Test&Measurement

Electrical Motor Power

Measurement & Analysis
Understand the basics to drive greater efficiency

Energy is one of the highest cost items in a plant or for different applications.
facility, and motors often consume the lion's share
of plant power, so making sure motors are operating Basic electrical power measurements
optimally is vital. Accurate power measurements can
help to reduce energy consumption, as measurement is Electric motors are electromechanical machines that
always the first step toward better performance and can convert electric energy into mechanical energy. Despite
also help extend the life of a motor. Small misalignment differences in size and type, all electric motors work in
or other issues are often invisible to the naked eye, and much the same way: an electric current flowing through
the slightest wobble in a shaft can negatively affect a wire coil in a magnetic field creates a force that rotates
productivity and quality, and even shorten the life of the the coil, thus creating torque.
motor.
Understanding power generation, power loss, and the
In part 1 of this article, we will discuss a three-step different types of power measured can be intimidating,
process for making precision electrical and mechanical so let's start with an overview of basic electric and
power measurements on a variety of motors and variable mechanical power measurements.
speed drive (VFD) systems. We will also show how these
measurements are used to calculate the energy efficiency What is power? In the most basic form, power is work
for motor and drive systems. performed over a specific amount of time. In a motor,
power is delivered to the load by converting electrical
In addition, we will provide an understanding of how energy per the following laws of science.
to make precision power measurements on complex
distorted waveforms, as well as what instruments to use

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 In electrical systems, voltage is the force required to In this example the instantaneous voltage is multiplied by
move electrons. Current is the rate of the flow of charge the instantaneous current (I) and then integrated over a
per second through a material to which a specific voltage specific time period (t). A true power calculation will work
is applied. By taking the voltage and multiplying it by the on any type of waveform regardless of the power factor
associated current, the power can be determined. (Figure 3).
P = V * I where power (P) is in watts, voltage (V) is in volts,
and current (I) is in amperes

A watt (W) is a unit of power defined as one Joule

per second. For a dc source the calculation is simply
the voltage times the current: W = V x A. However,
determining the power in watts for an ac source must
include the power factor (PF), so:
W = V x A x PF for ac systems

The power factor is a unitless ratio ranging from -1 to Figure 3: These equations are used to calculate a true power
1, and represents the amount of real power performing measurement and true RMS measurements.
work at a load. For power factors less than unity, which is
almost always the case, there will be losses in real power. Harmonics create an additional complication. Even
This is because the voltage and current of an ac circuit though the power grid nominally operates at a frequency
are sinusoidal in nature, with the amplitude of the current of 60Hz, there are many other frequencies or harmonics
and voltage of an ac circuit constantly shifting and not that potentially exist in a circuit, and there can also be a
typically in perfect alignment. dc or direct current component. Total power is calculated
by considering and summing all content, including
Since power is voltage times current (P = V*I), power harmonics.
is highest when the voltage and current are lined up
together so that the peaks and zero points on the The calculation methods in Figure 3 are used to provide
voltage and current waveforms occur at the same time. a true power measurement and true RMS measurements
This would be typical of a simple resistive load. In this on any type of waveform, including all harmonic content,
situation, the two waveforms are "in phase" with one up to the bandwidth of the instrument.
another and the power factor would be 1. This is a rare
case, as almost all loads aren't simply and perfectly
resistive.

Two waveforms are said to be "out of phase" or "phase

shifted" when the two signals do not correlate from point
to point. This can be caused by inductive or nonlinear
loads. In this situation, the power factor would be less
than 1, and less real power would be realized.

Due to the possible fluctuations in the current and the

voltage in ac circuits, power is measured is a few different
ways.

Real or true power is the actual amount of power being

used in a circuit, and it's measured in watts. Digital power
analyzers use techniques to digitize the incoming voltage
and current waveforms to calculate true power, following
the method in Figure 2:

Figure 2: True power calculation

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 Power measurement

We'll next look at how to actually measure watts in a giv-

en circuit. A wattmeter is an instrument that uses voltage
and current to determine power in watts. The Blondel
Theory states that total power is measured with a mini-
mum of one fewer wattmeter than the number of wires.
For example, a single-phase two-wire circuit will use one
wattmeter with one voltage and one current measure-
ment.

A single-phase three-wire split-phase system is often

found in common housing wiring. These systems require Figure 5: When designing motors and drives, seeing all three voltages
two wattmeters for power measurement. and currents is key, making the three-wattmeter method in the figure
Most industrial motors use three-phase three-wire circuits above the best choice.
that are measured using two wattmeters. In the same
fashion, three wattmeters would be necessary for a Power factor measurement
three-phase four-wire circuit, with the fourth wire being
the neutral. In determining the power factor for sine waves, the power
factor is equal to the cosine of the angle between the volt-
Figure 4 shows a three-phase three-wire system with age and current (Cos Ø). This is defined as the "displace-
load attached using the two-wattmeter method for ment" power factor, and is correct for sine waves only. For
measurement. Two line-to-line voltages and two asso- all other waveforms (non-sine waves), the power factor is
ciated phase currents are measured (using wattmeters defined as real power in watts divided by apparent power
Wa and Wc). The four measurements (line-to-line and in voltage-amperes. This is called the "true" power factor
phase current and voltage) are utilized to achieve the total and can be used for all waveforms, both sinusoidal and
measurement. non-sinusoidal.

Figure 6: Total power factor is determined by summing the total watts

divided by the total VA measurement.

Figure 4: Measuring power in a three-phase three-wire system with

Figure 7: Using the two-wattmeter method, the sum of the total watts
two wattmeters.
(W1 + W2) is divided by the VA measurements.

Since this method requires monitoring only two current

However, if the load is unbalanced (the phase currents
and two potential transformers instead of three,
are different), this could introduce an error in calculating
installation and wiring configuration are simplified. It can
the power factor because only two VA measurements are
also measure power accurately on a balanced or an
used in the calculation. The two VAs are averaged because
unbalanced system. Its flexibility and low-cost installation
it's assumed they're equal; however, if they're not, a faulty
make it a good fit for production testing in which only the
result is obtained.
power or a few other parameters need measurement.
For engineering and research and development work,
Therefore, it's best to use the three-wattmeter method for
the three-phase three-wire with three-wattmeter method
unbalanced loads because it will provide a correct power
is best as it provides additional information that can
factor calculation for either balanced or unbalanced loads.
be used to balance loading and determine true power
factor. This method uses all three voltages and all three-
currents. All three voltages are measured (a to b, b to c, c
to a), and all three-currents are monitored.

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 For ac induction motors, the actual or rotor speed is the
speed at which the shaft (rotor) rotates, typically mea-
sured using a tachometer. The synchronous speed is the
speed of the stator's magnetic field rotation, calculated
Figure 8: With the three-wattmeter method, all three VA
as 120 times the line frequency divided by the number
measurements are used in the above power factor calculation.
of poles in the motor. Synchronous speed is the motor's
theoretical maximum speed, but the rotor will always turn
Power analyzers use the method above, which is called
at a slightly slower rate than the synchronous speed due
the 3V-3A (three-voltage three-current) wiring method.
to losses, and this speed difference is defined as slip.
This is the best method for engineering and design work
because it will provide a correct total power factor and VA
Slip is the difference in the speed of the rotor and the
measurements for a balanced or unbalanced three-wire
synchronous speed. To determine the percentage of
system.
slip, a simple percentage calculation of the synchronous
speed minus the rotor speed divided by the synchronous
Basic mechanical power measurements
speed is used.
In an electric motor, the mechanical power is defined as
Efficiency can be expressed in simplest form as the ratio
the speed times the torque. Mechanical power is typically
of the output power to the total input power or efficiency
defined as kilowatts or horsepower, with one W equaling
= output power/input power. For an electrically driven
1 Joule/sec or 1 Nm/sec.
motor, the output power is mechanical while the input
power is electrical, so the efficiency equation becomes
efficiency = mechanical power/electrical input power.

Selecting Motor Measurement,

Analysis Instruments
Making precise electrical and mechanical power
measurements on motor and variable frequency drive
(VFD) systems, especially to calculate energy efficiency,
can be done in three easy steps.

In the first part of this three-part article, we examined

Figure 9: Mechanical power measurements in watts are defined as
two times Pi times the rotating speed (rpm) divided by 60 times the
basic electric motor power measurements and analysis.
torque (Newton-Meter).
In this second part, we will examine a three-step process
for making precision electrical and mechanical power
Horsepower is the work done per unit of time. One measurements on a variety of motors and variable
hp equals 33,000 pound feet per minute. Converting frequency drive (VFD) systems. We will also show how
hp to watts is achieved using this relationship: 1 hp = these measurements are used to calculate the energy
745.69987 W. However, the conversion is often simplified efficiency for motor and drive systems. All this has to
by using 746W per hp (Figure 10). happen in a context where waveforms are complex and
distorted, so instrument selection for various applications
is especially critical.

Selecting instruments

Different associations have developed testing standards

that define the accuracy of instrumentation required
to conform to their standard: IEEE 112 2004, NVLAP
160, and CSA C390. All three include standards for the
measurement of input power, voltage and current, torque
sensors, motor speed, and more (see Table 1). Current
transformers (CTs) and potential transformers (PTs) are
some of the primary instrumentation devices used to
make these measurements.

Figure 10: Mechanical power measurement equations for

horsepower often use a rounded figure of 1 hp = 746W.
 The corresponding standards are very similar with a Since power is voltage times current (P = V*I), power
few exceptions. The allowable instrumentation errors for is highest when the voltage and current are lined up
IEEE 112 2004 and NVLAP 150 standards are identical. together so that the peaks and zero points on the
However, CSA C390 2006 has some differences in terms voltage and current waveforms occur at the same time.
of temperatures and readings. This would be typical of a simple resistive load. In this
situation, the two waveforms are "in phase" with one
For example, the input power requirement for CSA C390 another and the power factor would be 1. This is a rare
2006 is ±0.5% of the reading and must include the CT case, as almost all loads aren't simply and perfectly
and PT errors, whereas those for IEEE 112 2004 and resistive.
NVLAP 150 both require only ±0.5% of full scale (FS).

IEEE 112 2004 NVLAP 150 CSA C390 2006, pro-

posed
Input power ±0.2% of FS ±0.2% of FS ±0.5% of reading (includes
CT and PT errors)
Voltage & current ±0.2% of FS ±0.2% of FS ±0.5% of reading (includes
CT and PT errors)
CTs & PTs ±0.3% of FS (total ratio ±0.3% of FS (total ratio and
and phase) phase)
Torque ±0.2% of FS ±0.2% of FS 0.7% of reading
Supply frequency ±0.2% of FS ±0.2% of FS ±0.5% of reading

Motor speed (RPM) ±1 RPM ±1 RPM ±1 RPM

Temperature ±0.2% of FS ±0.2% of FS ±1 of reading

Winding resistance ±0.2% of FS ±0.2% of FS

In electrical systems, voltage is the force required to Two waveforms are said to be "out of phase" or "phase
move electrons. Current is the rate of the flow of charge shifted" when the two signals do not correlate from point
per second through a material to which a specific voltage to point. This can be caused by inductive or nonlinear
is applied. By taking the voltage and multiplying it by the loads. In this situation, the power factor would be less
associated current, the power can be determined. than 1, and less real power would be realized.
P = V * I where power (P) is in watts, voltage (V) is in volts,
and current (I) is in amperes. Due to the possible fluctuations in the current and the
voltage in ac circuits, power is measured is a few different
A watt (W) is a unit of power defined as one Joule ways.
per second. For a dc source the calculation is simply
the voltage times the current: W = V x A. However, Real or true power is the actual amount of power being
determining the power in watts for an ac source must used in a circuit, and it's measured in watts. Digital power
include the power factor (PF), so: analyzers use techniques to digitize the incoming voltage
W = V x A x PF for ac systems. and current waveforms to calculate true power, following
the method in Figure 2:
The power factor is a unitless ratio ranging from -1 to
1, and represents the amount of real power performing
work at a load. For power factors less than unity, which is
almost always the case, there will be losses in real power.
This is because the voltage and current of an ac circuit Figure 2: True power calculation
are sinusoidal in nature, with the amplitude of the current
and voltage of an ac circuit constantly shifting and not
typically in perfect alignment.
In this example the instantaneous voltage is multiplied by
the instantaneous current (I) and then integrated over a
specific time period (t). A true power calculation will work
on any type of waveform regardless of the power factor
(Figure 3).

Figure 3: These equations are used to calculate a true power Figure 4: Measuring power in a three-phase three-wire system with
measurement and true RMS measurements. two wattmeters.

Harmonics create an additional complication. Even Since this method requires monitoring only two current
though the power grid nominally operates at a frequency and two potential transformers instead of three,
of 60Hz, there are many other frequencies or harmonics installation and wiring configuration are simplified. It can
that potentially exist in a circuit, and there can also be a also measure power accurately on a balanced or an
dc or direct current component. Total power is calculated unbalanced system. Its flexibility and low-cost installation
by considering and summing all content, including make it a good fit for production testing in which only the
harmonics. power or a few other parameters need measurement.
For engineering and research and development work,
The calculation methods in Figure 3 are used to provide the three-phase three-wire with three-wattmeter method
a true power measurement and true RMS measurements is best as it provides additional information that can
on any type of waveform, including all harmonic content, be used to balance loading and determine true power
up to the bandwidth of the instrument. factor. This method uses all three voltages and all three-
currents. All three voltages are measured (a to b, b to c, c
Power measurement to a), and all three-currents are monitored.

We'll next look at how to actually measure watts in a giv-

en circuit. A wattmeter is an instrument that uses voltage
and current to determine power in watts. The Blondel
Theory states that total power is measured with a mini-
mum of one fewer wattmeter than the number of wires.
For example, a single-phase two-wire circuit will use one
wattmeter with one voltage and one current measure-
ment.

A single-phase three-wire split-phase system is often

found in common housing wiring. These systems require
two wattmeters for power measurement. Figure 5: When designing motors and drives, seeing all three
voltages and currents is key, making the three-wattmeter method in
Most industrial motors use three-phase three-wire circuits
the figure above the best choice.
that are measured using two wattmeters. In the same
fashion, three wattmeters would be necessary for a
Power factor measurement
three-phase four-wire circuit, with the fourth wire being
the neutral.
In determining the power factor for sine waves, the power
factor is equal to the cosine of the angle between the
Figure 4 shows a three-phase three-wire system with
voltage and current (Cos Ø). This is defined as the "dis-
load attached using the two-wattmeter method for
placement" power factor, and is correct for sine waves
measurement. Two line-to-line voltages and two asso-
only. For all other waveforms (non-sine waves), the power
ciated phase currents are measured (using wattmeters
factor is defined as real power in watts divided by appar-
Wa and Wc). The four measurements (line-to-line and
ent power in voltage-amperes. This is called the "true"
phase current and voltage) are utilized to achieve the total
power factor and can be used for all waveforms, both
measurement.
sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal.
 Horsepower is the work done per unit of time. One
hp equals 33,000 pound feet per minute. Converting
hp to watts is achieved using this relationship: 1 hp =
745.69987 W. However, the conversion is often simplified
by using 746W per hp (Figure 10).
Figure 6: Total power factor is determined by summing the total
watts divided by the total VA measurement.

Figure 7: Using the two-wattmeter method, the sum of the total

watts (W1 + W2) is divided by the VA measurements.

However, if the load is unbalanced (the phase currents

Figure 10: Mechanical power measurement equations for
are different), this could introduce an error in calculating
horsepower often use a rounded figure of 1 hp = 746W.
the power factor because only two VA measurements
are used in the calculation. The two VAs are averaged
because it's assumed they're equal; however, if they're For ac induction motors, the actual or rotor speed is the
not, a faulty result is obtained. speed at which the shaft (rotor) rotates, typically mea-
sured using a tachometer. The synchronous speed is the
Therefore, it's best to use the three-wattmeter method for speed of the stator's magnetic field rotation, calculated
unbalanced loads because it will provide a correct power as 120 times the line frequency divided by the number
factor calculation for either balanced or unbalanced of poles in the motor. Synchronous speed is the motor's
loads. theoretical maximum speed, but the rotor will always turn
at a slightly slower rate than the synchronous speed due
to losses, and this speed difference is defined as slip.

Slip is the difference in the speed of the rotor and the

Figure 8: With the three-wattmeter method, all three VA synchronous speed. To determine the percentage of
measurements are used in the above power factor calculation. slip, a simple percentage calculation of the synchronous
speed minus the rotor speed divided by the synchronous
Power analyzers use the method above, which is called speed is used.
the 3V-3A (three-voltage three-current) wiring method.
This is the best method for engineering and design work Efficiency can be expressed in simplest form as the ratio
because it will provide a correct total power factor and VA of the output power to the total input power or efficiency
measurements for a balanced or unbalanced three-wire = output power/input power. For an electrically driven
system. motor, the output power is mechanical while the input
power is electrical, so the efficiency equation becomes
Basic mechanical power measurements efficiency = mechanical power/electrical input power.

In an electric motor, the mechanical power is defined as

the speed times the torque. Mechanical power is typically Electrical Power Measurement on
defined as kilowatts or horsepower, with one W equaling 3-Phase Motors
1 Joule/sec or 1 Nm/sec. A 3-step process for testing drive & motor systems

Complete testing of a pulse width modulation (PWM)-

based drive and motor system is a three-step process.
Step 1 is accurate measurement of PWM VFD input
and output power to identify drive efficiency and power
losses. Step 2 is accurate measurement of motor
input power. Step 3 is accurate measurement of motor
mechanical power. The optimum method is to integrate
all three steps using a single power analyzer to eliminate
time skew. This provides excellent efficiency calculations
as well, in one software and hardware solution.
Figure 9: Mechanical power measurements in watts are defined as
two times Pi times the rotating speed (rpm) divided by 60 times the
torque (Newton-Meter).
In the first part of this three-part article, we examined
basic electric motor power measurements and analysis.
In the second part, we examined a three-step process
for making precision electrical and mechanical power
measurements on motors and variable frequency drive
(VFD) systems with complex and distorted waveforms,
and how these measurements are used to calculate
motor and drive system efficiencies. In this third and
final portion on electric motor power measurement and
analysis, we will cover power measurements for 3-phase
ac motors and drive systems.

Some power analyzers have a motor option in which

the speed and torque signals can be integrated in this
manner. These power analyzers can measure electrical
power and mechanical power, and send the data to a PC
running software from the original analyzer manufacturer,
or custom software from a system integrator. Figure 2: This screenshot shows a highly distorted PWM output voltage
and current waveform with very high harmonic content.

PWM drive measurements for ac motors For such a noisy signal, special current sensors are
needed for measurement. Accurate PWM power mea-
When using a PWM VFD to operate a motor, it is often surements also require wide bandwidth power analyzers
necessary to measure both the input and output of the capable of measuring these complex signals.
VFD using a 6-phase power analyzer. Not only can this
setup measure the 3-phase power, it can also measure Figure 3 is an example of the voltage harmonic content
dc or single-phase power (see Figure 1). from a PWM output. Beat frequencies are present,
and voltage harmonic content exceeds 500 orders
(approximately 30 kHz). Most of the harmonic content is
in the lower frequencies on the current side.

Depending on the analyzer, the setup mode will be

performed in the normal or RMS mode. The wiring
configuration should be set to match the application,
such as 3-phase input and 3-phase output.
Figure 3: This screenshot shows voltage and current harmonic content
Any line filter or low-pass filter should be off because the from a PWM measurement.
filtering will obscure the measurements. However, the
zero-cross filter or frequency filter should be on because PWM motor, drive measurement issues
it will filter the high-frequency noise so the fundamental
frequency can be measured. This measurement is Inverter voltage is typically measured in one of two ways.
necessary when tracking the frequency of a drive. A true RMS measurement that includes total harmonic
content can be used. However, because the fundamental
Figure 2 shows a PWM output voltage waveform with a waveform is primarily what contributes to the torque of
highly distorted voltage, chopped high frequencies, and the motor, a simpler measurement can be made and
a lot of noise on the current side, making for a difficult used. Most applications only require measurement of the
measurement. High-frequency switching on the voltage fundamental waveform.
signal creates a much distorted waveform and with high
harmonic content. The frequency varies from 0 Hz up to
the operating speed.
 There are two main methods for measuring the
fundamental amplitude of the voltage wave. The first
and simplest is to use a low-pass filter to remove high
frequencies. If the power analyzer has this filter, simply
turn it on. Proper filtering will give an RMS voltage of the
inverter fundamental frequency. However, this type of
filtering does not offer a true total power measurement,
so filtering isn't the most exacting method.

The second method is the rectified mean measurement

method, which delivers an RMS voltage of the
fundamental wave without filtering by using
mean-value voltage detection scaled to the RMS voltage.
The algorithm of the rectified mean of a cycle average will
provide the equivalent of the fundamental voltage that will
be very close to the RMS value of the fundamental wave.

Using this method, the total power, total current, and

fundamental voltage can be measured.

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