on each side, is considered to be stronger. The straps may have the same width or the
outer strap may be narrower. Butt joints are single, double, triple or quadruple riveted. Below figure
shows a double-riveted, double-straps butt joint with zigzag riveting.

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 Design of Joints

Main Plate A
p Cover Plate C1

Main Plate B
t1
t d
t1

1.5d 2d 3d 2d 1.5d Cover Plate C2

C1 B
A

x x
P

C2
Double – Riveted Butt Joint with Double Cover Place (Straps) and Zig – Zag Riveting

Analysis of a Riveted Joint

In a riveted joint, the rivets should always be placed at right angle to the direction of the applied
force so that maximum stress induced is either shear or crushing. The analysis of a riveted joint is
based upon the conventional assumption that the load distribution is equal among all the rivets.

In general, the reverted joint is analyzed on the basis of the following assumption:
(i) Rivets are loaded in shear and the load is distribution in proportion to the shear area of the
rivets.

(ii) There are no bending or direct stresses in rivets.

(iii) Rivet holes in the plate do not weaken the plate in compression.

(iv) Rivets after assembly completely fill the holes.

(v) Friction between adjacent surfaces does not affect strength of joints; however the actual stress
produced decreases.

(vi) When a rivet is subjected to double shear, the shear force is equally distribution between the
two areas in shear.

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 Design of Joints

Tearing of Plate in Front of the Rivet

The riveted joint, may fail due to tearing of the plate in front of the rivet, although such type of
failure occurs rarely when the distance between the edge and the nearest row of the rivet, called
margin, is very small. Generally, this margin distance is kept l.5 times the diameter of the rivet
shank to avoid such failures. This failure mode is shown in figure below.

Margin (1.5d)

Tearing of Plate along the Gauge Line

In a riveted joint, because of the drilled hole, the plate between the holes is considered to be the
weakest along the gauge line. Therefore, the plate can tear off across the pitch line as shown in
figure below.

P-d
P

Tearing Failure of the Plate

The area resistance to resistance to tearing failure of the plate per pitch length is
A = (p −d) t
And tearing resistance of the plate for one pitch length is
F = (p – d) tσt
Where,
p is the pitch
d is the diameter of the rivet
t is the thickness of the plate
σt is the tensile strength of the plate material

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 Design of Joints

Shearing of Rivets
When a riveted joint is subjected to tensile load and the plate is sufficiently strong, the rivet gets
subjected to a radial pressure which causes shearing of the rivet as shown in figure below.

Fs Fs
Reaction
by
Fs Fs Strap
Fs

(a)Rivet in Single Shear Failure (b)Rivet in Double Shear Failure

𝐒𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐨𝐟 𝐑𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐭𝐬

The shear strength of a riveted joint is given by the following equations:

π
(i) In signal shear: Fs = D2 τmax
4
π
(ii) In double shear: Fs = 2 × D2 τmax
4
Where, τmax is the shear strength of the rivet material
In a multi-row riveted joint, the number of rivets in shear is equal to the number of rivets contained
between the lines drawn at a pitch distance apart.

Crushing of Rivets
When both plates and rivets of a joint are stronger in their respective modes of failure as discussed
above, either the plate or the rivet or both may get crushed by compression between the plate and
the rivet. Such a failure is called crushing failure (Figure below). Sometimes when a joint is subjected
to a large force to be resisted by rivets and plates, the plate hole may get elongated and become oval
in shape. Hence, the joint becomes loose. Such a failure is termed bearing failure of the joint.

Rivet Under Crushing

The area resistant to such failure is the projected area of the hole or rivet. Therefore, the crushing
strength of the joint is given by,
Fcr = n d tσcr
Where,
n is the number of rivets under crushing
σcr is the crushing strength of a rivet
Generally, the diameter of the rivet d in mm is computed purely from the empirical formula.
Unwin suggested that if the thickness of plate is more than 8 mm, then the diameter of the rivet
can be computed by the following relation:

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 Design of Joints

d = 6.1√t
Where, t is the thickness of the plate in mm. If the thickness of the plate is less than 8 mm, then the
shearing strength of the joint must be equated to the crushing strength for determination of the
rivet diameter. The pitch length of the joint can be found by equating the shear strength and tearing
strength of the joint for one pitch length. That is,
π
(n1 + 2n2 ) d2 τmax = (p − d)tσt
4
Where,
n1 is the number of rivets in single shear
n2 is the number of rivets in double shear

Efficiency of a Riveted Joint

As discussed earlier, a riveted joint may fail in the following three modes of failure, namely
(i) Tearing of plate, (ii) Shearing of rivets and (iii) Crushing of rivets. The efficiency of a riveted joint
is defined as the ratio of the strength of the joint at the weakest section in the weakest mode of
failure to the strength of the unpunched plate in one pitch length of the joint.
Strength of the joint in the weakest mode
η=
Strength of the unpunched plate

Caulking and Fullering

In application like pressure vessels and briers, the riveted joint should be leak-proof and fluid tight
caulking and fullering processes are used to obtain such leak proof rivet joints. Caulking process is
applied to the edges of plates in a lap joint and the edges of strap plate in a butt joint. These edges
are first beveled to approximately 70o to 75o and the caulking tool is hammered on the edge as the
head of the rivet is also hammered down with caulking tool. The blows on the caulking tool closes
the surface asperities and cracks on the contacting surface between two plates and also between the
rivet and the plates resulting in leak proof joint. Great injury to the plate, otherwise caulking will
result in opening of the joint instead of closing it caulking cannot be applied to plates with less than
6 mm thickness.
Fullering is similar to caulking process except the shape of the tool. The width of the fullering tool to
the thickness of the plate being hammered blow on fullering tool result in simultaneous pressure on
the entire edge of the plate.

Caulking Tool

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 Design of Joints

Fullering Tool

75o − 75o

Caulking and Fullering

Bolted/Screw Joints

Introduction
When two or more machine members need to be held together the mechanical fastening most
frequently used is the screw fastening. In screw fastening, a screw thread is formed by cutting a
continuous helical groove on a cylindrical surface. When such a screw engages with a
corresponding threaded hole, it forms an inclined plane contact. When torque is applied, it results
in motion in the axial direction.
Screwed connections are highly reliable, convenient to assemble or dissemble. They are available in
wide ranges and relatively cheap to produce owing to standardization and specialized
manufacturing processes. The main disadvantage of the screw connection is the high stress
concentration near the sharp edges of the thread which may damage the thread under variable load
conditions.
Screws are also useful for transmission of power such as lead screws of lathe machines, presses,
jacks and other similar devices. A typical screw connection using bolt and nut is shown in Figure
below.
(a) The terminology used in bolt and nut is explained in Figure below (b) and (c).
Size Across
Face Height of Head

Length of Bolt

Size Across
Corners d R

Height of Nut
Body
Length Thread – Run Length
(a) Parts of Bolt and Nut

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 Design of Joints

1
2
Basic Thread Angle Major
Pitch Point Cylinder
Pitch
Major Diameter
or Outside
Diameter

Simple
Axis
Effective
(Pitch)
diameter

Depth Slope Pitch

Root
Minor Pitch
Minor Dia or Cylinder Cylinder
Root or Core Dia
(b) External Thread
Major
Cylinder
Pitch
line
1
Simple Basic Pitch
2
Effective Axis Pitch Point
(Pitch)
MajordiameterMajor Dia Crest Root
Diameter diameter

Minor Pitch
Cylinder Cylinder
(c) Internal Thread
A Typical Screw Connection

Types of Screw Fastenings

Some of the common types of screw fastenings used as mechanical fasteners arc (i) Through Bolt
(ii) Tap bolt (iii) Stud (iv) Machine Screw (v) Set Screw (vi) Washer. A brief description of some of
these fasteners is given below.
Through Bolt: It is commonly called the bolt. It is a round bar one end of which is threaded and
fitted with a nut white the other end is upset to form a head. Depending upon the shape of the head,
these bolts are called hexagonal bolt or square boll.
Tap Bolt: This bolt is the through bolt without the nut. The internal threading is done into the
mating member itself however; this bolt should not be used when frequent unscrewing of a
machine member is required as it may damage the threads in the machine member.
Stud: A stud is designed to be used where either a through hole is impossible to be drilled or where
a through bolt cannot be used due to geometric limitations of the mating member.
Machine Screw: Small cylindrical threaded pieces with various types of heads, most of which have a
slot for a screw-driver are called machine screws.

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 Design of Joints

Design of Bolts for Static Load

The main purpose of a bolt is to fasten the given mechanical components. A bolt is inserted in the
hole drilled through parts and a nut is tightened. This lightening of the nut produces a clamping
force, generally called the initial tightening force or pre-load. Besides, the bolted assembly is also
subjected to external forces. In a bolted assembly, the outer surfaces of the parts, where the head or
nut rests, should be normal to the axis of the bolt otherwise the bolt will be subjected to bending
stresses.

Initial Tightening Force

The initial tightening force on a bolt is necessary, as the strength of the joint depends upon it. The
amount of pre-load on the bolt depends upon the torque applied to lighten the bolt.
The following empirical relation can be used to relate applied torque Ti and pre-load.
Ti = CdFi
Where,
C = Torque constant
= 0.2 for dry surfaces
= 0.15 for lubricated surfaces
Fi = Initial tightening force or pre-load
d = Basic or nominal diameter of the bolt
Empirically, the pre-load or initial tightening force is given by the following relation
Fi = 2805 dN
The effect of the initial tightening torque and thereby the induced pre-load is to produce the
following stresses
Direct Tensile Stress: The average value of the direct tensile stress on the bolt subjected to pre-load
Fi is
Fi
σt =
As
π d + d2 2
Where, As = Stress Area = ( )
4 2
d = Nominal diameter of the bolt
d2 = Root diameter of the bolt
Torsional Shear Stress: The torsional shear stress induced due to tightening torque can be
computer by the following relation:
16Ti
τ =
πd32
Shear Stress in the Threads: The pre-load Fi induces shear stress which tries to shear the threads.
The induced shear stresses in the threads of bolt and nut are given by the following relations figure
below
Fi
τ = in the bolt
πd2 Nb
Fi
= in the nut
πd1 Nb
Where d1 and d2 are the root diameters of the nut and the bolt respectively, b is width of the
threaded section at the root and N is number of threads.

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 Design of Joints

Tensile Stress
Section

Shear Plane

Threads Under Stress

Compression stress the threads of the screw connection are subjected to compressive stress which
can be computed by the following relation:
Fi
σct = π 2
(d1 − d22 )N
4

External Force
The bolted joints are often required to carry an external force. Therefore, while designing a bolt it is
necessary to find what portion of the externally applied force is taken up by the bolt and what
portion by the connecting parts.
Let us consider a bolted assembly as shown in figure below. It is assumed that the pre-load F has
been applied and both the bolt and the connected parts have gone through
Due to this load. At this point the external force F is applied which results in an increase in the
length of the boll and a decrease in deformation of the parts (Figure below). These deformations arc
a function of stiffness of the bolt and the connected parts.
Dia ‘d’

p m

Cover Plate
Dp
Cover
t

Fluid Gasket
Pressure F
Cylinder
m 50
D t
Bolted Assembly Subjected to External Force
Let
Fb
Increase in length of both = and
kb

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 Design of Joints

Fp
Deformation of part =
kp
Where,
Fb = Force shared by the bolt
Fp = Force sheared by the part
A b Eb
k b = Stiffness of the bolt ( )
lb
A p Ep
k p = Stiffness of the bolt ( )
lp
and A, E and l are cross – section area, modulus of elasticity and length, respectively. These two
changes in deformation should be equal so that the parts are not separated therefore,
Fb Fp
=
kb kp
The total external force is sum of the two individual forces
F = Fb + Fp
Solving Eqs.
kb
Force shared by the bolt, Fb = F
kb + kp
kp
Force shared by the part, Fp = F
kb + kp
Thus, the total force on the bolt
Fb,t = Fb + Fi
kp
= F + Fi or
kb + kp
Fb,t = kF + Fi
The term k is called the gasket factor and may have value between 0 and 1.

Welded Joints
Welding can be defined as a process of joining metallic parts by heating to a suitable temperature
with or without the application of pressure. Welding is an economical and efficient method for
obtaining a permanent joint of metallic parts.

Advantages of Welded Joints

 Cost of welded joints is lower than riveted joints
 Welded joints are leak proof
 No stress concentration
 Components which can’t be joined by rivets can be joined by welding

Disadvantages of Welded Joints

 Not suitable for dynamic loading
 Residual stresses are present in the weld
 Need a skillful welder
 Need inspection of the weld hence increases the cost

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 Design of Joints

Types of Welded Joint

1. Fillet joints
2. Butt joints
3. Other types of joints

1. Fillet Joint
A fillet joint, also called a lap joint, is a joint between two over lapping plates or components.

Types of Fillet Joint:

(i) Single Transverse Fillet Weld
(ii) Double Transverse Fillet Weld
(iii) Double Parallel Fillet Weld

P P P P

(a) Single Transverse Fillet Welds (b) Double Transverse Fillet Welds

P P

(c) Double Parallel Fillet Welds

2. Butt Joint
A Butt joint can be defined as a joint between two components lying approximately in the same
plane

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 Design of Joints

Types of Butt Joint:

(a) Square Butt joint
(b) Y-Butt Joint
(c) U- Butt Joint
(d) Double V- Butt Joint
(e) V-Joint with Backing Strip

(a) Square Butt Joint (b) V-Butt Joint

(c) U-Butt Joint (d) Double V-Butt Joint

(e) V-Joint with Backing Strip

3. Other types of joints

(a) Tee Joint
(b) Corner Joint
(c) Edge Joint

(a) Tee Joint (b) Corner Joint (c) Edge Joint

Design of Welded Joints

1. Design for strength of weld in tension
P

h P
Butt Weld in Tension

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 Design of Joints

P
σt =
hl
σt : Tensile stress in the weld (N⁄mm2 )
P: Tensile force on the plates (N)
h: Throat of the Butt weld (mm)
l: Length of the weld (mm)
But throat of the weld is equal to thickness (t) of the plates
Hence,
P
σt =
tl
⇒ P = σt tl
t: Thickness of plates

2. Design for strength of parallel fillet weld

l P

45° h

P h
t

(a) (b) (c)

Parallel Fillet Weld in Shear

From figure t = h cos 45°

t = 0.707 h
P
⇒τ=
0.707hl
⇒ P = 0.707 hlτ
P: Tensile force on plates (N)
h: Leg of the weld (mm)
l: Length of the weld (mm)
τ: Permissible seal stress (N⁄mm2 )

If there are two welds of equal length then

P = 2(0.707)hlt
P = 1.414 hlt

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 Design of Joints

3. Design for strength of a transverse fillet weld

l
P
h P
67.5°

h t

(a) (b)
Failure of Fillet Weld
P
σt =
tl
P
σt =
0.707hl
P = 0.707 hlσt
If there are two welds
P = 2 × 0.707 hlσt
P = 1.414 hlσt

Solved Examples
Example 1
Two plates of 6 mm thickness are to be joined by a double-riveted zig-zag lap joint.
Design the joint, if the allowable strengths of mild steel are
σt = 100 N⁄mm2 , τ = 70 N⁄mm2 , and σcr = 130 N⁄mm2
Solution:
The thickness of the plate is less than 8 mm; therefore, the diameter of the rivet shall be
calculated by equating shearing strength to the crushing strength.
π
Shear strength/Pitch length = 2 × 4 d2 τ. . . . (i)
(In a double-riveted lap joint, two rivets are in single shear per pitch length)
Crushing strength = 2dtσcr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (ii)
Equating (i) and (ii)
π
2 × d2 τ = 2dt σcr (or)
4
4tσcr 4 × 6 × 130
D= = = 14.18 mm, say 16 mm
πτ π × 70
Pitch of the joint can be found by equating the tearing strength to the shearing strength.
Therefore,
π
(p − d)tσt = 2 × d2 τ
4
π 2
2 × 4 16 × 70
p= + 16 = 62.9 mm, say 63 mm
6 × 100
This value of p also satisfies the condition of minimum pitch, i.e., p ≥ 2.5D. Transverse
pitch for equal number of rivets in the row for zig-zag riveting is given by
ptr ≥ 0.33p + 0.67d
= 0.33 × 63 + 0.67 × 16 = 31.5mm, say 32 mm

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 Design of Joints

Margin, m = 1.5d = 1.5× 16 = 24 mm

Efficient of the joint
(i) Tearing efficient
p − d 63 − 16
ηTearing = = = 74.6%
p 63
(ii) Shearing efficient
Shearing strength
ηTearing =
Strength of unpunched plate
π
2 × 4 d2 × τ
=
ptσi
π
2 × 4 162 × 70
= = 74.4%
63 × 6 × 100
(iii) Crushing efficient
Crushing strength
ηTearing =
Strength of unpunched plate
2dtσcr
=
ptσt
2 × 16 × 6 × 130
= = 66%
63 × 6 × 100
Among all the three efficiencies, the crushing efficiency is the lowest. Hence, the
efficiency of the joint is 66%.

Example 2
Design a double riveted lap joint for 8 m thick plates taking safe working stress plates of
150 N/mm2 crushing strength of rivets of 250 N/mm2 and shear stress in rivets of
100 N/mm2 . Calculate the efficiency of the joint.
Solution:
Strength of rivets in single shear,
π
Ps = 2 × d2o τ
4
π
= 2 × d2o × 100 = 157 d2o N
4
Strength of rivets in crushing
Pc = 2do × t × σc
= 2 × do ×8×250 = 4000 do
Strength of plate in tearing
Pt = (p − do )t × σc
= (p − do ) × 8 × 150
Comparing strengths
Ps = Pc
∴ 157d2o = 4000 do
do = 25.5 mm
Take d = 24 mm
Pc = Pt
4000 do = (p − do ) × 1200

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 Design of Joints

3.33 do = p − do
p = 4.33 do
= 4.33 ×25.5 = 110.4, say 110 mm
p − do 110 − 25.5
η= × 100 = × 100 = 76.82%
p 110

Example 3
A steam engine cylinder has an effective diameter of 350 mm and the maximum steam
pressure acting on the cylinder cover is 1.25 N/mm2 . Calculate the number and the size of
studs required to fix the cylinder cover. Assume the permissible stress in the studs to be
70 N/mm2 . Choose M 18 × 1.5 bolt having stress area of 216 mm2.
Solution:
Effective cylinder dia, D = 350 mm
Stream pressure, pmax = 1.25 N/mm2
σt = 70 N⁄mm2
π
Stream force = × D2 × pmax
4
π
= × 3502 × 120.26 kN
4
Stream force 120.26 × 103
Resisting area = = = 1718mm2
σt 70
M 18× 1.5 bolt having stress area of 216 mm2. Therefore,
Resisting area 1718
Number of studs = = = 7.95 say 8
Tensile area of one bolt 2160
Let us take stud hole size, d1 = Stud size + 1 mm = 19 mm
Pitch circle diameter, dp = D + 3d1
= 350 + 3 × 19 = 407 mm
πdp
Pitch of the stud layout =
N
π × 407
= = 159.8 mm
8
However for a leak proof joint, the pitch of the stud layout should be less than 30√d1 , i.e.,
130.76 mm. The calculated pitch 159.8 mm is more than the maximum limit. Hence there
is a chance of leakage.
Let us increase the number of studs to 10, though from strength considerations 8 studs
are sufficient.
π × 407
Revised pitch = = 127.8 mm
10
This is reasonable for a leak-proof joint. Hence the design specifications are:
(i) Stud size = M 18× 1.5
(ii) Number of studs = 10
(iii) Pitch of the stud layout = 127.8 mm

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 Design of Joints

Example 4
A plate 100 mm wide and 10 mm thick is to be welded to another plate by means of
double parallel fillets. The plates are subjected to a static load of 80 kN. Find the length of
weld if the permissible shear stress in the weld does not exceed 55 MPa.
Solution:
Given: Width = 100 mm
Thickness = 10 mm; P = 80 kN = 80 × 103 N
τ = 55 MPa = 55 N/mm2
Let, l = Length of weld and
s = Size of weld = Plate thickness = 10 mm
We know that maximum load which the plates can carry for double parallel fillet weld (P)
80 × 103 = 1.414 × s × l × τ = 1.414 × 10 × l × 55 = 778l
103
∴ l = 80 × = 103 mm
778
Adding 12.5 mm for starting and stopping of weld run, we have
l = 103+12.5 = 115.5 mm

Example 5
A 50 mm diameter solid shaft is welded to a flat plate, by 10 mm fillet weld as shown in
Fig. Find the maximum torque that the welded joint can sustain if the maximum shear
stress intensity in the weld material is not to exceed 80 MPa.

Solution:
Given d = 50 mm; s = 10 mm; τmax = 80 MPa = 80 N/mm2
Let T = Maximum torque that the welded joint can sustain
We know that the maximum shear stress (τmax )
2.83T 2.83T
80 = 2
=
πs × d 78550
T = 80 × 78 550/2.83
= 2.22 × 106 N-mm=2.22 kN-m

Example 6
A plate 75 mm wide and 12.5 mm thick is joined with another plate by a single transverse
weld and a double parallel fillet weld as shown in Fig. The maximum tensile and shear
stresses are 70 MPa and 56 MPa respectively. Find the length of each parallel fillet weld, if
the joint is subjected to both static and fatigue loading. Stress concentration factor for
transverse welds is 1.5 and for parallel fillet welds is 2.7.

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 Design of Joints

P P
75 mm

Solution:
Given: Width = 75 mm; Thickness = 12.5 mm
στ = 70 MPa = 70 N⁄mm2 ; τ = 56 MPa = 56 N⁄mm2
The effective length of weld (l1 ) for the transverse weld may be obtained by subtracting
12.5 mm from the width of the plate,
l1 = 75 − 12.5 = 62.5 mm
Length of each parallel fillet for static loading
Let l2 = Length of each parallel fillet
We know that the maximum load which the plate can carry is
P = Area × Stress = 75 × 12.5 × 70 = 65 625 N
Load carried by single transverse weld
P1 = 0.707 s × l1 × σt = 0.707 × 12.5 × 62.5 × 70 = 38 664 N
The load carried by double parallel fillet weld,
P2 = 1.414s × l2 × τ = 1.414 × 12.5 × l2 × 56 = 990 l2 N
∴ Load carried by the joints (P)
65 625 = P1 + P2 = 38 664 + 990 l2 or l2 = 27.2 mm
Adding 12.5 mm for starting and stopping of weld run, we have
l2 = 27.2 + 12.5 = 39.7 say 40 mm
Length of each parallel fillet for fatigue loading the stress concentration factor for
transverse welds is 1.5 and for parallel fillet welds is 2.7.
∴ Permissible tensile stress
70
σt = = 46.7 N/mm2
1.5
Permissible shear stress,
τ = 56/2.7 = 20.74 N/mm2
Load carried by single transverse weld,
P1 = 0.707 s × l1 × σt = 0.707 × 12.5 × 62.5 × 46.7 = 25 795 N
Load carried by double parallel fillet weld,
P2 = 1.414s × l2 × τ = 1.414 × 12.5l2 × 20.74 = 366 l2 N
∴ Load carried by the joint (p)
65 625 = P1 + P2 = 25 795 + 366l2 or l2 = 108.8 mm
Adding 12.5 mm for starting and stopping of weld run, we have
l2 = 108.8 + 12.5 = 121.3 mm

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 "The difference between a successful person
and others is not a lack of strength, not a lack
of knowledge, but rather a lack of will."
…..Vince Lombardi

4
CHAPTER

Design of Bearings

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Rolling Contact Bearings
2. Bearing Life
3. Sliding Contact/ Journal Bearing

Introduction
We use the term bearing here in its most general sense. Whenever two parts have relative motion,
they constitute a bearing by definition, regardless of their shape or configuration. Usually,
lubrication is needed in any bearing to reduce friction and remove heat. Bearings may roll or slide
or do both simultaneously.
A plain bearing is formed by any two materials rubbing on one another, whether a sleeve around a
shaft or a flat surface under a slider. In a plain bearing, one of the moving parts usually will be steel
or cast iron or some other structural material in order to achieve the required strength and
hardness. For example, Transmission shafts, links, and pins are in this category. The parts that move
against will usually be made of a 'bearing" material such as bronze, Babbitt, or a nonmetallic
polymer. A radial plain bearing may be split axially to assemble it to the shaft, or may be a complete
circle called a bushing. A thrust bearing supports axial loads.
Alternatively, a rolling-element bearing which has hardened steel balls or rollers captured between
hardened steel raceways may be used to provide very low friction. Plain bearings are typically
custom designed for the application, while rolling-element bearings arc typically selected from
manufacturers catalogs to suit the loads, speeds, and desired life of the particular application.
Rolling-element bearings can support radial, thrust, or combinations of those loads depending on
their design.

Rolling Contact Bearings

The terms rolling-contact bearing, antifriction bearing, and rolling bearing are all used to describe
that class of bearing in which the main load is transferred through elements in rolling contact rather
than in sliding contact. In a rolling bearing the starting friction is about twice the running friction,
but still it is negligible in comparison with the starting friction of a sleeve bearing. Load, speed, and
the operating viscosity of the lubricant do affect the frictional characteristics of a rolling bearing.
Bearings are manufactured to take pure radial loads, pure thrust loads, or a combination of the two
kinds of loads. The nomenclature of a ball bearing is illustrated in Figure below, which also shows
the four essential parts of a bearing. These are the outer ring, the inner ring, the balls or rolling
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 Design of Bearings

elements, and the separator.

Width
Corner Radius
Outer Ring

Shoulders
Inner Ring
Corner Radius
Outer Diameter

Inner Ring
Bore

Ball Race

Separator
(Retainer)

Outer Ring
Face Ball Race

Schematic Diagram of Bearing

Some of the various types of standardized bearings that are manufactured are shown in Figure
below. The single-row deep-groove bearing will take radial load as well as some thrust load. The
balls are inserted into the grooves by moving the inner ring to an eccentric position. The balls are
separated after loading and the separator is then inserted. The use of a filling notch (Figure (b)) in
the inner and outer rings enables a greater number of balls to be inserted, thus increasing the load
capacity. The thrust capacity is decreased, however, because of the bumping of the balls against the
edge of the notch when thrust loads are present. The angular-contact bearing (Figure (c)) provides
a greater thrust capacity. Single-row bearings will withstand a small amount of shaft misalignment
of deflection, but where this is severe, self-aligning bearings may be used. Double-row bearings are
made in a variety of types and sizes to carry heavier radial and thrust loads. Sometimes two single-
row bearings are used together for the same reason, although a double-row bearing will generally
require fewer parts and occupy less space. The one-way ball thrust bearings (Figure (i)) are made in
many types and sizes.

+
+ + + +

(a) Deep Groove (b) Filling Notch (c) Angular Contact (d) Shielded (e) Sealed

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 Design of Bearings

+ + + +
+

(i) Thrust (j)Self – Aligning Thrust

(f) External (g) Double Row (h)Self-Aligning

Self-Aligning

Some of the large varieties of standard roller bearings available are illustrated in figure below.
Straight roller bearings figure below will carry a greater radial load than ball bearings of the same
size because of the greater contact area. However, they have the disadvantage of requiring almost
perfect geometry of the raceways and rollers. A slight misalignment will cause the rollers to skew
and get out of line. For this reason, the retainer must be heavy. Straight roller bearings will not, of
course, take thrust loads. The spherical-roller thrust bearing figure below is useful where heavy
loads and misalignment occur. The spherical elements have the advantage of increasing their
contact area as the load is increased. Tapered roller bearings figure below combine the advantages
of ball and straight roller bearings, since they can take either radial or thrust loads or any
combination of the two, and in addition, they have the high load-carrying capacity of straight roller
bearings. The tapered roller bearing is designed so that all elements in the roller surface and the
raceways intersect at a common point on the bearing axis.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

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 Design of Bearings

Static Equivalent Load for Rolling Contact Bearings

The static equivalent load may be defined as the static radial load (in case of radial ball or roller
bearings) or axial load (in case of radial ball or roller bearings) which, if applied, would cause the
same total permanent deformation at the most heavily stressed ball (or roller) and race contact as
that which occurs under the actual conditions of loading.
The static equivalent radial load (W0R )for radial or roller bearings under combined radial and axial
or thrust loads is given by the greater magnitude of those obtained by the following two equations,
i.e.,
W0R = X 0 . WR + Y0 . WA
Where, WR = Radial load
WA = Axial or thrust load
X 0 = Radial load factor
Y0 = Axial or Thrust load factor
The value of X 0 and Y0 for different bearing is normally available during designing.

Dynamic Equivalent Load for Rolling Contact Bearings

The dynamic equivalent load may be defined as the constant stationary radial load (in case of radial
ball or roller bearings) or axial load (in case of thrust ball or roller bearings) which, if applied to a
bearing with rotating inner ring and stationary outer ring would give the same life as that which the
bearing will attain under the actual conditions of load and rotation,
The dynamic equivalent radial load (W) for radial and angular contact bearings, except the filling
slot types, under combined constant radial load (WR) and constant axial or thrust load (WA) is given
by W = X. V. WR + Y. WA
Where, V = A rotation factor
X = Radial load factor
Y = Axial or Thrust load factor
= 1, for all types of bearings when the inner race is rotating
= 1, for self-aligning bearings when inner race is stationary
= 1.2, for all types of bearings except self-aligning when inner race is stationary. The values
of radial load factor (X) and axial or thrust load factor (Y) for the dynamically loaded
bearings is normally available during designing

Bearing Life
When the ball or roller of rolling-contact bearings rolls, contact stresses occur on the inner ring, the
rolling element, and on the outer ring. The curvature of the contacting elements in the axial
direction is different from that in the radial direction. If a bearing is clean and properly lubricated is
mounted and sealed against the entrance of dust and dirt is maintained in this condition and is
operated at reasonable temperatures, then metal fatigue will be the only cause of failure. Inasmuch
as metal fatigue implies many millions of stress applications successfully endured, we need a
quantitative life measure. Common life measures are:

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 Design of Bearings

 Number of revolutions of the inner ring (outer ring stationary) until the first tangible evidence of
fatigue.
 Number of hours of use at a standard angular speed until the first tangible evidence of fatigue.

The life measure of an individual bearing is defined as the total number of revolutions (or hours
at a constant speed) of bearing operation until the failure criterion is developed. The rating life of
a group of nominally identical ball or roller bearings is defined as the number of revolutions (or
hours at a constant speed) that 90 percent of a group of bearings will achieve or exceed before
the failure criterion develops. The terms minimum life, L10 life, and B10 life are also used as
synonyms for rating life. The rating life is the 10th percentile location of the bearing group’s
revolutions-to-failure distribution. Median life is the 50th percentile life of a group of bearings.
The term average life has been used as a synonym for median life contributing to confusion.
When many groups of bearings are tested, the median life is between 4 and 5 times the L10 life.
When nominally identical groups are tested to the life-failure criterion at different loads, the data
are plotted on a graph as depicted in figure below using a log-log transformation. To establish a
single point, load F1 and the rating life of group one (L10) are the coordinates that are
logarithmically transformed. The reliability associated with this point, and all other points is
0.90. Thus we gain a glimpse of the load-life function at 0.90 reliability. Using a regression
equation of the form
FL1/a = Constant
The result of many tests for various kinds of bearings result in
 a = 3 for ball bearings
 a = 10/3 for roller bearings (cylindrical and tapered roller)

log F

log L
0

𝐓𝐲𝐩𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐁𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐋𝐨𝐚𝐝 − 𝐋𝐢𝐟𝐞 𝐋𝐨𝐠 − 𝐋𝐨𝐠 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐯𝐞

Further, we can write

C10 (LR nR 60)1/a = FD (LD nD 60)1/a

Catalog rating Desired speed, rev/min

Rating life in hours Desired life, hours
Rating speed, rev/min Desired radial load, kN

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 Design of Bearings

Dynamic Load Rating for Rolling Contact Bearings under Variable Loads
The approximate rating (or service) life of ball or rolled bearing is based on the fundamental
equation,
C k
L = ( ) × 106 revolutions
W
L 1/k
or C = W ( 6 )
10
Where, L = Rating life
C = Basic dynamic load rating
W = Equivalent dynamic load
k = 3 for ball bearing
The relationship between the life in revolution (L) and the life in working hours (LH ) is given by
L = 60 N. LH revolution
Where, N is the speed in r.p.m

Bearing Failure
(1) Abrasive Wear: It is caused by dust, rust, spatter remedies –oil seal, increase surface hardness
and use of oil having very high viscosity.
(2) Corrosive Wear: Main reasons of corrosive wear are water, moisture, corrosive element
Lubrication Remedies- It can be eliminated by complete enclosure and proper additive.
(3) Pitting Wear: It is one of the major reasons behind failure of rolling contact bearing. It occurs
when load on the bearing part exceeds the surface endurance strength of material. Surface
endurance increases by increase in surface hardness.
(4) Scoring: Reason for scoring are excessive surface pressure, high surface speed and inadequate
supply of lubricant result in breakdown of the lubricant film. It is also called stick slip
phenomenon.

Reliability of a Bearing
The rating life is the life that 90 percent of a group of identical bearings will complete or exceed
before the first evidence of fatigue develops. The Reliability (R) is defined as the ratio of the number
of bearings which have successfully completed L million revolutions to the total number of bearings
under test. Sometimes, it becomes necessary to select a bearing having a reliability of more than
90%.According to Wiebull. The relation between the bearing life and the reliability is given as,
1 L b L 1 1/b
log e (R) = (a) or a
= [log e (R)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . (i)
Where L is the life of the bearing corresponding to the desired reliability R and a and b are constants
whose values are
a = 6.84, and b = 1.17
If L90 is the life of a bearing corresponding to a reliability of 90% (i.e., R 90 ), then
L90 1 1/b
a
= [log e (R )] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (ii)
90
Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii), we have
L log e (1/R) 1/b
=[ ] = 6.85 [log e (1/R)]1/1.17 … (∵ b = 1.17)
L90 log e (1/R 90 )
This expression is used for selection the bearing when the reliability is other than 90%

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 Design of Bearings

Sliding Contact/Journal Bearings

A journal bearing is a sliding contact bearing which gives lateral support to the rotating shaft.
Journal is that part of the shaft which runs in a sleeve or bushing. Usually, the sleeve or bushing is at
rest and the journal rotates. In a journal bearing, the diameter of the journal is kept less than the
diameter of the bearing to allow the flow of lubricant between the surfaces.
A journal bearing may be the full bearing in which the bearing surface is over full 360°. This bearing
is capable of supporting radial force in any direction. A bearing which covers less than 360° is called
partial bearing. It can support only the unidirectional load. If in the partial bearing, the diameters of
the journal and bearing are equal, it is called fitted bearing figure shows below three different types
of bearings.
Bearing

Journal
(a)Full Journal Bearing (b)Partial Bearing (c)Fitted Bearing
𝐓𝐲𝐩𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐉𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐁𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠

Journal Bearing Terminology

The most common terms and definitions used in connection with journal bearings, as shown in
below figure are given below:
D W = Load in N
Centre of d = Diameter of Journal
Bearing D = Diameter of Bearing
8 c = Radial Clearance
W Load d
Bearing Oil ho = Minimum Film Thickness
Entry 2
Centre of Journal C
When Rotating β ho
ϕ
Centre of Journal at Rest

Oil Film Pressure

𝐉𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐁𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐓𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐢𝐧𝐨𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐲
Journal: It is that portion of the shaft which is supported by the bearing.

Bearing: The circular surface supporting the journal is called the bearing. It is generally stationary
but may rotate in some applications.

Line of Centre: It is the line joining the centres of the journal and the bearing. This line is usually
taken as the reference line.
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 Design of Bearings

Diametral Clearance: It is the difference between the diameter of bearing and journal.
C = D−d
1
Generally c may be assumed as times of journal diameter
1000
(i.e., C = 0.001d)

Diametral Clearance Ratio: It is the ratio of diametral clearance to the diameter of the journal.
c
i. e. , (Cr = )
d
0.001d
⇒ (Cr = = 0.001 generally)
d

Eccentricity: It is the radial distance between the centre of bearing and the centre of journal.
c
i. e. , (e = − ho )
2
ho − Minimum film thickness

Minimum Film Thickness (𝐡𝐨 ): It is the minimum distance between the bearing and the journal
under complete lubrication condition.
c
ho = − e
2
c
is radial clearance
2

Attitude of Eccentricity Ratio (𝛆): It is the ratio of the eccentricity to the radial clearance
e 2e 2 c 1 − 2ho
ε= = = ( − ho ) =
(c/2) c c 2 c

Film Thickness at Any Angle 𝛉

c
h = (cos θ + 1)
2

Square Bearing
If the length of the journal (l) is equal to its diameter (d), it is called as square bearing.
l
l = d or ( = 1 for square bearing)
d

Long Bearing
l
Here length > diameter i. e. , > 1
d

Short Bearing
l
Here length < diameter i. e. , < 1
d

Attitude Angle: The angle that the line of centres makes with the direction of load is called the
attitude angle ϕ

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 Design of Bearings

Arc Length: The load carrying length of a bearing measured in the circumferential direction is called
the arc length and given by,
β
πd ×
360o

Average Pressure: It is the bearing pressure computed on the basis of the projected area
Load W
P = = N/mm2
Area Ld
L = Length and d = Diameter of bearing
Viscosity: The most important property of any lubricating oil is its viscosity. It is a coefficient which
represents the resistance offered by a layer of liquid moving with certain velocity over another
layer.

Coefficient of Friction for Journal Bearings

The coefficient of friction in design of bearings is of great importance, because it affords a means for
determining the loss of power due to bearing friction.
Petroff has developed the following theoretical relation for determining the coefficient of friction
π2 d ZN
f = 6
( )( )
0.5 × 10 c P
Where,
ZN/P is the bearing characteristics number
Z is the absolute viscosity (N. s/m2 )
N is the speed, in r.p.m
P is the bearing pressure (N/mm2 )
c is the diameter clearance
d is the diameter of journal

Stable Lubrication
The difference between boundary and hydrodynamic lubrication can be explained by reference to
Figure shown below. This plot of the change in the coefficient of friction versus the bearing
characteristic (μN/P) was obtained by the Mc-Kee brothers in an actual test of friction. The plot is
important because it defines stability of lubrication and helps us to understand hydrodynamic and
boundary or thin-film lubrication.
Petroff s bearing model predicts that f is proportional to (μN/P), that is, a straight line from the
origin in the first quadrant. On the coordinates of Figure shown below the locus to the right of point
C is an example. Petroff's model presumes thick-film lubrication, that is, no metal-to-metal contact,
the surfaces being completely separated by a lubricant film. Suppose we are operating to the right of
line BA and something happens, say, an increase in lubricant temperature. This results in a lower
μN
viscosity and hence a smaller value of P . The coefficient of friction decreases, not as much heat is
generated in shearing the lubricant, and consequently the lubricant temperature drops, thus the
region to the right of line BA defines stable lubrication because variations are self-correcting.
To the left of line BA, a decrease in viscosity would increase the friction. A temperature rise would
ensure, and the viscosity would be reduced still more. The result would be compounded. Thus the
region to the left of line BA represents unstable lubrication. It is also helpful to see that a small

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 Design of Bearings

μN
viscosity, and hence a small means that the lubricant film is very thin and that there will be a
P
greater possibility of some metal-to-metal contact, and hence of more friction. Thus, point C
μN
represents what is probably the beginning of metal-to-metal contact as becomes smaller.
P
A

Coefficient of Friction f
Thin Film
(Unstable) Thick Film
(Stable)

C
B
μN
Bearing Characteristic
p
μN
The variation of the coefficient of frictrion f with
p

Critical Pressure of the Journal Bearing

The pressure at which the oil film breaks down so that metal to metal contact begins is known as
critical pressure or the minimum operating pressure of the bearing. It may be obtained by the
following empirical relation, i.e.,
Critical pressure or minimum operating pressure,
ZN d 2 l
p = 6
( ) ( ) N/mm2 (When Z is in kg/m − s)
4.75 × 10 c d+l

Somerfield Number
The Somerfield Number is also dimensionless parameter used extensively in the design of journal
bearing. Mathematically,-
ZN d 2
Somerfield Number = ( )
p c
For design purposes, its value is taken as follows:
ZN d 2
( ) = 14.3 × 106
p c
Z = Absolute viscosity of the lubricant, in kg / m-s
N = Speed of the journal in r.p.m
p = Bearing pressure on the projected bearing area in N/mm2
Load in the journal
=
L×d
d = Diameter of the journal
L = Length of the bearing
c = Diametral clearance

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 Design of Bearings

Heat Generated in a Journal Bearing

The heat generated in a bearing is due to the fluid friction and friction of the parts having relative
motion. Mathematically, heat generated in a bearing,
Q g = μ.W.V N-m/s or J/s or watts
Where,
μ = Coefficient of friction
W = Radial Load on the bearing in N
= Pressure on the bearing in N/mm2 × Projected area of the Bearing in mm2 = p(L × d)
πdN
V = Rubbing velocity in m/s = , d is in metres
60
N = Speed of the journal in r.p.m

Solved Examples
Example 1
A shaft rotating at constant speed is subjected to variable load. The bearings supporting
the shaft are subjected to stationary equivalent radial load of 3 kN for 10 percent of time,
2 kN for 20 percent of time, 1 kN for 30 per cent of time and no load for remaining time of
cycle. If the total life expected for the bearing is 20 × 106 revolutions at 95 per cent
reliability, calculate dynamic load rating of the ball bearing.
Solution:
Given: W1 = 3 kN; n1 = 0.1 n; W2 = 2 kN; n2 = 0.2 n; W3 = 1 kN; n3 = 0.3 n;
W4 = 0; n4 = (1 − 0.1 − 0.2 − 0.3)n = 0.4 n; L95 = 20 × 106 rev
Let L90 = Life of the bearing corresponding to reliability of 90 per cent
Let L95 = Life of the bearing corresponding to reliability of 95 per cent
= 20 × 106 revolutions
We know that
L95 log e (1/R 95 ) 1/b log e (1/0.95) 1/1.17
=[ ] =[ ] (∵ b = 1.17)
L90 log e (1/R 90 ) log e (1/0.90)
0.0513 0.8547
=( ) = 0.54
0.1054
∴ L90 = L95 /0.54 = 20 × 106 /0.54 = 37 × 107 rev
We know that equivalent radial load,
1/3
n1 (W1 )3 + n2 (W2 )3 + n3 (W3 )3 + n4 (W4 )3
W =[ ]
n1 + n2 + n3 + n4
1/3
0.1 n × 33 + 0.2 n × 23 + 0.3 n × 13 + 0.4 n × 03
= [ ]
0.1 n + 0.2 n + 0.3 n + 0.4 n
= (2.7 + 1.60 + 0.3 + 0)1/3 = 1.663 kN
We also know that dynamic load rating,
1/3
L90 1/k 37 × 106
C = W ( 6 ) = 1.663 ( ) = 5.54 kN
10 106

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 Design of Bearings

Example 2
Shaft of a journal bearing having diameter of 50 mm and length of 50 mm. If shaft is
rotating with 20 rad/s and viscosity of the lubricant is 30 m pa.s. The clearance is
0.020 mm. Find the loss of torque which is caused due to viscosity of lubricant.
Solution:
−3
μV 30 ×10 × 25 × 10−3 × 20
τ= =
C 0.020 × 10−3
2
τ = 750 N/m
Force = τA = 750 × 3.14 × (0.05 × 0.05) N
(∴ F = τ. πdl)
Torque = 750 × 3.14 × 0.05 × 0.05 × 0.025
= 0.147 Nm

Example 3
The rolling contact ball bearings are to be selected to support the overhung countershaft.
The shaft speed is 720 r.p.m. The bearings are to have 99% reliability corresponding to a
life of 24 000 hours. The bearing is subjected to an equivalent radial load of 1 kN.
Consider life adjustment factors for operating condition and material as 0.9 and 0.85
respectively. Find the basic dynamic load rating specified at 90% reliability.
Solution:
Given: N = 720 r.p.m
LH = 24000 hours; W = 1 kN
We know that life of the bearing corresponding to 99% reliability,
L99 = 60 N. LH = 60 × 720 × 24000 = 1036.8 × 106 rev
Let L90 = Life of the bearing corresponding to 90% reliability
Considering life adjustment factor for operating condition and material as 0.9 and 0.85
respectively, we have
L99 log e (1/R 99 ) 1/b log e (1/0.99) 1/1.17
=[ ] × 0.9 × 0.85 = [ ] × 0.9 × 0.85
L90 log e (1/R 90 ) log e (1/0.90)
0.01005 0.8547
= [ ] × 0.9 × 0.85 = 0.1026
0.1054
L99 106
∴ L90 = = 1036.8 × = 10105 × 106 rev
0.1026 0.1026
L90 1/k
C = W ( 6)
10
1
10105 × 106 3
= 1( ) … . (∵ k = 3, for ball bearing) = 21.62 kN
106

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 Design of Bearings

Example 4
A journal bearing 60 mm is diameter and 90 mm long runs at 450 r.p.m. The oil used for
hydrodynamic lubrication has absolute viscosity of 0.06 kg/m-s. If the diametral
clearance is 0.1 mm, find the safe load on the bearing.
Solution:
Given: d = 60 mm = 0.06 m; l = 90 mm = 0.09 m; N = 450 r.p.m; Z = 0.06 kg/ m-s;
c = 0.1 mm
Let us find the bearing pressure (p) by using Sommerfeld number. We know that
ZN d 2
( ) = 14.3 × 106
p c
0.06 × 450 60 2 6
9.72 × 106
( ) = 14.3 × 10 or = 14.3 × 106
p 0.1 p
∴ p = 9.72 × 106 /14.3 × 106 = 0.68 N/mm2
We know that safe load on the bearing
W = p.A = p.l.d = 0.68 × 90 × 60 = 3672 N

Example 5
A full journal bearing, 200 mm in diameter and 200 mm long is to support a radial load of
45 kN at an operating speed of 960 rev/min. If it is to operate at a Somerfield number of
0.08 when the radial clearance is 0.2 mm, determine the viscosity of the oil to be used.
Estimate also the power loss in the bearing if the resulting co-efficient of friction is
0.00314.
Solution:
Somerfield number is given as
Zn′ D 2
S = ( ) … … . … (i)
P Cd
D = 200 mm, Cd = 2 × 0.2 = 0.4 mm
n’ = 16rev/s
45 × 103
P = = 1.125 MPa
0.2 × 0.2
Put all these values in equation (i), then
Z = 0.0225 Ns/m2
π × 200 × 960
Now, V = = 10 m/s
1000 × 60
Power loss in heating,
Hg = f F V
= 0.00314 × 45 × 103 × 10 = 1425 Watts

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 "Perseverance is a great
element of success."
…Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

5
CHAPTER

Design of Brakes and

Clutches

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Break Design
2. Clutch Design

Introduction
This chapter is concerned with a group of elements usually associated with rotation that have in
common the function of storing and/or transferring rotating energy. Because of this similarity of
function brakes and clutches can be treated together.
A simplified dynamic representation of a friction clutch or brake is shown in figure below. Two
inertias, I1 and I2 are rotating at the respective angular velocities ω1 and ω2. In case of brakes, one of
which may be zero in the case of brakes. These inertias are to be brought to the same speed by
engaging the clutch or brake. Slippage occurs because the two elements are running at different
speeds and energy is dissipated during actuation, resulting in a temperature rise.
Clutch or Brake

ω1
ω2
L1 L2

𝐃𝐲𝐧𝐚𝐦𝐢𝐜 𝐑𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐞𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐂𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐡 𝐨𝐫 𝐁𝐫𝐚𝐤𝐞

Brake Design
A brake is a device by means of which artificial frictional resistance is applied to a moving machine
member. In order to retard or stop the motion of a machine. In the process of performing this
function, the brake absorbs either kinetic energy of the moving member or potential energy given
up by objects being lowered by hoists, elevators etc. The energy absorbed by brakes is dissipated in
the form of heat. The brake design is based on the type of brake. In the below sections some
important brake designs are covered.

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 Design of Brakes and Clutches

Single Block or Shoe Brake

A single block or shoe brake consists of a block or shoe which is pressed against the rim of a
revolving brake wheel drum. The block is made of a softer material than the rim of the wheel. The
friction between the block and the wheel causes a tangential braking force to act on the wheel,
which retard the rotation of the wheel. The block is pressed against the wheel by a force applied to
one end of a lever to which the block is rigidly fixed The other end of the lever is pivoted on a fixed
fulcrum O. Figure shown below depicts the schematic of single block shoe brake.
l l
x x

Rigidly F1
Mounted F1 RN
Block RN
2θ 2θ
P P
r r
Wheel
O O
(a) Clockwise Rotation of Break (b) Anticlockwise Rotation of Break Wheel
wheel Single Block Break
P = Force applied at the end of the lever
RN = Normal force pressing the brake block on the wheel
r = Radius of the wheel
2θ = Angle of contact surface of the block
μ = Coefficient of friction
Ft = Tangential braking force or the frictional force acting at the contact surface of the block and the
wheel
If the angle of contact is less than 60o, then it may be assumed that the normal pressure between the
block and the wheel is uniform. In such cases, tangential braking force on the wheel.
Ft = μ. R N
and the braking torque, TB = Fr r = μ R N . r
The value of the RN depends on the direction of rotation of the wheel and the line of action of the
braking force with respect to fulcrum. Below table captures the relationship of braking torques (T B)
for these cases.
Case Clockwise Anticlockwise
When braking force passes μ. P. l. r μ. P. l. r
through fulcrum x x
When braking force passes μ. P. l. r μ. P. l. r
below fulcrum by a distance “a” x + μ. a x − μ. a
When braking force passes μ. P. l. r μ. P. l. r
above fulcrum by a distance “a” x − μ. a x + μ. a
The above cases are applicable when the angle of contact surface is less than 60o. When the angle is
more than 60o , the unit pressure normal to the surface of contact is less at the ends than at centre.
In those cases a modified coefficient of friction relationship should be used above equations. The
modified equation is depicted below
4μsi n θ
μ′ = Where, μ = Actual coefficient of friction
(2 θ + si n 2 θ)

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 Design of Brakes and Clutches

Double Block or Shoe Brake

Bell Crank Lever

p Fulcrum

Spring

Block or Shoe

𝐃𝐨𝐮𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐁𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐤 𝐨𝐫 𝐒𝐡𝐨𝐞 𝐁𝐫𝐚𝐤𝐞

When a single block brake is applied to a rolling wheel and additional load is thrown on the shaft
bearings due to the normal force (RN). This produces bending of the shaft. In order to overcome this
drawback, a double block or shoe brake as shown in Figure shown above, is used. It consists of two
brake blocks applied at the opposite ends of a diameter of the wheel which eliminate or reduces the
unbalanced force on the shaft. The brake is set by a spring which pulls the upper ends of the brake
arms together. When a force P is applied to the bell crank lever, the spring is compressed and the
brake is released. This type of brake is often used on electric cranes and the force P is produced by
an electromagnet or solenoid. When the current is switched off, there is no force on the bell crank
lever and the brake is engaged automatically due to the spring force and thus there will be no
downward movement of the load.
In a double block brake, the braking action is doubled by the use of two blocks and these blocks may
be operated practically by the same force which will operate one. In case of double block or shoe
brake, the braking torque is given by,
TB = (Ft1 + Ft2 )r

Where Ft1 and Ft2 are the braking forces on the two blocks
P. l + T1 . b = T2 . a … (For clockwise rotation of the drum)
or P. l = T2 . a − T1 . b …. (i)
and P. l + T2 . b = T1 . a …. (For anticlockwise rotation of the drum)
or P. l = T1 . a − T2 . b …. (ii)

In case of differential band brake, we see from equations (i) and (ii) that the moment T 1.b and T2.b
helps in applying the brake (because it adds to the moment P.l) for the clockwise and anticlockwise
rotation of the drum respectively,
We have also discussed that when the force P is negative or zero, then brake is self-locking. Thus for
differential band brake and for clockwise rotation of the drum, the condition for self- locking is
T2 . a ≤ T1 . b or T2 /T1 ≤ b/a
and for anticlockwise rotation of the drum, the condition for self-locking is
T1 . a ≤ T2 . b or T1 /T2 ≤ b/a

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 Design of Brakes and Clutches

Band Brake
Band brakes are other type of brakes in which a flexible band of leather, one or more ropes, or steel
lined with friction material is used, which embraces a part of the circumference of the drum. Band
brakes can be broadly classified as simple band brakes and differential band brakes.

Simple Band Brake

A band brake shown in figure below, is called a simple band brake in which one end of the band is
attached to a fixed pin or fulcrum of the lever while the other end is attached to the lever at a
distance b from the fulcrum.
When a force P is applied to the lever at C. the lever turns about the fulcrum pin O and tightens the
band on the drum and hence the brakes are applied. The friction between the band and the drum
provides the braking force. The force P on the lever at C may be determined as discussed below
l
b l
P
b P
O B C
O B C
T2
T1
L T1
L T2
M
r Brake M
θ Drum r
θ
Shaft
Band
(a)Clockwise Rotation of Drum (b)Anti-Clockwise Rotation of Drum
𝐒𝐢𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞 𝐁𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤

Let, T1 = Tension in the tight side of the band

T2 = Tension in the slack side of the band
θ = Angle of lap (or embrace) of the band on the drum
μ = Coefficient of friction between the band and the drum
r = Radius of the drum
t = Thickness of the band
re = Effective radius of the drum = r + t /2

We know that limiting ratio of the tensions is given by the relation.

T1 T1
= eμ.θ or 2.3 log ( ) = μ. θ
T2 T2
And braking force on the drum = T1 − T2
∴ Braking torque on the drum,
TB = (T1 − T2 )r ….. (Neglecting thickness of band)
= (T1 − T2 )re ….. (Considering thickness of band)

Now considering the equilibrium of the lever OBC. It may be noted that when the drum rotates in
the clockwise direction as shown in figure above (a), the end of the band attached to the fulcrum O

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 Design of Brakes and Clutches

will be slack with tension T2 and end of the band attached to B will be tight with tension T1. On the
other hand, when the drum rotates in the anticlockwise direction as shown in Figure above(b), the
tensions in the band will reverse, i.e., the end of the band attached to the fulcrum O will be tight with
tension T1 and the end of the band attached to B will be slack with tension T 2. Now taking moments
about the fulcrum O, we have
P. l = T1 . b ... (For clockwise rotation of the drum)
P. l = T2 . b ...(For anticlockwise rotation of the drum)
Where, l = Length of the lever from the fulcrum (OC)
b = Perpendicular distance from O to the line of action of T1 or T2

Differential Band Brake

In a differential band brake, as shown in figure below, the ends of the band are joined at A and B to a
lever AOC pivoted on a fixed O. It may be noted that for the band to tighten, the length OA must be
greater than the length OB.
l P l P
A b A b

O O c
a C a B
T2 B T1
L L
T1 T2
r r
M M
θ Brake θ
Drum
Shaft
Band
(a)Clockwise Rotation of Drum (b)Anticlockwise Rotation of Drum
𝐃𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐁𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐤
The braking torque on the drum may be obtained in the similar way as discussed in simple band
brake. Now considering the equilibrium of the lever AOC. It may be noted that when the drum rotates
in the clockwise direction, as shown in Figure above (a), the end of the band attached to A will be slack
with tension T2 and end of the band attached to B will be tight with tension T1 On the other hand,
when the drum rotates in the anticlockwise direction, as shown in Figure above (b), the end of the
band attached to A will be tight with tension T1 and end of the baud attached to B will be slack with
tension T2 Now taking moments about the fulcrum O, we have
P. l + T1 . b = T2 . a … (For clockwise rotation of the drum)
or P. l = T2 . a − T1 . b …. (i)
and P. l + T2 . b = T1 . a …. (For anticlockwise rotation of the drum)
or P. l = T1 . a − T2 . b …. (ii)
In case of differential band brake, we see from equations (i) and (ii) that the moment T1.b and T2.b
helps in applying the brake (because it adds to the moment P.l) for the clockwise and anticlockwise
rotation of the drum respectively,
We have also discussed that when the force P is negative or zero, then brake is self-locking. Times
for differential band brake and for clockwise rotation of the drum, the condition for self- locking is
T2 . a ≤ T1 . b or T2 /T1 ≤ b/a
and for anticlockwise rotation of the drum, the condition for self-locking is
T1 . a ≤ T2 . b or T1 /T2 ≤ b/a
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 Design of Brakes and Clutches

Clutch Design
A clutch is a machine member used to connect a driving shaft to a driven shaft, so that the driven shaft
may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving. The engagement and disengagement
of the shafts is obtained by means of a clutch which is operated by a lever. The clutches are primarily
of two types, namely positive clutches and friction clutches.

Positive Clutches
The positive clutches are used when a positive drive is required. The simplest type of a positive clutch
is a jaw or claw clutch. The jaw clutch permits one shaft to drive another through a direct contact of
interlocking jaws. It consists of two halves, one of which is permanently fastened to the driving shaft
by a sunk key. The other half of the clutch is movable and it is free to slide serially on the driven shaft,
but it is prevented from turning relatively to its shaft by means of feather key.

Friction Clutches
A friction clutch has its principal application in the transmission of power of shafts and machines
which must be started and stopped frequently. Its application is also found in cases in which power is
to be delivered to machines partially or fully loaded. The force of friction is used to start the driven
shaft from rest and gradually brings it up to the proper speed without excessive slipping of the friction
surfaces. The study of friction clutches is important due to their widespread application. The three
important types of friction clutches that will be covered in this text are plate clutches and cone
clutches.

Single Disc or Plate Clutch

A single disc or plate clutch, as shown in figure below, consists of a clutch plate whose both sides are
faced with a frictional material. It is mounted on the hub which is free to move axially along the splines
of the driven shaft. The pressure plate is mounted inside the clutch body which is bolted to the
flywheel. Both the pressure plate and the flywheel rotate with the engine crankshaft or the driving
shaft. The pressure plate pushes the clutch plate towards the flywheel by a set of strong springs which
are arranged radially inside the body. The three levers (also known as release levers or fingers) are
carried on pivots suspended from the case of the body. These are arranged in such a manner so that
the pressure plate moves away from the flywheel by the inward movement of a thrust bearing. The
bearing is mounted upon a forked shaft and moves forward when the clutch pedal is pressed.

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 Design of Brakes and Clutches

Clutch Plate with Friction Lining

Body
Springs
Flywheel

Crank
Shaft
Pressure Plate
Hub Thrust
Bearing

Driven Shaft
Driving Pivot
Shaft Release Lever
(Withdrawal Finger)

Knife Edge

Single Disc or Plate Clutch

Design of a Disc or Plate Clutch

Consider two friction surfaces maintained in contact by an axial thrust (FT) as shown in figure below (a)
Single Disc or Plate

dr

p r1
r2
r
r2
r1
w

p
(𝐛)

Friction Surface
(a)
Force on Disc Clutch

Let, T = Torque transmitted by the clutch

p = Intensity of axial pressure with which the contact surfaces are held together
r1 and r2 = External and internal radii of friction faces
r = Mean radius of the friction face
μ = Coefficient of friction

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 Design of Brakes and Clutches

Consider an elementary ring of radius r and thickness dr as shown in figure above (b). We know that
area of the contact surface or friction surface = 2π r . dr
∴ Normal or axial force on the ring,
δW = Pressure × Area = p × 2π r. dr
and the frictional force on the ring acting tangentially at radius r,
Fr = μ × δW = μ p × 2πr. dr
∴ Frictional torque acting tangentially at radius r,
Tr = Fr × r = μ. p × 2π r. dr × r = 2π μ p. r 2 . dr
This analysis of plate clutch can be performed based on assumption of uniform pressure and uniform
wear. Both of the cases are derived below:

Uniform Pressure
When the pressure is uniformly distributed over the entire area of the friction face as shown in Figure
above (a), then the intensity of pressure,
W
P=
π[(r1 ) − (r2 )2 ]
2

Where, W = Axial thrust

Frictional torque on the elementary ring of radius r and thickness dr is Tr = 2π μ. p. r 2 . dr
Total frictional torque acting on the friction surface or on the clutch.
r1 r
r3 1
T = ∫ 2π μ. p. r 2 . dr = 2πμ. p [ ]
r2 3
r2
2 (r1 )3 − (r2 )3
= μ. W [ ] = μ . W. R
3 (r1 )2 − (r2 )2
2 (r1 )3 − (r2 )3
Where, R = [ ] = Mean radius of the friction surface
3 (r1 )2 − (r2 )2

Uniform Wear

Initial
Wear
r1

r2

𝐔𝐧𝐢𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦 𝐀𝐱𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐖𝐞𝐚𝐫

Let p be the normal intensity of pressure at a distance r from the axis of the clutch. Since the intensity
of pressure varies inversely with the distance, therefore
p.r = C (a constant) or p = C/r
And the normal force on the ring

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 Design of Brakes and Clutches

C
δW = p. 2πr. dr = × 2π r. dr = 2π C. dr
r
Total force acting on the friction surface,
r1
r
W = ∫ 2π C. dr = 2π C [r]r12 = 2π C (r1 − r2 )
r2
W
C=
2π (r1 − r2 )
We know that the frictional torque acting on the ring,
C
Tr = 2π μ. p. r 2 . dr = 2π μ × × r 2 . dr = 2πμ. C. r. dr
r
Total frictional torque acting on the friction surface (or on the clutch),
r1 (r1 )2 − (r2 )2
T = ∫ 2π μ. C. r. dr = 2π μ. C [ ]
r2 2
πμ × w
= πμC[(r1 )2 − (r2 )2 ] = = [(r1 )2 − (r2 )2 ]
2π(r1 − r2 )
1
= × μ. W(r1 + r2 ) = μ. W. R
2
r1 + r2
Where, R = = Mean radius of the friction surface
2

Cone Clutches
The cone clutch in below figure shows that it consists of a cup keyed or splined to one of the shafts, a
cone that must slide axially on splines or keys on the mating shaft, and a helical spring to hold the
clutch in engagement. The clutch is disengaged by means of a fork that fits into the shifting groove on
the friction cone. The cone angles α and the diameter and face width of the cone are the important
geometric design parameters. If the cone angle is too small, say, less than about 8o , then the force
required to disengage the clutch may be quite large. And the wedging effect lessens rapidly when
larger cone angles are used. Depending upon the characteristics of the friction materials, a good
compromise can usually be found using cone angles between 10o and 15o .

α Cone Angle

Cone

Spring
Cup Shifting Groove

Cross Section of a Cone Clutch

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 Design of Brakes and Clutches

Design of a Cone Clutch

Consider a pair of friction surfaces of a cone clutch as shown in figure below. A little consideration will
show that the area of contact of a pair of friction surface is a frustum of a cone.

b
dl

r1
pn
r2 pn
a
w dr
a pn r1
r
r2 r2
pn r2

dr

Friction Surface
Friction Surface as Frustum of a Cone
Let, Pn = Intensity of pressure
r1 = Outer radius
r2 = Inner radius
r1 + r2
R = Mean radius of friction surface =
2
α = Semi-angle of the cone
μ = Coefficient of friction between the contact surface
b = Width of the friction surface

Consider a small ring of radius r and thickness dr as shown in figure above. Let dl is the length of ring
of the friction surface, such that.
dl = dr cosec α
Area of ring = 2π r. dl = 2π r. dr cosec α
This analysis of cone clutch is also performed based on assumption of uniform pressure and uniform
wear.

Uniform Pressure
Referring above figure
Normal force = δWn = Pn × 2π r. dr cosec α
Axial force = δwn × sin α = pn × 2π r. dr. cosec α × sin α = 2π × pn . r. dr
W
Pn =
π[(r1 ) − (r2 )2 ]
2

Frictional torque = Tr = Fr × r = μ. Pn × 2π r. dr cosec α

= 2π μ. Pn cosec α. r 2 dr
(r1 )3 − (r2 )3
Total friction torque, T = 2π μ. Pn cosec α [ ]
3
2 (r1 )3 − (r2 )3
Total friction torque, T = × μ. W cosec α [ ]
3 (r1 )2 − (r2 )2

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 Design of Brakes and Clutches

Uniform Wear
Referring above figure,
Normal force = δWn = Pr × 2π r. dr cosec α
C
Axial force = δwn = 2π × r × r. dr = 2π.C.dr
Where C is constant. If W = Total axial load transmitted to the clutch
W
C=
2π(r1 − r2 )
C
Frictional torque = Tr = μ × × 2π r. dr cosec α × r = 2π μ. C cosec α × r dr
r
r1 + r2
Total frictional torque, = μ. W cosec α [ ] = μ WR cosec α
2
r1 + r2
Where, R = = Mean radius of friction surface
2

Solved Examples
Example 1
A friction clutch is required to transmit 34.5 kW at 2000 rev/min. It is to be single plate
disc type clutch with both sides of the plate effective, the pressure being applied axially
by means of springs and limited to 70 kN/m2 on the plate. If the outer diameter of the
friction lining is 1.5 times the internal diameter, find the required dimensions d1 and d2
of the clutch ring and total force exerted by the springs. Assume the wear to be uniform,
and co-efficient of friction = 0.3.
Solution:
r2
= 1.5
r1
For uniform wear,
p.r = C, with (p) max = 70 kN/m2 , and it will be at r1 .
Now Torque to be transmitted,
Power 34.5 × 1000 × 60
Mt = = = 164.75 Nm
2πn 2π × 2000
Now normal axial force,
P = 2πC (r2 − r1 )
= 2π.p. r1 (1.5r1 − r1 )
= 2π × 70 × 103 × r1 × 0.5r1
= 219911.50r12 Newtons
r1 + r2
Friction torque = μ ∙ P ∙ Z ( )
2
∴ 0.3 × 219911.50 r12 × 2 × 1.25r1 = 164.75
From here, r1 = 100 mm, ∴ d1 = 200 mm
∴ r2 = 150 mm, ∴ d2 = 300 mm
1
P = 219911.50 × (100)2 ∙ 106 = 2200 N

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 Design of Brakes and Clutches

Example 2
The block brake as provided in the figure, provides a braking torque of 360 N-m. The
diameter of the brake drum is 300 mm. The coefficient of friction is 0.3. Find.
1. Force (P) to be applied at the end of the lever for clockwise and counter clockwise
rotation of the brake drum.
2. The location of the pivot or fulcrum to make the brake self-locking for the clockwise
rotation of the brake drum.
200 600

50
P
O
100 RN

300
Brake Drum

Solution:
Given: TB = 360 N − m = 360 × 103 N − mm; d = 300 mm
or r = 150 mm = 0.15 m; μ = 0.3
1. Force (p) for the clockwise and counter clockwise rotation of the brake drum
For the clockwise rotation of the brake drum, the frictional fore or the tangential
force (Ft ) acting at the contact surfaces is shown in fig.
200 600

50
Ft P
O
100 RN

Brake Drum

(a)
We know that braking torque (TB )
360=Ft × r = Ft × 0.15
or Ft = 360⁄0.15 = 2400 N
and normal force, R N = Ft /μ = 2400⁄0.3 or = 8000 N
Now taking moments about the fulcrum O, we have
p × (600 + 200) + Ft × 50 = R N × 200
p × 800 + 2400 × 50 = 8000 × 200
p × 800 = 8000 × 200 − 2400 × 50 = 148 × 103
p = 1480 × 103 /800=1850 N
For the counter clockwise rotation of the drum, the frictional force or the tangential
force (Ft ) acting at the contact surfaces is shown in the figure.

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 Design of Brakes and Clutches

200 600

50
Ft P
O
100 RN
Brake Drum

(b)
Taking moment about fulcrum O, we have
P (600+200) = Ft × 50 + R N × 200
P × 800 = 2400 × 50 + 8000 × 200 = 1720 × 103
1720 × 103
P= = 2150 N
800
2. Location of the pivot or fulcrum to make the brake self-locking
The clockwise rotation of brake is shown in figure (a). Set x be the distance of the
pivot or fulcrum O from the lever taking moments about the fulcrum O we have
P(600 + 200) + Ft × x − R N × 200 = 0
In order to make the brake self-locking. Ft × rt . Must be equal to R N × 200, So that
the force P is zero
Ft × x = R N × 200
2400 × x = 8000 × 200
or x = 8000 × 200/2400 = 667 mm

Example 3
A clutch has disc plates with outer radius 120 mm. An axial force of 4 kN is acting on
them. The disc plates are new and have a coefficient of friction 0.7. Assuming uniform
pressure and uniform wear, find the torque transmitted.
(A) When the disc plates are solid.
(B) When the disc plates are hollow with outer radius 120 mm and inner radius 60 mm.
Solution:
(a) Solid Disc Plates
(i) Uniform pressure
2Pμz r23 − r13
Mt = ( 2 )
3 r2 − r12
r1 = 0, r2 = 120 mm
μ = 0.7, P = 4 kN
Assuming single plate disc clutch, ∴ z = 2
∴ Mt = 448 Nm
(ii) Uniform wear
r1 + r2
Mt = μPz ( ) = 336 Nm
2
(b) Hollow Disc Plates
r2 = 120 mm and r1 = 60 mm
∴ Solve the two equations for uniform pressure and uniform wear.

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 Design of Brakes and Clutches

Example 4
A multiple disc clutch is to transmit 4 kW at 750 rev/min. Available steel and bronze discs
of 40 mm inner radius and 70 mm outer radius are to be assembled alternately in
appropriate numbers. The clutch is to operate in oil with expected co-efficient of friction
of 0.1 and maximum allowable pressure is not to exceed 350 kPa. Assume uniform wear
conditions to prevail. Specify the number of steel (driving) and bronze (driven) discs
required. Also, determine what axial force is to be applied to develop the full torque.
Solution:
For uniform wear condition,
r2 + r1
Mt = μ. P. z. ( )
2
r1 = 0.04 m,r2 = 0.07 m, μ = 0.1
P = p. π(r22 − r12 )
P = 350 × 103 N/m2 = 0.35 N
With these values, solve the twisting moment equation to find Z. It will come out to be 2.55
The next larger even number is 4
∴ No of pairs of contact surfaces = 4
∴ 4 = Zsteel + Zbronze − 1
∴ Zsteel + Zbronze = 5
From here, Zsteel = 3 and Zbronze = 2

Example 5
A simple band brake is to absorb 4.5 kW at 150 r.p.m. The co-efficient of friction is 0.12
and the maximum pressure between the lining and the drum is to be 700 kPa. Determine
the width of the band if the drum diameter is 300 mm and the angle of wrap is 215°.
Solution:
Power absorbed = 4.5 kW at 150 r.p.m
kW × 1000 × 60
∴ Braking torque =
2π × n
4.5 × 1000 × 60
= = 286.5 N − m
2π × 150
Now frictional torque = μ × Normal force on the drum
= μ × p × Area of brake lining
Let ω = Width of band, m
∴ Frictional torque
215
=μ×p×π× ×D×ω
360
215 300
= 0.12 × 700 × 103 × × π × × ω
360 1000
Equating Braking torque and Frictional torque,
215 300
0.12 × 700 × 103 × × π × × ω = 286.5
360 1000
From here,
ω = 0.04 m = 40 mm

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 "Great minds have purpose,
others have wishes."
…Washington Irving

6
CHAPTER

Design of Spur Gears

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Gear Nomenclature
2. Spur Gear Theory of Machines
3. Lewis Equation - Beam Strength of Gear Teeth
4. Permissible Working Stress

Introduction
Spur gears, illustrated in below figure have teeth parallel to the axis of rotation and are used to
transmit motion from one shaft to another, parallel, shaft. Of all types, the spur gear is the simplest

Spur Gears

Gear Nomenclature
The terminology of spur-gear teeth is illustrated in below figure. The pitch circle is a theoretical
circle upon which all calculations are usually based; its diameter is the pitch diameter. The pitch
circles of a pair of mating gears are tangent to each other. A pinion is the smaller of two mating
gears. The larger is often called the gear.
The circular pitch p is the distance, measured on the pitch circle, from a point on one tooth to a
corresponding point on an adjacent tooth. Thus the circular pitch is equal to the sum of the tooth
thickness and the width of space.

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 Design of Spur Gears

Top Land

Face Width

Addendum
Circle Face

Addendum Circular
m Pitch Pitch Flank
Circle
Tooth
Dedendum Thicknes Width of
s Space
Bottom Land
Clearance Fillet Radius
Dedendum Clearance
Circle Circle

Nomenclature of Super-Gear

The module m is the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth. The customary unit of length
used is the millimeter. The module is the index of tooth size in SI.
The diametral pitch P is the ratio of the number of teeth on the gear to the pitch diameter. Thus, it is
the reciprocal of the module.
The addendum a is the radial distance between the top land and the pitch circle. The dedendum b is
the radial distance from the bottom land to the pitch circle. The whole depth ht is the sum of the
addendum and the dedendum.
The clearance circle is a circle that is tangent to the addendum circle of the mating gear. The
clearance c is the amount by which the dedendum in a given gear exceeds the addendum of its
mating gear. The backlash is the amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness
of the engaging tooth measured on the pitch circles.
N
P=
d
d
m=
N
πd
P= = πm
N
pP = π
Where, P = Diametral pitch, Teeth per inch
N = Number of teeth
d = Pitch diameter, in
m= Module, mm
d = Pitch diameter, mm
p = Circular pitch

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 Design of Spur Gears

Lewis Equation- Beam Strength of Gear Teeth

The beam strength of gear teeth is determined from Lewis equation. Lewis equation assumes that as
the load is being transmitted from one gear to another, it is all given and taken by one tooth. When
contact begins, the load is assumed to be at the end of the driven teeth and as contact ceases, it is at
the end of the driving teeth.
Consider each tooth as a cantilever beam loaded by a normal load (WN ) as shown in figure below. It
is resolved into two components i.e., tangential component (WT ) and radial component (WR ) acting
perpendicular and parallel to the centerline of the tooth respectively. The tangential component
(WT )induces a bending stress "which tends to break the tooth. The radial component (WR ) induces
a compressive stress of relatively small magnitude.
WR
WN b

WT A Tooth Profile
Parabola
h Tangent to the
Base Circle
B C
t
𝐓𝐨𝐨𝐭𝐡 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐆𝐞𝐚𝐫

The critical section or the section of maximum bending stress may be obtained by drawing a
parabola through A and tangential to the tooth curves at B and C. This parabola, as shown dotted in
above figure. Outlines a beam of uniform strength, i.e., if the teeth are shaped like a parabola, it will
have the same stress at all the sections. But the tooth is larger than the parabola at every section
except BC. We therefore, conclude that the section BC is the section of maximum stress or the
critical section. The maximum value of the bending stress (or the permissible working stress).at the
section BC is given by, σw = M.y/I
Where, M = Maximum bending moment at the critical section BC= WT × h
WT = Tangential load acting at the tooth
h = Length of the tooth
y = Half the thickness of the tooth (t) at critical section BC= t/2
I = Moment of inertia about the centre line of the tooth = b. t 3 /12
b = Width of gear face
Substituting the values for M. y and
(WT × h)t/2 (WT × h) × 6
σw = =
b. t 3 /12 b. t 2
WT = σw × b × t 2 /6h
WT = σw . b. pc . y = σw . b. πm. y
The quantity y is known as Lewis form factor or tooth form factor and WT (which is the tangential
load acting at the tooth) is called the beam strength of the tooth.
0.684 1
y = 0.124 − , For 142 . Composite and full depth involute system
T
0.912
= 0.154 − , For 20o full depth involute system
T

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 Design of Spur Gears

0.841
= 0.175 − , For 20o stub system
T

Permissible Working Stress

Due to dynamic effects associated with pitch line velocity increase, the value of permissible working
tress (σw) is reduced. The reduction can be mathematically written as:
σ w = σ o × Cv
Where σo = Allowable static stress
Cv =Velocity factor
v = Pitch line velocity in meters per second
The values of the velocity factor (Cv ) are given as follows:
3
Cv = , For ordinary cut gears operating at velocities upto 12.5 m⁄s
3+v
4.5
= , for carefully cut gears operating at velocities up to 12.5 m⁄s
4.5 + v
6
= , for very accurately cut and ground metallic gear operating at velocities up to 20 m⁄s
6+v
0.75
= , For precision gears cut with high accuracy and operating at velocities up to 20 m⁄s
0.75 + √v
0.75
=( ) + 0.25, For non − metallic gears
1+v

Dynamic Tooth Load

Gear tooth faces dynamic loads due to inconsistencies in tooth spacing, incorrect tooth profiles and
tooth deflections. The below equation can be used for estimation of dynamic tooth load
21v(b. C + WT )
WD = WT +
21v + √b. C + WT
WD = Total dynamic load in newton’s
WT = Steady transmitted load in Newton’s
v = Pitch line velocity in m/s
b = Face width of gears in mm
C = A deformation or dynamic factor in N/mm
Static Tooth Load
The static tooth load (also called beam strength or endurance strength of the tooth) is obtained by
Lewis formula by substituting flexural endurance limit or elastic limit stress (σe )in place of
permissible working stress(σw ).
∴ Static tooth load or beam strength of the tooth,
WS = σe . b. pc . y = σe . b. πm. y

Wear Tooth Load

The maximum load that gear teeth can carry, without premature wear, depends upon the radii of
curvature of the tooth profiles and on the elasticity and surface fatigue limits of the materials. The
maximum or the limiting load for satisfactory wear of gear teeth, is obtained by using the following
equation,
Ww = Dp . b. Q. K
Where,

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 Design of Spur Gears

Ww= Maximum or limiting load for wear in Newton’s

DP = Pitch circle diameter of the pinion in mm
b = Face width of the pinion in mm
Q = Ratio factor
2 × V. R 2TG
= = , for external gears
V. R + 1 TG + TP
2 × V. R. 2TG
= = , for internal gears
V. R − 1 TG − TP
V. R = Velocity ratio = TG /TP
K = Load-stress factor (also known as material combination factor) in N/mm2 .

Solved Examples
Example 1
Involute spur gear having module of 3 mm. gear is 20o full depth, has 20 teeth, it can
transmit 10 kW at 860 r.p.m. Its face width is 20 mm. Find the tangential force
transmitted.
Solution:
Given
Module, m = 3 mm
No. of teeth = T = 20
Speed, N = 8600 r.p.m
Pressure angle, θ = 20
Face width, b =20 mm
Power transmitted, P = 10 kW at 860 r.p.m
P = Torque× r × w
P = Tw = Ft × r × w
D mT 3 × 20
Radius = = r = = = 30 mm
2 2 2
P = Ft × r × w
2π × 860
10 × 1000 = Ft × 30 × 10−3 ×
60
Ft = 3701.27 N
Example 2
Module of a spur gear is 4mm, number of teeth is 12, 32 mm be the face width and a
pressure angle be 20o. 3kW of power is transmitted at 20 rev/s. Velocity factor of 1.5 and
a form factor of 0.3 is taken. Find the stress in the gear tooth.
Solution:
Given
P = 3 kW
N = 20 r.p.m
Y = Form factor = 0.3
B = Face width = 32 mm
Cv = Velocity factor = 1.5
M = Module = 4 mm
Z = Teeth = 12

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 Design of Spur Gears

2T
Ft =
D1
D = mz
D = 4 × 12 = 48 mm
P = 2π NT; Where N is in r. p. m
P 3000
T= = = 23.873 N − m
2πN 2 × π × 20
= 23.873 × 103 N − mm
We know
(Fd )Lewis ≤ Fs
Ft × Cv ≤ (σb . y. b. m)
2T
× Cv = (σb )y b m
D
2 × 23.873 × 103 × 1.5
= (σb )3 × 32 × 4
48
σb = 38.85 N/mm2
σb = 38.85 MPa

Example 3
A pair of straight teeth spur gears is to transmit 20 kW when the pinion rotates at
300r. p. m. The velocity ratio is 1: 3. The allowable static stresses for the pinion and gear
materials are 120 MPa and 100 MPa respectively. The pinion has 15 teeth and its face
width is 14 times the module. Determine pitch circle diameters of the pinion and the gear
from the standpoint of strength only, taking into consideration the effect of the dynamic
loading. The tooth form factor v can be taken as
0.912
y = 0.154 −
No. of teeth
The velocity factor Cv as
3
Cv = ; Where v is the expressed in m⁄s
3+v
Service factor (Cs ) =1
Solution:
TG
Given: P = 20 kW = 20 × 103 W; NP = 300 r. p. m; V. R. = = 3;
TP
σOP = 120 MPa = 120N/mm2 ; σOG = 100 MPa=100 N/mm2; TP = 15;
b = 14 Module = 14 m
Let, m = Module in mm
DP = Pitch circle diameter of the pinion in mm
We know that pitch line velocity,
πDP NP πm. TP . NP
v = = … . (∵ DP = m. TP )
60 60
πm × 15 × 300
= = 236 mm⁄s = 0.236 m⁄s
60
Cs = 1
We know that design tangential tooth load,

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 Design of Spur Gears

P 20 × 103
WT = × CS = × 1 = 84 746 N⁄m
v 0.236
3 3
Velocity factor, Cv = = = 0.99 m
3 + v 3 + 0.236
We know that tooth from factor for the pinion,
0.912 0912
yp = 0.154 − = 0.154 −
TP 15
= 0.154 − 0.0608 = 0.0932
Tooth from factor for the gear,
0912 0.912
yG = 0154 − = 0.154 −
TG 3 × 15
= 0.154 − 0.203 = 0.1337
∴ σOP × yp = 120 × 0.0932 = 11.184
and σOG × yG = 100 × 0.1337 = 13.37
Since (σOP × yG ) is less then (σOG × yG ), therefore the pinion is weaker. Now using the
Lewis equation to the pinion, we have
WT = σwP . b. π. m. yP = (σOP × Cv )b. πm. yP
84746 3 1476 m2
∴ = 120 ( ) 14 m × π m × 0.0932 =
m 3 + 0.236 3 + 0.236 m
or 3 + 0.236m = 0.01747m3
m = 6.4 mm
The standard module is 8mm. Therefore let us take
m = 8 mm
Pitch circle diameter of the pinion,
DP = m. TP = 8 × 15 = 120 mm
Pitch circle diameter of the gear,
DG = m. TG = 8 × 45 = 360 mm

Example 4
Spur gear which is made of cast iron is driven by a pinion made of bronze. Transmission
ratio is 4:1. Bronze pinion has allowable static stress of 84 MPa and cast iron gear has
allowable static stress of 105 MPa.
The pinion has 16 standard 20o full depths Involute teeth of module 8 mm. Both gears
have face width of 90 mm. Find the power that can be transmitted from the at and point
of strength.
Solution:
T
Given: Np = 600 r. p. m; V. R. = TG ; σOP = 84 MPa
p

σOG = 105 MPa = 105 N⁄mm2 ; Tp = 16; m = 8 mm; b = 90 mm

We know that pitch circle diameter of the pinion,
Dp = m Tp = 8 × 16 = 128 mm = 0.128 m
∴ Pitch line velocity
πDp . Np π × 0.128 × 600
V= = = 4.02 m/s
60 60
Since the pitch line velocity (v) is less than 12.5 m/s, therefore velocity factor,

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 Design of Spur Gears

3 3
Cv = = = 0.427
3 + v 3 + 4.02
o
We know that for 20 full depth involute teeth, tooth from factor for pinion,
0.912 0.912
yp = 0.154 − = 0.154 − = 0.097
Tp 16
and tooth from factor of gear
0.912 0.912
yG = 0.154 − = 0.154 − = 0.14
TG 4 × 16
∴ σop × TP = 84 × 0.097 = 8.148
and σOG × yG = 10 5 × 0.14 = 14.7
Since (σOP × yP ) is less than (σOG × yG ), therefore the pinion is weaker. Now using the
Lewis equation for the pinion, we have tangential load on the tooth (or beam strength of
the tooth)
wT = σw . b. π. m. yp = (σop × Cv )bπ. m. t p
= 84 × 0.427 × 90 × π × 8 × 0.097 = 7870 N
∴ Power that can be transmitted
= wT × v = 7870 × 4.02 = 31640 W = 31.64 kW

Example 5
The following particulars of a single reduction spur gear are given:
Gear ratio = 10 : 1, Distance between centers = 660 mm approximately, Pinion transmits
500 kW at 1800 r.p.m, Involute teeth of standard proportions (addendum = m) with
pressure angle of 22.5o , Permissible normal pressure between teeth = 175 N per mm
width. Find:
1. The nearest standard module if no interference is to occur
2. The number of teeth on each wheel
3. The necessary width of the pinion
4. The load on the bearing of the wheels due to power transmitted
Solution:
Given: G = TG ⁄TP = DG ⁄DP = 10: L = 660 mm, P = 500 kW = 500 × 103 W;
NP = 1800 r. p. m; ϕ = 22.5o ; WN = 175 N/mm width
1. The Nearest Standard Module if no Interference is to Occur:
Let, m = Required module
TP = Number of teeth on the pinion
TG = Number of teeth on the gear
DP = Pitch circle diameter of the pinion
DG = Pitch circle diameter of the gear
We know that minimum number of teeth on the pinion in order avoid interference
2 AW
TP =
1 1
G [√1 + G (G + 2) sin2 ϕ − 1]
2×1 2
= = = 13.3 say 14
1 1 0.15
10 [√1 + 10 (10 + 2) sin2 22. 5o − 1]
∴ TG = G × TP = 10 × 14 = 140
Dg DP DG 10DP
We know that L = + = + = 5.5 Dp … . (∵ DG ⁄DP = 10)
2 2 2 2
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 Design of Spur Gears

660
∴ 660 = 5.5 DP or DP = = 120mm
5.5
We also know that DP = m/TP
DP 120
∴m= = = 8.6 mm
TP 14
Since the nearest standard value of the module is 8 mm , therefore we shall take
M = 8 mm
2. Number of Teeth on each Wheel:
We know that number of teeth on the pinion,
DP 120
TP = = = 15
m 8
And number of teeth on the gear,
TG = G × TP = 10 × 15 = 150
3. Necessary Width for the Pinion:
We know that the torque acting on the pinion,
P × 60 50 × 103 × 60
T= = = 2652 N − m
2πNP 2π × 1800
T 2652
∴ Tangential load, WT = = = 44 200 N … (∵ DP is taken in meters)
DP /2 0.12/2
And normal load on the tooth,
WT 44 200
WN = = = 47 840 N
cos ϕ cos 22.5o
Since the normal pressure between teeth is 175 N per mm of width, therefore
necessary width of the pinion
47840
b= = 273.4 mm say 274
175
4. Load on the Bearing of the Wheels:
We know that the radial load on the bearing due to the power transmitted,
WR = WN . sin ϕ = 47840 × sin 22.5o = 18308 N = 18.308 kN

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 Reference Books

Reference Books

1. Mechanical Engineering Design

By Shigley

2. Design of Machine Elements

By Bhandari

3. Machine Design
By Sharma & Agarwaal

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